IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 68, NO.

6, JUNE 2021 4859

An Extendable Quadratic Bidirectional DC–DC

Converter for V2G and G2V Applications
Seyed Hossein Hosseini, Reza Ghazi , Member, IEEE,
and Hamed Heydari-Doostabad , Member, IEEE

Abstract—In this article, we propose an extendable

quadratic bidirectional dc–dc converter that has an im-
proved voltage transfer ratio (VTR) with the capability of re-
dundancy and modularity for electric vehicle applications.
As n modules are embedded, its VTR becomes n times
higher for both directions of currents. Furthermore, the
common electrical ground between the input and output
is preserved. This is a simple structure with the lowest
rating of semiconductors in the family of quadratic bidi-
rectional converters leading to ease of control ability. The Fig. 1. Energy system source of an EV.
proposed converter performance is evaluated in both power
flow direction using the deadbeat controller, which is a
smooth, accurate, and fast response. Finally, the process of direction of both converters [5]. Such batteries require a constant
charging/discharging of a lithium-ion battery is controlled voltage at their polarity. So, the proper selection of converters for
through the proposed converter. 500-W experimental re-
sults are provided in both power flow directions in a closed- them will strongly enhance battery life [6]. However, the con-
loop system in the presence of the proposed controller. The ventional dc–dc converters are exposed to limited applications
obtained results verify the applicability of this structure. due to their low-voltage transfer ratio (VTR) and restricted duty
Index Terms—Battery charge/discharge, Bidirectional
cycles [7]. Therefore, the problem of voltage gain enhancement
dc–dc converter, high voltage gain, nonisolated, semicon- is the first order of priority, among other technical issues [4], [5].
ductors rating. The increase/decrease of voltage by changing the ratio of
transformers has already been accomplished in the isolated
bidirectional structures for both directions [8]. Nevertheless,
I. INTRODUCTION owing to the leakage flux of their transformer, these structures
EHICLE-TO-GRID (V2G) and grid-to-vehicle (G2V) are in danger of voltage overshoots across their semiconductors,
V capabilities have increased much popularity of electric
vehicle (EV) due to recovering stored electrical energy and, thus,
which reveals themselves as spikes in action. Therefore, auxil-
iary snubber circuits, such as resistor-capacitor-diodes (RCDs)
reducing the imbalance of energy demand and supply [1]. EVs and active clamped, have offered to alleviate or recycle these
with V2G and G2V capabilities are provided by a dc–dc bidirec- fluxes [6], [8]. Evidently, the costs rise due to the extra em-
tional boost–buck converter in which both power flow directions ployed components. Moreover, researchers now believe that the
are available [2]–[4], as shown in Fig. 1. Late at night, when the nonisolated structures can constitute the basic circuit for most
price of electricity is low, the vehicle’s battery (mostly lithium- of the renewable energy converters [9]. In this respect, many
ion) is charged through the dc–dc and ac–dc converters. In the works have been devoted to the nonisolated high-VTR topolo-
daytime, the battery supplies the power grid through the opposite gies. For instance, high-VTR boost–buck ones have devised
in [10] and [11], also quadratic ones in [12]–[14]. Switched
capacitor architectures have given in [15]–[17] all for wide
Manuscript received December 10, 2019; revised March 31, 2020; VTRs. Three-level one has given in [18] but without a high
accepted April 24, 2020. Date of publication May 12, 2020; date of
current version February 17, 2021. This work was supported in part by VTR. Common ground switched-quasi-Z-source converter has
Science Foundation Ireland under Grant SFI/16/IA/4496 and in part by presented in [19]. Moreover, a significant VTR has achieved in
Active Distribution Management Enabled by Distributed Power Electron- [20] with the soft-switching feature. Admittedly, the configura-
ics. (Corresponding author: Reza Ghazi.)
Seyed Hossein Hosseini and Reza Ghazi are with the Depart- tions, such as in [10], [16], and [17], have designed without the
ment of Electrical Engineering, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, common electrical ground. So, their applications are confined
Mashhad 9177948974, Iran (e-mail: [email protected]; due to serious electromagnetic interference (EMI). In this regard,
[email protected]).
Hamed Heydari-Doostabad is with the School of Electrical and Elec- extra devices, such as EMI filters, are required; so, the costs and
tronic Engineering, University College Dublin, 4 Dublin, Ireland (e-mail: weight are increased in their circuit [19]. Into the bargain, the
[email protected]). multi-stage converters have adapted owing to their high VTRs
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this article are available
online at https://ieeexplore.ieee.org. in the bidirectional structures. They have utilized submodules in
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIE.2020.2992967 series or parallels, which all have been cascaded or interleaved
0278-0046 © 2020 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See https://www.ieee.org/publications/rights/index.html for more information.

