ANIMAL TRANSPORT SURGERY: Tissue fluid formation and carriage of gases in blood

I Tissue Fluid formation:

Definitions:
Hydrostatic pressure = Pressure of a fluid against its vessel walls.
In the blood, this is generated by the contraction of cardiac muscle. Measured in kPa

Filtration = The movement of a fluid and its dissolved substances,

through pores in the capillary wall,
due to the hydrostatic pressure generated by the heart.

Oncotic pressure = Osmotic pressure created by the proteins (colloids)

eg albumin which are dissolved in blood plasma
– the contribution of plasma proteins to the ψ of blood (kPa)

Tissue fluid is formed from blood plasma by filtration.

It does not have plasma proteins (or blood cells) as they are too large to be filtered through.

(blood) Hydrostatic
(blood) oncotic

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Lymph and the lymphatic system:
Only 90% of fluid re-enters blood from tissue fluid, 10%, containing cell debris and excess fluid enters
lymph capillaries of lymphatic system as lymph.
lymph = fluid in the lymphatic system derived from excess tissue fluid not reabsorbed into the blood
capillaries.

Role of lymph and the lymphatic system

1. To drain excess fluid
2. To take up cell debris and large particles / phagocytosed bacteria from tissues
3. To store lymphocytes in lymph nodes for defence
4. To take up fatty products of digestion in lacteals (specialised lymph capillaries) of small intestine
Lymph capillaries are blind-ends vessels which originate in tissues. Lymph drains into the large veins of the
circulatory system.

A table of comparison between plasma, tissue fluid and lymph

Complete the table below (choose between high/low for each feature and write in type of cells present)
Feature Blood plasma Tissue Fluid Lymph
Hydrostatic high/low high/low high/low
pressure
Oncotic pressure high/low high/low high/low

Cells present: RBCs

Neutrophils Lymphocytes
White blood cells

Large Proteins high/low high/low high/low

Fats high/low high/low high/low

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II Carriage of gases in the blood
A. Carriage of oxygen by haemoglobin
Up to ____
4 molecules of oxygen can be carried by one molecule of Hb
Hb + O2 —>
(deoxyhaemoglobin) (oxyhaemoglobin)
The first molecule binds with difficulty but it distorts the 3D configuration of Hb
( = allosteric effect)
so the next 3 O2 molecules are loaded progressively more easily

Sigmoidal curve

Hb has a greater affinity for O2 where

the Partial Pressure of O2 is high ie lungs
This is called loading tension =
Oxygen is picked up at
the lungs The partial pressure of oxygen where ≈
oxygen is delivered
100% of Hb is saturated with oxygen
to the tissues
ie when O2 loads onto Hb

Hb has a lower affinity for O2 where

the Partial Pressure of O2 low ie tissues
This is called unloading tension =
The partial pressure of oxygen where ≈
Steepest part of the curve
to deliver O2 rapidly with 50% of Hb is saturated with oxygen
the smallest change in O2 ie when O2 unloads from Hb

The difference between maternal (adult) and foetal oxyen-haemoglobin dissociation curves

At the placenta, the partial pressure of

O2 is 8kPa (as opposed to 13kPa in the
lungs)
At this partial pressure, the mother’s
Hb will dissociate with O2
But foetal Hb has much greater
affinity for O2 at low partial pressures
Mothers Hb compared to the mother’s.
dissociates and It’s curve is to the left of the mother’s
babys Hb will So foetal Hb will associates
_____________
with O2
associate with at the placenta, while the mother’s
oxygen __________________
dissociates from it.

The gene for foetal Hb is switched off

at birth and the gene for adult Hb is
switched on.

