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Lecture 1.1.1

sets and relation

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16 views9 pages

Lecture 1.1.1

sets and relation

Uploaded by

shifasohail000
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Introduction to set theory 1.1.

Course outcome to be covered:

CO1: Apply and recognized about the theory of sets.

Introduction to set theory

Set theory forms the basis of several other fields of study like
counting theory, relations, graph theory and finite state machines. In
this chapter, we will cover the different aspects of Set Theory.

Set – Definition

A set is any well-defined collection of “objects”. The objects in the


collection are called elements of the set. A set can be written
explicitly by listing its elements using set brackets. If the order of the
elements is changed or any element of a set is repeated, it does not
make any changes in the set.

Example:

● A set of all positive integers


● A set of all the planets in the solar system
● A set of all the states in India
● A set of all the lowercase letters of the alphabet
● The collection of pencils in your backpack is a set i.e. Each
pencil in your backpack is an element of the set.
Notation

Usually sets are denoted with upper-case letters, elements with lower-
case letters.

Example: A = {1,2,3,4,5,6}

Verbal description of set A is:

● A is the set of all integers from 1 to 6, inclusive

Mathematical inclusion rule for the set A is:

● A ={Integers x|1 x 6}

The following notation is used to show set membership:

1. x € A means that x is a member of the set A


2. x ∉A means that x is not a member of the set A

Some Special Sets:

The Null Set or Empty Set. This is a set with no elements, often
symbolized by Ø

The Universal Set. This is the set of all elements currently under
consideration, and is often symbolized by ‘U’.

Representation of a Set
Sets can be represented in two ways

● Roster or Tabular Form


● Set Builder Notation

Roster or Tabular Form: The set is represented by listing all the


elements comprising it. The elements are enclosed within braces and
separated by commas.

Example 1 Set of vowels in English alphabet, A={a,e,i,o,u}

Example 2 Set of odd numbers less than 10, B={1,3,5,7,9}

Set Builder Notation: The set is defined by specifying a property that


elements of the set have in common. Set builder notation has the
general form {variable | descriptive statement}. The vertical bar (in
set builder notation) is always read as “such that”. Set builder notation
is frequently used when the roster method is either inappropriate or
inadequate.

The set is described as A={x:p(x)}

Example 1 The set {a,e,i,o,u} is written as

A={x:x is a vowel in English alphabet}

Example 2 The set {1,3,5,7,9} is written as

B={x:1x<10 and (x%2)0}


If an element x is a member of any set S, it is denoted by x∈S and if
an element y is not a member of set S, it is denoted by y∉S.

Example If S={1,1.2,1.7,2},1 ∈S but 1.5∉S

Some Important Sets are:

● N the set of all natural numbers ={1,2,3,4,.....}


● Z the set of all integers ={.....,3,2,1,0,1,2,3,.....}
● Z+ the set of all positive integers
● Q the set of all rational numbers
● R the set of all real numbers
● W the set of all whole numbers

Cardinality of a Set:

Cardinality of a set S, denoted by |S|, is the number of elements of the set. The nu

Example |{1,4,3,5}|=4,|{1,2,3,4,5,…}|=

If there are two sets X and Y,

● |X|=|Y| denotes two sets X and Y having the same cardinality. It


occurs when the number of elements in X is exactly equal to the
number of elements in Y. In this case, there exists a bijective
function ‘f’ from X to Y.
●

|X||Y| denotes that set X’s cardinality is less than or equal to set Y’s cardinal

● |X|<|Y| denotes that set X’s cardinality is less than set Y’s
cardinality. It occurs when the number of elements in X is less
than that of Y. Here, the function ‘f’ from X to Y is an injective
function but not bijective.
●
If |X||Y| and |X||Y| then |X|=|Y|. The sets X and Y are commonly referred to

Types of Sets:

Sets can be classified into many types. Some of which are discussed
as:

● Finite Set: A set which contains a definite number of elements


is called a finite set.