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 4860 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 68, NO. 6, JUNE 2021

Fig. 3. Equivalent circuit of the proposed converter in the step-down

mode. (a) State 1. (b) State 2.

output power at the high-voltage side experiences the dc transfer

ratio of 1/(1-D). Similarly, by applying the dc source on the high
Fig. 2. (a) FBBBC. (b) Proposed converter. (c) Extended structure.
side, the output power at the low voltage experiences the dc
transfer ratio of D. To magnify the VTR, FBBBC structure splits
at the junction of L1 , S1 , and Q1 , as shown in Fig. 2(b). Now, the
to obtain higher VTRs [21]. Their common advantages are proposed cell is applied. Hence, S1 and S2 are both switching
redundancy and modularity [22]–[23]. For example, switched simultaneously, yet Q1 and Q2 both performing alternate to
capacitor in [24], a multilevel boost–buck in [25], and cascaded S1 and S2 . This structure can be extended by inserting further
design in [26] all have offered high modular VTRs. modules in series. By inserting n modules, the VTR of the
Single-phase on-board EV charger in [27] and [28], coupled obtained topology increased by an amount equal to the FBBBC
inductor (CI) converter in [29], interleaved CI converter in [30] of fundamental topology to the power of (n + 1) in both step-up
and [31] suffered from the high number of elements. and step-down modes of operation, which is shown in Fig. 2(c).
Since the remarkable problem of isolation for the isolated
converters, such as in [8], can put the performance of the battery
III. STEADY-STATE CALCULATIONS
in jeopardy, so a nonisolated structure circuit would be a com-
promise to be utilized [32]. Hence, this work only focuses on the For the sake of simplicity, the steady-state calculations are
bidirectional dc–dc converter of the G2V and V2G systems. In made for this converter having one module or stage in its con-
this article, a nonisolated extendable bidirectional dc–dc is en- figuration. The step-up and the step-down modes in the continu-
gaged to a lithium-ion battery. Furthermore, the deadbeat current ous conduction mode (CCM) and the discontinuous conduction
controller is adapted for indirect current control of the step-up mode (DCM) can be defined as follows.
chopper and direct current control of the step-down chopper,
which offers accurate, fast, and smooth control performance A. Step-Down Mode
under different working conditions. The common electrical
ground between the input and the output is preserved. Each A dc source is connected to the high side and a resistive load
stage comprises two alternative power switches, an inductor, Ro to the low side. Two states for CCM (three states for DCM)
and a capacitor, which gives rise to the VTR of 1/(1-D) and D operation are defined as follows.
for the boost and buck modes of operation, respectively. Stage 1 State 1 (CCM and DCM) [0–t1 ]: According to Fig. 3(a), Q1
is a fundamental bidirectional boost/buck converter (FBBBC). and Q2 are both conducting, while S1 and S2 are blocked. In this
By applying n stages, the VTR also increases for both directions. period, L1 is charged by the input dc source and released the
This converter is characterized by being extendable, simple in energy from L2 and C2 . Thus, the current through L1 increases,
structure, and ease of controlling ability. whereas it decreases for L2 all linearly.
The article is organized as follows. The multistage structure State 2 (CCM) [t1 –Ts ]: As shown in Fig. 3(b), during this time
is presented in Section II. Section III is devoted to a steady-state interval, Q1 and Q2 are both blocked, whereas the body diodes
calculation. The practical considerations and comparisons are of S1 and S2 are conducting. The inductor L1 releases its energy
given in Section IV. The indirect and direct deadbeat controller into the circuit to charge both L2 and C2 along with the output
illustration is given in Section V. A grid-connected system is load. So, the current through L1 decreases, while the current for
presented in Section VI and the experimental verification in L2 increases. The relevant typical time-domain waveforms are
Section VII. Finally, Section VIII concludes this article. shown in Fig. 4(a).
By applying volt–second balance on L1 and L2 , we have