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B. Carriage of carbon dioxide and the Bohr effect
Carbon dioxide released by the respiring tissues is carried by the blood in 3 ways:
1. 5% dissolved directly in the plasma
2. 10% associated with Hb: This is called carbaminohaemoglobin
3. 85% as hydrogen carbonate ion in the plasma:
CO2 is combined with water to form carbonic acid
catalysed by the action of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in the RBCs.

carbonic anhydrase
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 HCO3- + H+
hydrogen carbonate

Carbonic acid dissociates to form hydrogen carbonate and a proton

The generation of these two ions brings about two processes:

negatively chloride enter

chloride leave

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Use the following words to fill in the gaps below: Haemoglobin shape haemoglobinic allosteric oxygen dissociate oxygen
tissues respiration carbon dioxide dissociation pH buffered
The protons are ______________
buffered by ____________________
hydrocarbon to prevent a change in the
_______
pH of the RBCs. This forms ____________________
haemoglobinic acid.
The binding of the protons to the _________________
carbon dioxide has an ______________
allosteric effect which
changes the shape of the molecule: Its affinity for ______________ is lowered so that
oxygen
______________
Haemoglobin is able to ______________
dissociate more easily at the ____________________.
tissues

The presence of increased CO2 shifts the Hb - O2 dissociation curve to the __________
right
So: At the same Partial pressure of O2, the dissociation of O2 from Hb _____________
increases and the
% saturation of Hb with O2 ________________.
decreases This is called the Bohr effect.

If blood which is 100%

saturated with oxygen
carries 100ml of oxygen per
litre of blood, how many ml
of oxygen is delivered to the
tissues at

i) low pCO ? 50ml

2

ii) High pCO ?

2

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Exam question 1: Fig. 1 shows the effect of two different partial pressures of carbon dioxide on the
dissociation curve for haemoglobin.
100

80 partial pressure CO2

5.3 kPa

% saturation of
haemoglobin 60
with oxygen

partial pressure CO2

40 10.7 kPa

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
partial pressure of oxygen / kPa

Fig. 1
(a) (i) Name the effect illustrated by the two curves.
................................................................................................................[1]
(ii) The steepest part of each curve in Fig. 1 is between the oxygen partial pressures of 2
and 5 kPa.
Explain why it is important that this is so.
............................................................................................................................. .....................................
..................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................[2]
(iii) Explain how the effect of increasing the partial pressure of carbon dioxide from 5.3 to
10.7 kPa ensures a greater delivery of oxygen to exercising muscle tissue.
............................................................................................................................. ......................................
............................................................................................................................. ......................................
................................................................................................................[2]
(b) The effect shown in Fig. 2 also increases the delivery of oxygen to exercising muscle tissue.
100
temperature 37ºC
80

60 temperature 45ºC
% saturation of
haemoglobin
with oxygen 40

20

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
partial pressure of oxygen / kPa
Fig. 2
Suggest how exercising muscle tissue brings about the changes seen in Fig. 2.
............................................................................................................................. .........................................................
......................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................. ........................................................[2].
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Exam question 2:

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Question 3:
a) Is the oxygen carried by the red blood cells used for its respiration? Yes/No
b) Give reasons for your answer:
It doesn’t carry out respiration beause it doesn’t have any
mitochondria and no nucleus so it only does anaerobic
respiration

Answers to exam questions:

p6 exam question 1
3. (a) (i) Bohr; 1
(ii) (steep part) corresponds to pO2 in, tissues / cells / organs;
cells / tissues / organs, need (much) oxygen;
change / drop, in pO2 gives, large change / drop in saturation
(of haemoglobin) / much release of oxygen / AW;
R refs to increase in pO2
data from diagram to support; 2 max
(iii) ref to (more), H ions / carbonic acid; A formula
(forms) haemoglobinic acid; A HHb
(haemoglobin), releases more oxygen / has lower affinity for
oxygen / has lower saturation of oxygen;
at a certain partial pressure of oxygen;
data from diagram to support; must be comparative
AVP; e.g. ref to effect of CO2 on, brain / heart, related to
oxygen delivery 2 max
(b) more heat (in exercising muscle) / increase in body temperature / AW;
(as) respiration releases some energy as heat / AW;
ATP to ADP releases some energy as heat / AW;
(muscle) temperature rises, above normal body temperature / to 45 °C;
(so) more oxygen release (from haemoglobin / RBCs) / AW; 2 max

p7 exam question 2
c) in the respiring tissues

d) 100% equivalent to 100ml of O2 in 1000ml blood

=> 90% equivalent to 90ml O2 in 1000ml blood;
pO2 at 4000Pa and CO2 at 5332Pa (ie curve C) is 62% saturated => ;
90 – 62 = 28% ; which is 28ml of O2 ;