Chapter 2-Human in HCI
Chapter 2-Human in HCI
Human in HCI
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Introduction
In order to design something for someone, we need to
understand their capabilities and limitations.
We need to know
how humans perceive the world around them,
how they store and process information and solve problems,
and
how they physically manipulate objects
Many models have been proposed
In 1983, Card, Moran and Newell
described the Model Human Processor, which is a simplified view of the
human processing involved in interacting with computer systems.
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Cont..
The model comprises three subsystems:
the perceptual system, handling sensory stimulus from the outside
world,
the motor system, which controls actions, and
the cognitive(reasoning , thinking ,mental) system, which provides the
processing needed to connect the two.
Each of these subsystems has its own processor and
memory,
The model also includes a number of principles of
operation which dictate the behavior of the systems
under certain conditions.
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Human in HCI
Cognitive psychology
how humans perceive the world around them,
how they store and process information and solve problems,and
how they physically manipulate objects
basic overview of the capabilities and limitations that affect our ability to use
computer systems
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When we try to understand something, particularly new,
we use a combination of
What our senses (sight,hearing,touch,smell,taste) are telling
Past experience
Our expectations
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Factors to be considered for interaction.
Information input/output
Information stored in memory
sensory, short-term, long-term
Information processed and applied
Emotion influences human capabilities
Each person is different
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Humans are limited in their capacity to process information.
Human factors, or limitations,include
Limited concentration
Changes in mood/attitude
The need for motivation
Biases
Fears
Make errors
Misjudgment
Prefer speech
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Information input and output
Interaction with the outside world occurs through information being
received and sent: input and output.
the human input is the data output by the computer and vice versa.
Input in humans occurs mainly through the senses and output through
the motor controls of the effectors.
Vision, hearing and touch are the most important senses in HCI.
The fingers,voice,eyes,head and body position are the primary
effectors.
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Visual Input (Vision )
The two stages in vision are:
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The Eye - physical reception
Is the mechanism for receiving light and transforming it into
electrical energy
The process:
Light reflects from objects
Images are focused upside-down on retina
Retina contains rods for low light vision and cones for colour vision
receptors in the eye transform it into electrical signals which are
passed to the brain
Ganglion cells (in brain) detect pattern and movement
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The Eye Cont.
Interpreting the signal
Size and depth
Visual angle indicates how much of view object occupies.
That is, the eye perceive size and distance.
E.g. If two small and large objects have the same distance from the eye the
larger have the higher visual angle
The visual angle measurement is given in either degrees or minutes of arc,
Visual acuity is the ability of a person to perceive fine detail
law of size constancy
• perception of depth
• size and height of the object in our field of view
• familiarity
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Interpreting Cont.
Brightness
Subjective reaction to levels of light
Affected by luminance (level of light emitted by an object) of object
Measured by just noticeable difference
Visual acuity increases with luminance
Colour
Made up of hue (type, description, kind), intensity, saturation
Cones sensitive to colour wavelengths
8% males and 1% females colour blind
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Interpreting Cont.
A theory about vision is constructivism:
Our brains do not create pixel-by-pixel images
Our minds create, or construct,models that summarize what comes from our senses
These models are what we perceive (observe, see, recognize, identify, distinguish, etc.)
When we see something,we do not remember all the details,only those that have
meaning for us
Design implication:
Do not expect people “see” all the details of an interface because people filter out
irrelevant information and save only the important ones
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Constructivism Cont.
Constructivist theory states that context plays a major role in what we see
in an image
Are these letters the same?
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Constructivism Cont.
With context, the answer will be different
Design implication:
Context can help in resolving ambiguity
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Reading
Several stages:
Visual pattern of the word is perceived
Decoded using internal representation of language
The word is processed as part of the sentence or phrase using knowledge of
syntax and semantics.
During the first two stages, the eye makes saccades (jerky
movements), followed by fixations.
The eye moves both forwards and backwards over the text called,
regression.
Increased when the text is more complex.
Word shape is important to recognition
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Auditory Input Channel (Hearing)
The sense of hearing is often considered secondary to sight,
but we tend to underestimate the amount of information that we receive through our ears.
from hearing we can get.
• What sounds can you hear?
• Where are they coming from?
• What is making them?
We can hear
• cars passing on a particular road outside, estimate how far away they are, which direction it is traveling in
• machinery working on a site nearby,
• the drone of a plane overhead and bird song.
We know that building work is in progress in a particular location, and that a certain type of
bird is perched in the tree in my garden.
The auditory system can convey a lot of information about our environment.
But how does it work?
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The human ear :
• hearing begins with vibrations in the air or sound waves.
• The ear receives these vibrations and transmits them, through various stages, to
the auditory nerves.
• The auditory system performs some filtering of the sounds received,
• allowing us to ignore background noise and concentrate on important
information
• It is rarely used to its potential in interface design, usually being confined to warning sounds and
notifications Sound could be used more extensively in interface design, to convey information about the
system state, for example.
• Speech sounds can obviously be used to convey information.
• This is useful not only for the visually impaired but also for any application
where the user’s attention has to be divided (for example, power plant control,
flight control, etc.).