II. MULTISTAGE STRUCTURE VL1  = DTs (VHV − VC1 ) + (1 − D)Ts (−VC1 − VC2 ) = 0
Fig. 2 shows how the proposed converter topology is de- VL2  = DTs (VC2 − VHV ) + (1 − D)Ts VC2 = 0
veloped. Fig. 2(a) is the FBBBC, VLV and VHV denote the (1)
low-voltage and the high-voltage sides, respectively. It consists where D represents the duty cycle and Ts is the switching period.
of an inductor L1 , a capacitor C1 , and switches S1 and Q1 . By solving (1), both capacitor voltages can be determined as
The switches conduct alternatively during a complete switching
period. When a dc source is applied on the low-voltage side, the VC1 = D2 VHV , VC2 = DVHV . (2)

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 HOSSEINI et al.: EXTENDABLE QUADRATIC BIDIRECTIONAL DC–DC CONVERTER FOR V2G AND G2V APPLICATIONS 4861

Fig. 4. Typical time-domain waveforms in CCM for (a) step-down mode

and (b) step-up mode. Fig. 5. Typical time-domain waveforms in DCM for (a) step-down mode
and (b) step-up mode.

Clearly, the voltage across C1 represents the dc VTR in CCM the voltage across inductors
operation for the step-down mode. Thereby, we have ⎧
⎪
⎨+VHV − VLV 0 ≤ t < DTs
MCCM(Step−down) = VLV /VHV = D2 . (3) VL1 = −VC2 − VLV DTs ≤ t < (D + D1 )Ts (7)
⎪
⎩
0 (D + D1 )Ts ≤ t < DTs ,
When n similar stages having the same switching operations
⎧
and topology are inserted, the VTR of the obtained topology can ⎪
⎨−VHV + VC2 0 ≤ t < DTs
be magnified by
VL2 = +VC2 DTs ≤ t < (D + D2 )Ts . (8)
⎪
⎩
Mn−stage(Step−down) = VLV /VHV = Dn+1 . (4) 0 (D + D2 )Ts ≤ t < DTs
Now the volt–second balance is applied to both inductors. So,
The ampere–second balance equation is applied on capacitors the voltage of C2 is
C1 and C2 , by which the following equations are derived:
VC2 = DVHV /(D + D2 ). (9)

IC1  = DTs (iL1 − io ) + (1 − D)Ts (iL1 − io ) = 0 As a result, the DCM voltage gain transferred ratio during the
. step-down mode can be obtained as
IC2  = DTs (−iL2 ) + (1 − D)Ts (iL1 − iL2 ) = 0
(5) VLV D(D − D1 + D2 )
Therefore, inductor currents IL1 and IL2 are acquired as MDCM(Step−down) = = . (10)
VHV (D + D1 )(D + D2 )
The current ripple of inductors L1 and L2 can be obtained as
IL1 = Io , IL2 = (1 − D)Io . (6)
D(VHV − VLV ) D(−VHV + VC2 )
ΔiL1 = , ΔiL2 = (11)
State 2 (DCM) [t1 –t2 ]: As shown in Fig. 5(a), Q1 and Q2 are L1 f s L2 f s
turned OFF, while the body diodes of S1 and S2 are conducted. where fs is the switching frequency.
State 3 (DCM) [t2 –t3 ]: According to Fig. 5(a), in this mode, By ignoring the power losses and considering (6), the average
the current through inductor L2 meets zero. current of L1 and L2 and the duty cycles can be obtained as
State 4 (DCM) [t3 –Ts ]: In this mode, all switches are turned
OFF. The current through inductors meets zero. At the end of IL1 = 0.5ΔiL1 (D + D1 ), IL2 = 0.5ΔiL2 (D + D2 ), (12)
this interval, a complete period Ts has been passed. 2VLV fs L1 2VLV fs L2 (1 − D)
Considering these intervals, one can define D1 and D2 as D1 = − D, D2 =
Ro D(VHV − VLV ) Ro D(−VHV + VC2 )
duty cycles, where the current of L1 and L2 becomes zero,
respectively. In this regard, the following equations can define − D. (13)
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 4862 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 68, NO. 6, JUNE 2021