Example S={x|x ∈N and 90>x>50}

● Infinite Set: Aset which contains an infinite number of


elements is called an infinite set.

Example S={x|x ∈N and x>10}

● Subset: A set X is a subset of set Y (Written as X⊆Y)if every


element of X is an element of set Y. Here set Y is a subset of set
X as all the elements of set Y are inset X. Hence, we can write
Y⊆X. Here set Y is a subset (Not a proper subset) of set X as all
the elements of set Y are in set X. Hence, we can write Y⊆X.
● Proper Subset: The term “proper subset” can be defined as
“subset of but not equal to”. A Set X is a proper subset of set Y
(Written as X⊂Y) if every element of X is an element of set Y
and |X|<|Y|. Here set Y⊂X since all elements in Y are contained
in X too and X has at least one element is more than set Y.
● Universal Set: It is a collection of all elements in a particular
context or application. All the sets in that context or application
are essentially subsets of this universal set. Universal sets are
represented as U. In this case, the set of all mammals is a subset
of U, the set of all fishes is a subset of U, the set of all insects is
a subset of U, and so on.
● Empty Set or Null Set: An empty set contains no elements. It is
denoted by ∅.As the number of elements in an empty set is
finite, empty set is a finite set. The cardinality of empty set or
null set is zero.

Example S={x|x ∈N and 7<x<8}=∅

● Singleton Set or Unit Set: Singleton set or unit set contains


only one element. A singleton set is denoted by {s}.

Example S={x|x ∈N, 7<x<9} = {8}


● Equal Set: If two sets contain the same elements, they are said
to be equal.
● Equivalent Set: If the cardinalities of two sets are the same,
they are called equivalent sets. i.e.|A|=|B|=3
● Overlapping Set:
Two sets that have at least one common element are called overlapping se

1. n(A∪ B)=n(A)+n(B)n(AB)
2. n(A∪ B)=n(AB)+n(BA)+n(AB)
3. n(A)=n(AB)+n(AB)
4. n(A)=n(AB)+n(AB)
5. n(B)=n(BA)+n(AB)
● Disjoint Set:
Two sets A and B are called disjoint sets if they do not have ev

1. n(AB)= ∅
2. n(A∪B)=n(A)+n(B)

Venn Diagram

In Venn diagram a set is represented by a closed curve, usually a


circle and its elements by points within it. A statement involving sets
can be easily understood with pictorial representation of sets. The
following diagram showing these sets is called the Venn Diagram of
that statement.
What is a Subset?

A subset, as the name implies, is a subgroup of any set. Consider two


sets, A and B Mathematically speaking, A will be a subset of B if and
only if all the components of A are present in B. We can also say that
A is contained in B. To understand it more clearly, consider a set P
such that P comprises the names of all the cities of a country. Another
set Q including the names of cities in your region. Here Q will be a
subset of P. This is because all the cities in your region would also be
cities of your country; hence, Q is a subset of P. There are only a
definite number of distinct/unique subsets for any set, therefore the
remaining are irrelevant and repetitive

Example:

A subset is a set contained in another set. It is like one can pick ice
cream from the following flavors: (vanilla, chocolate, butterscotch}
• You can take any one flavor (vanilla}, (chocolate}, or
(butterscotch},

• Or any two flavors: (vanilla chocolate), (chocolate, butterscotch}, or


(vanilla,

butterscotch)

What is a Subset Meaning in Math?

A Set 1 is supposed to be a subset of Set 2 if all the components of Set


1 are also existing in

Set 2. In other words, set1 is included inside Set2.

• If Set1=(A,B,C} and Set2=(A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I) then we can say


that Set1 is a subset of Set2

as all the elements in set 1 are available in set 2.

LINKS: https://youtu.be/vGelH3Jibt4

ebook Discrete Mathematics

https://vcarrion.people.uic.edu/Pinter%20-%20A%20Book%20of
%20Set%20Theory.pdf

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