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Uses of non-speech sounds include the following:
Attention – to attract the user’s attention to a critical situation or
to the end of a process, for example.
Status information – continuous background sounds can be
used to convey status information. For example, monitoring the
progress of a process (without the need for visual attention)
Confirmation – a sound associated with an action to confirm
that the action has been carried out. For example, associating a
sound with deleting a file.
Navigation – using changing sound to indicate where the user is in a
system. For example, what about sound to support navigation in
hypertext?
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Hearing
Provides information about environment:
factors to be considered are: distances, directions, objects etc affect hearing.
Physical apparatus of ear:
Outer ear – Protects inner and amplifies sound
Middle ear – Transmits sound waves as vibrations to inner ear
Inner ear – Chemical transmitters are released and cause impulses in auditory nerve
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Touch
Also called haptic perception, stimuli received through skin.
Provides important feedback about environment.
May be key sense for someone who is visually impaired.
For such users, interfaces such as braille may be the primary source of
information in the interaction.
Stimulus received via receptors in the skin:
Thermoreceptors: for heat and cold perception
Nociceptors: for pain perception
Mechanoreceptors: for pressure perception: (some instant, some continuous)
If continuous pressure is applied, they stop torespond.
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2.3 Human Memory
• much of our everyday activity relies on memory.
• storing all our knowledge, knowledge of actions or procedures.
• There are three types of memory function:
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LTM Model: semantic network
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LTM - semantic network
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Models of LTM - Frames
Information organized in data structures
Slots in structure instantiated with values for instance of data
Type–subtype relationships
DOG COLLIE
Fixed Fixed
legs: 4 breed of: DOG
type: sheepdog
Default
diet: carniverous Default
sound: bark size: 65 cm
Variable Variable
size: colour
colour
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Models of LTM - Scripts
Model of stereotypical information required to interpret situation
Script has elements that can be instantiated with values for context
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Models of LTM - Production rules
Condition/action rules
if condition is matched
then use rule to determine action.
IF dog is growling
THEN run away
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LTM
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LTM
Storage
The rehearsal of a piece of information from the STM stores it in the LTM.
If the total learning time is increased, information is remembered better- total
time hypothesis.
However, the learning time should be well spread-distribution of practice
effect.
Spreading learning over time
Decay
Interference.
Decay
information held in LTM may eventually be forgotten.
Interference
Information can also be lost through interference:
if we acquire new information,it causes the loss of old information:
retroactive interference.
It is also possible that the older information interferes with the newly
acquired information: proactive inhibition.
Forgetting is affected by emotional factors too.
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LTM
recall
information reproduced from memory can be assisted by clues,e.g.
categories, imagery
recognition
information gives knowledge that it has been seen before
less complex than recall - information is clue
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Thinking
• Thinking can require different amounts of knowledge.
• Some thinking activities are very directed and the knowledge required is
constrained.
• Others require vast amounts of knowledge from different domains.
• Thinking can be divided in:
Reasoning
Deduction,
Induction,
Abductive
Problem solving
Skill acquisition
Errors and mental models
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Deductive reasoning:
Derive logically necessary conclusion from given premises.
e.g. If it is Friday then she will go to work It is Friday
Therefore she will go to work.
All men are mortal. Jon is a man. Therefore Jon is mortal.
e.g. - Logical conclusion not necessarily true:
If it is raining then the ground is dry It is raining
Therefore the ground is dry
Inductive reasoning:
Generalize from cases seen to cases unseen
e.g. All birds we have seen fly therefore all birds fly.
1=12, 1+3=22, 1+3+5=32, 1+3+5+7=42, .., 1+3+5+..+2n-1=n2 n=1, 2, ..
Abductive: reasoning from a fact to the action state that caused it.
39 is used to drive explanations for the events we observe
Problem solving
Problem solving is the process of finding a solution to an unfamiliar task,using (adapting) the
knowledge we have.
Different types of theories:
Gestalt
Based on insight and restructuring of problem
Analogy
Analogical mapping:Uses knowledge of similar problem from similar domain
is difficult if domains are semantically different
Skill acquisition
Skilled activity characterized by chunking:Lot of information is chunked to optimize
STM Problem space theory
Analysing means-ends
Largely applied to problem solving in well-defined areas
E.g. puzzles rather than knowledge intensive areas
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Skill acquisition
Experts often have a better encoding of knowledge:
information structures are fine tuned at a deep level to enable
efficient and accurate retrieval.
These skills are acquired through 3 levels:
The learner uses general-purpose rules which interpret facts about a
problem. (slow,memory-demanding)
The learner develops rules specific to the task, using procedures.
The rules are tuned to speed up performance, using generalization.
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Errors and mental models
Types of error
slips
right intention, but failed to do it right
causes: poor physical skill, inattention etc.
change to aspect of skilled behaviour can cause slip
mistakes
wrong intention
cause: incorrect understanding
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Emotion
Emotion is a psychological response to a stimuli
Various theories of how emotion works
James-Lange: emotion is our interpretation of a physiological response to a
stimuli
Cannon: emotion is a psychological response to a stimuli
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Emotion
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Individual differences
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Summary
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