State 3 (DCM) [t2 –t3 ]: According to Fig. 5(b), the current

through inductor L1 meets zero.
State 4 (DCM) [t3 –Ts ]: In this mode, all the power switches
are turned OFF. The current through inductors meets zero. At the
end of this interval, a complete period Ts has been passed.
In this regard, the following equations can define the voltage
Fig. 6. Equivalent circuit of the proposed converter in step-up mode. across inductors:
(a) State 1. (b) State 2. ⎧
⎪
⎨+VLV + VC2 0 ≤ t < DTs
VL1 = +VLV − VHV DTs ≤ t < (D + D1 )Ts (20)
⎪
⎩
B. Step-Up Mode 0 (D + D1 )Ts ≤ t < DTs ,
⎧
In this mode, a dc source is connected to the low side and a ⎪
⎨−VC2 0 ≤ t < DTs
resistive load Ro is connected to the high side. The relevant
VL2 = −VC2 + VHV DTs ≤ t < (D + D2 )Ts . (21)
typical time-domain waveforms for this mode are given in ⎪
⎩
Fig. 4(b). Two states for CCM (three states for DCM) operation 0 (D + D2 )Ts ≤ t < DTs
can be defined as follows.
Now the volt–second balance is applied to both inductors. So,
State 1 (CCM and DCM) [0–t1 ]: During this time interval, S1
the voltage of C2 is
and S2 are both ON, while Q1 and Q2 are OFF. In this state, the
input dc source magnetizes L1 . Meanwhile, L2 and C2 release VC2 = D2 VHV /(D + D2 ). (22)
their energy into the circuit. On the other side, C1 delivers its
energy to Ro . Thereby, the current through L1 rises, while that As a result, the DCM voltage gain transferred ratio in the
of L2 decays. The relevant circuit and the power flow direction step-up mode can be obtained as
for this mode of operation are shown in Fig. 6(a).
State 2 (CCM) [t1 –Ts ]: As shown in Fig. 6(b), during this VHV (D + D1 )(D + D2 )
MDCM(Step−up) = = . (23)
time, S1 and S2 are both blocked, while the body diodes of Q1 VLV DD1 − DD2 + D1 D2
and Q2 are conducted. Meanwhile, the dc source and the released The current ripple of inductors L1 and L2 can be obtained as
energy of L1 tend to supply L2 , C1 , and the output load Ro .
The current through L1 decreases, while the current through L2 ΔiL1 = D(VLV − VC2 )/L1 fs , ΔiL2 = −DVC2 /L2 fs .
increases. (24)
By applying volt–second balance on L1 and L2 , we have By ignoring power losses and considering (12), we have

VL1  = DTs (VLV + VC2 ) + (1 − D)Ts (VLV − VC1 ) = 0 2VHV fs L1
. D1 = − D,
VL2  = DTs (−VC2 ) + (1 − D)Ts (VC1 − VC2 ) = 0 Ro D(1 − D)2 (VLV − VC2 )
(14) 2VHV fs L2 D
By solving (14), the voltage across both capacitors can be D2 = − D. (25)
Ro D(1 − D)2 (−VC2 )
derived as follows:

VC1 = VLV (1 − D)2 , VC2 = VLV /(1 − D). (15) IV. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND COMPARISON
It can be seen that VC1 indicates the dc VTR in CCM operation A. Voltage and Current Stress
for the step-up mode, which is given by By applying KVL and KCL in Figs. 3 and 6, the voltages

(VS1 , VS2 , VQ1 , VQ2 ) and current stresses (IS1 , IS2 , IQ1 , IQ2 )
MCCM(Step−up) = VHV /VLV = 1 (1 − D)2 . (16)
of each power switch in both modes can be attained as
When n similar stages are embedded, the VTR becomes 
 step − down : VS1 = VHV , IS1 = DIo
S1 : (26)
Mn−stage(Step−up) = VHV /VLV = 1 (1 − D)n+1 . (17) step − up : VS1 = VHV , IS1 = Io /(1 − D),
Now the ampere–second balance equation is applied on C1 
step − down : VS2 = DVHV , IS2 = Io 
and C2 , by which the following equations can be attained: S2 :
 step − up : VS2 = (1 − D)VHV , IS2 = Io (1 − D)2 ,
IC1  = DTs (−io ) + (1 − D)Ts (iL1 − iL2 − io ) = 0 (27)
.
IC2  = DTs (iL2 − iL1 ) + (1 − D)Ts iL2 = 0 
(18) step − down : VQ1 = VHV , IQ1 = DIo
Q1 : (28)
Therein, inductor currents IL1 and IL2 are determined as step − up : VQ1 = VHV , IQ1 = Io /(1 − D),
  
IL1 = Io (1 − D)2 , IL2 = Io D (1 − D)2 . (19) step − down : VQ2 = DVHV , IQ2 = Io
Q2 :  .
State 2 (DCM) [t1 –t2 ]: As shown in Fig. 5(b), S1 and S2 are step − up : VQ2 = (1 − D)VHV , IQ2 = Io (1 − D)2
turned OFF, while the body diodes of Q1 and Q2 are conducted. (29)
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 HOSSEINI et al.: EXTENDABLE QUADRATIC BIDIRECTIONAL DC–DC CONVERTER FOR V2G AND G2V APPLICATIONS 4863

Fig. 8. Voltage gain curve during (a) step-down and (b) step-up
modes.

Fig. 7. Components design. (a) C1 . (b) C2 . (c) L1 . (d) L2 . C. Comparison

General information of the proposed converter and the other
leading competitors are provided in Table I. The proposed
B. Design of Components converter is compared with relevant structures that have been
mostly used in battery charging, supercapacitors, and micro-
Using (5) and (18), ripples of the capacitors (ΔvC1 and ΔvC2 ) grids, successfully. A voltage gain comparison is made between
can be earned for both step-down and step-up modes by the proposed converter and the relevant bidirectional topologies.
Fig. 8(a) displays the plotted VTRs in the step-down mode.
 DStep−down (iL1 −io ) D io
ΔvC1 = = Step−up It is evident that as the duty cycle increases, the step-down
C1 fs C1 fs
DStep−down (1−DStep−down )io DStep−up io . capability for the proposed converter is much better than the
ΔvC2 = C2 fs = (1−DStep−up )C2 fs FBBBC and converters in [17]–[19] and is approximately better
(30)
than [10], [15], and [16], also in [22] and [26] for n = 2.
Using (1) and (14), the inductor ripples (ΔiL1 and ΔiL2 ) can
Also, VTR in the step-up mode is displayed in Fig. 8(b). The
be gained for both step-down and step-up modes by
proposed converter offers higher VTR in comparison with the
⎧ mentioned cases. Moreover, the VTR of the proposed converter
DStep−down (1−DStep−down
2
⎪
⎪
)VHV is much higher in comparison with the extendable multistage
⎨ΔiL1 = L1 f s
cascaded structures, such as the converter in [26]. Note that the
D (2−DStep−up )VLV
= Step−up .
⎪
⎪
(1−DStep−up )L1 fs proposed converter has fewer components than the converter in
⎩Δi = DStep−down (1−DStep−down )VHV = DStep−up VLV
[13] and [16]. Also, electrical common ground is maintained in
L2 L2 f s (1−DStep−up )L2 fs
(31) the proposed converter, while those of the article presented in
Based on (30) and (31), the three-dimensional curves in both [10], [16], and [17] do not.
step-down and step-up modes are plotted in Fig. 7. The three Another comparison is made between the proposed converter
axes denote the amount of required capacitor C1 (or C2 ), the and the quadratic ones. Their total voltage stresses (TVS) of
percentage of ripple ΔvC1 (or ΔvC2 ), and D. semiconductors and total current stresses (TCS) of semiconduc-
Similarly, to determine the values of inductors (L1 and L2 ), tors are given in Table II and Fig. 9. According to this figure, the
the three axes indicate the amount of required inductor L1 (or proposed converter offers a lower TCS in comparison to [12].
L2 ), the percentage of ripple ΔiL1 (or ΔiL2 ), and the duty cycle Also, TVS and TCS of the proposed converter are lower than
D. that in [13]. Granted, the TCS of the proposed converter is lower
Therefore, one can consider a constant value fs and find the than that in [14]; however, the proposed converter offers a much
exact values of the passive components based on the desired lower TVS in comparison to [14].
ripples and the duty cycle. The main point in Fig. 9 curves is that the proposed converter
Considering 50 kHz as a switching frequency, VLV = 40 V, offers the lowest maximum voltage and current for choosing
VHV = 400 V, the maximum current and voltage ripple is 1 A the semiconductors in the family of the quadratic bidirectional
and 4 V, respectively, and the critical passive components at the converter. As shown in Fig. 9, the maximum TVS of the con-
step-down mode are L1 = 438 µH, L2 = 346 µH, C1 = 92 µF, verters in [12]–[14] is 2VHV , 2VHV , and 3VHV , respectively.
and C2 = 52 µF. Similarly, at the step-up mode L1 = 873 µH, Moreover, the maximum TVS of the proposed converter is
L2 = 848 µH, C1 = 58 µF, and C2 = 19 µF. 2VHV .

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 4864 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 68, NO. 6, JUNE 2021

TABLE I
SUMMARIZED INFORMATION OF THE PROPOSED CONVERTER AND OTHER RELEVANT BIDIRECTIONAL STRUCTURES

TABLE II
QUADRATIC GAIN BIDIRECTIONAL CONVERTERS (VLV /VHV = D2 ; VHV /VLV = 1/(1-D)2 ) COMPARISON

Similarly, the maximum TCS of the converters in [12]–[14] battery current. The overall proposed control system is shown
is 3ILV , 4ILV , and 2ILV , respectively. And the maximum TCS of in Fig. 10. By comparing the instantaneous value of the source
the proposed converter is 2ILV . voltage and the load voltage, either the step-down or step-up
Therefore, in the family of quadratic bidirectional converters, modes of operation are determined.
the proposed converter has the lowest TVS (2VHV ) and the In this converter, a simple yet efficient digital deadbeat control
lowest TCS (2ILV ). concept is adopted for both current controllers. As will be shown,
the deadbeat current controller can also simply determine the
duty cycle D for the step-down stage directly from the measured
V. DIRECT AND INDIRECT DEADBEAT CONTROLLER source, load, and C1 voltages, and measured and reference
As mentioned earlier, control of the proposed bidirectional current with the L1 inductance value as the only parameter to be
converter includes two strategies: direct and indirect control of known.
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 HOSSEINI et al.: EXTENDABLE QUADRATIC BIDIRECTIONAL DC–DC CONVERTER FOR V2G AND G2V APPLICATIONS 4865

Fig. 9. TVS comparison during (a) 0 ≤ t < DTs and (b) DTs ≤ t < Ts , and TCS comparison during (c) 0 ≤ t < DTs and (d) DTs ≤ t < Ts .

The slope of the inductor current in Qk ON state

(Δon,step-down ) can be determined as
Δon,step−down = diL1 /dt = (VHV − VLV )/L1 . (34)
Similarly, when the switch Qk is OFF, the inductor voltage is
VL1 = L1 diL1 /dt = −VC2 − VLV . (35)
The slope of the inductor current in Qk OFF state
(Δoff,step-down ) is
Δoff,step−down = diL1 /dt = (VC2 − VLV )/L1 . (36)
In the step-up operating mode, when Sk is ON, the inductor
voltage and the slope of the inductor current (Δon,step-up ) are
VL1 = L1 diL1 /dt = VLV + VC2 , (37)
Δon,step−up = diL1 /dt = (VLV + VC2 )/L1 . (38)
Similarly, when Sk is OFF, the inductor voltage and the slope
of the inductor current (Δoff,step-up ) are
VL1 = L1 diL1 /dt = VLV − VHV , (39)
Δoff,step−up = diL1 /dt = (VLV − VHV )/L1 . (40)
Now, one can predict the inductor current at the next sampling
period (iL1 [k + 1]) from its current value (iL1 [k]) by using the
slopes already given by (34) and (36) for the step-down and by
(38) and (40) for the step-up modes of operation, i.e.,
Fig. 10. (a) Working principle and (b) diagram of the control system. iL1 [k + 1] = iL1 [k] + Δon,step−down ton,step−down
+ Δoff,step−down toff,step−down , (41)
For the step-up mode, neglecting the losses, the following iL1 [k + 1] = iL1 [k] + Δon,step−up ton,step−up
equation can be written:
+ Δoff,step−up toff,step−up . (42)
2
VLV iL1 = VHV /Ro . (32)
where ton,step-down is the Qk ON state time, toff,step-down is
The current iL1 can be regulated by directly calculating the the Qk OFF-state time during the step-down operation, and
optimal duty cycle for the next switching period by a deadbeat ton,step-up is the Sk ON-state time, and toff,step-up is the Sk
strategy. The simple yet efficient deadbeat indirect current con- OFF-state time during the step-up operation.
trol technique only requires the value of L1 to directly calculate By forcing the error between the reference current (iL1 ∗) and
the switches’ duty cycle from the measured source and currents, iL1 [k + 1], depicted as ierr , to be zero [33], [34], then
measured inductor current, and its reference.
ierr = i∗L1 − iL1 [k + 1]
As shown in Fig. 10(a), in the step-down mode, when Qk is
ON, the voltage across the inductor L1 can be determined as = i∗L1 − iL1 [k] − Δon,step−down ton,step−down
VL1 = L1 diL1 /dt = VHV − VLV . (33) − Δoff,step−down toff,step−down = 0, (43)

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 4866 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 68, NO. 6, JUNE 2021

ierr = i∗L1 − iL1 [k + 1]

= i∗L1 − iL1 [k] − Δon,step−up ton,step−up
− Δoff,step−up toff,step−up = 0. (44)
Therefore, ton,step-down and ton,step-up can be determined as
i∗L1 − iL1 [k] − (Δoff,step−down Ts )
ton,step−down = , (45)
Δon,step−down − Δoff,step−down
i∗L1 − iL1 [k] − (Δoff,step−up Ts )
ton,step−up = . (46)
Δon,step−up − Δoff,step−up
Using (45) and (46), the optimal duty cycles can be calculated
as follows:
ton,step−down
Dstep−down =
Ts
i∗L1 − iL1 [k] − (Δoff,step−down Ts )
= , (47)
(Δon,step−down − Δoff,step−down )Ts
ton,step−up i∗L1 − iL1 [k] − (Δoff,step−up Ts )
Dstep−up = = .
Ts (Δon,step−up − Δoff,step−up )Ts Fig. 11. Grid-connected version of the proposed converter. (a) Circuit
(48) diagram. (b) Control diagram.

It must be mentioned that the average current through the

inductor L1 in each period is equal to the average current injected
since the average current of C1 is zero at the steady state.
Therefore, one can readily conclude that

∗ |i∗bat | step − down
iL1 = (49)
|i∗bat |VHV /VLV step − up
where ibat ∗ is the reference battery current.
The simplified control diagram of the proposed converter Fig. 12. Shows a 500 laboratory prototype setup of the proposed
is shown in Fig. 10(b). By comparing the battery voltage and converter. This includes, four power switches, two inductors, two capac-
the source voltage either in the step-down or step-up modes itors, which all have selected based on information listed in Table III.
Furthermore, the proposed converter controlling algorithm is engaged
of operation is determined and, therefore, the reference current via A STMicroelectronics STM32F303 floating-point digital controller,
iL1 ∗ is decided. This reference value and the measured current which can be seen in this image.
iL1 are then fed to the deadbeat algorithm, which directly and
indirectly calculates the optimal duty cycles as already described
above. The pulsewidth modulator generates the switching pulses the desired amount of the power for either charging (G2V) or
from the calculated duty cycles. discharging (V2G).
When VLV reaches the full-charge voltage, the PI compensator
in the CP/CV control loop is activated to regulate the battery
VI. PROPOSED CONTROL SYSTEM FOR V2G AND G2V
voltage.
The proposed dc–dc converter is adopted as the prefront stage The outputs of the ig control loop become the references
for the bidirectional conventional dc–ac converter connected to of the grid current control loop. Therefore, the ig is indirectly
the grid, as shown in Fig. 11(a). controlled by the magnitude VHV and with respect to the phase
Fig. 11(b) shows the control diagram for the G2V and V2G of grid voltage vg .
operations of the proposed bidirectional EV charger. It consists
of three control loops: an outer battery current control loop, a VII. EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION
middle HV-side control loop, and an inner grid current ig control
A 500-W laboratory prototype setup, as shown in Fig. 12, is
loop. When the grid voltage is normal, the charger is connected
provided with the parameters listed in Table III. A STMicroelec-
to the grid and can be operated in either G2V or V2G mode.
tronics STM32F303 floating-point digital controller is used to
Based on the article presented in [35], the battery voltage
implement the proposed control algorithm.
reference VLV ∗ (or Vbat ∗) is usually set as the full-charge voltage
of the battery. When the battery is not fully charged, the output
A. Proposed DC–DC Converter Operation
of the proportional integral (PI) compensator in the constant
power/constant voltage (CP/CV) control loop is saturated by the Fig. 13(a) demonstrates the step-down mode under the steady-
antiwindup mechanism limiter and the LV-side current reference state operation. It can be seen that the input dc source is 400 V
iLV ∗ (or ibat ∗) is determined by the upper limit value. PLV ∗ is and the voltage across the resistive load changes from 40 up
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 HOSSEINI et al.: EXTENDABLE QUADRATIC BIDIRECTIONAL DC–DC CONVERTER FOR V2G AND G2V APPLICATIONS 4867

TABLE III
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP PARAMETERS

Fig. 15. Steady-state operation of DCM in (a) step-down and (b) step-
up modes.

Fig. 13. Steady-state operation of CCM in (a) step-down and (b) step-
up modes.

Fig. 16. Grid-connected operation during (a) V2G and (b) G2V.

the change of reference voltage contributes to the appropriate

and smooth behavior of the proposed control system. The voltage
and the current of switches are shown in Fig. 14(b).
DCM operation of the proposed converter during the step-
down and step-up modes is shown in Fig. 15(a) and (b), respec-
tively. The values of VLV and VHV with respect to D, D1 , and
Fig. 14. Voltage and current of switches. (a) Step-down mode. D2 confirm the DCM voltage gains.
(b) Step-up mode.
B. Grid-Connected Operation
The experimental results of the proposed control system for
to 100 V with changing the reference voltage stepwise. Sub-
the grid-connected converter G2V and V2G performances are
sequently, D varies stepwise from 0. 0.316 to 0.5. Assuming a
shown in Fig. 16. The LV-side current (or battery current ib )
constant value for the load resistance, the load current varies
reference and the HV-side voltage reference is 15 A and 400 V,
with the change of current from HV side. Fig. 14(a) displays the
respectively. The battery voltage and the grid voltage is 40 and
gate signals, voltage, and current of switches in the step-down
110 V, respectively. The battery is charged (G2V) and discharged
mode.
(V2G) with sinusoidal current, as shown in Fig. 16.
Fig. 13(b) shows the converter in the step-up mode under the
steady-state operation. In this case, the input dc voltage is 40 V
C. Proposed Converter Evaluation
and the output voltage is raised from 100 up to 400 V as the
reference voltage. Also, D is increased stepwise from 0.367 to Fig. 17(a) shows the measured efficiency curves under dif-
0.683. The proper performance of the proposed converter under ferent strategies. The maximum efficiency in charging mode is

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 4868 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 68, NO. 6, JUNE 2021

VHV = 400 V, Pout = 500 W, and fs = 50 kHz. Resultantly,

the experimental waveforms were coincided with those expected
from the proposed converter and made it a proper solution for
the on-grid EV applications.

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 HOSSEINI et al.: EXTENDABLE QUADRATIC BIDIRECTIONAL DC–DC CONVERTER FOR V2G AND G2V APPLICATIONS 4869

[21] X. Xiang, X. Zhang, G. P. Chaffey, and T. C. Green, “A modular multilevel Seyed Hossein Hosseini received the B.Sc.
DC–DC converter with a compact sub-module stack suited to low step degree from the University of Bojnord, Bo-
ratios,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 312–323, Feb. 2019. jnord, Iran, in 2017, and the M.Sc. degree from
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conversion-ratio bidirectional DC–DC converter for distributed energy- tional power converters, V2G and G2V systems,
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[26] J. Chen, D. Sha, Y. Yan, B. Liu, and X. Liao, “Cascaded high voltage degree from the University of Science and Tech-
conversion ratio bidirectional nonisolated DC–DC converter with vari- nology, Tehran, Iran, in 1976, the M.Sc. degree
able switching frequency,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 33, no. 2, from the University of Manchester Institute of
pp. 1399–1409, Feb. 2018. Science and Technology, Manchester, U.K., in
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Electron., to be published. engineering.
[28] N. Elsayad, H. Moradisizkoohi, and O. A. Mohammed, “A new hybrid Following the receipt of the Ph.D. degree, he
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for electric vehicles,” IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 194– Engineering with the Faculty of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mash-
206, Jan. 2020. had, Iran, where he is currently the Professor of Electrical Engineer-
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converter with high voltage conversion ratio based on coupled-inductor and fields, including three books. His main research interests are reactive
switched-capacitor,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., to be published. power control, FACTS devices, application of power electronics in power
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control schemes of bidirectional DC–DC power converters: An overview,” received the Ph.D. (Hons.) degree in electri-
IEEE Access, vol. 7, pp. 117997–118019, 2019. cal engineering from the Ferdowsi University of
[33] H. Heydari-doostabad and M. Monfared, “An integrated interleaved dual- Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran, in 2018.
mode time-sharing inverter for single-phase grid-tied applications,” IEEE He is currently a Postdoctoral Senior Power
Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 66, no. 1, pp. 286–296, Jan. 2019. System Researcher with the School of Electri-
[34] A. Pourfaraj, M. Monfared, and H. Heydari-doostabad, “Single-phase cal and Electronic Engineering, University Col-
dual-mode interleaved multilevel inverter for PV applications,” IEEE lege Dublin, Dublin, Ireland. His research inter-
Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 67, no. 4, pp. 2905–2915, Apr. 2020. ests include power electronics, especially grid-
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charger for V2G and V2H applications,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., resources, photovoltaic inverters, dc converters,
vol. 32, no. 9, pp. 6792–6799, Sep. 2017. power quality, and control systems.

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