Geology

University of Anbar
Department of Applied Geology

Ramadi-Iraq
Mahmood H. D. Al-Kubaisi
Lecture (3)
Water Table and Piezometric Surface

Water table
The water table is the surface of the water level in an unconfined aquifer
at which the pressure is atmospheric. It is the level at which the water will
stand in a well drilled in an unconfined aquifer.
The water table fluctuates by recharge or outflow from the aquifer. In
fact, the water table is constantly in motion adjusting its surface to a
balance between the recharge and the outflow.
Generally, the water table follows the topographic features and is high
below ridges and low below valleys. However, sometimes the topographic
ridge and the water table ridge may not coincide and there may be flow
from one aquifer to the other aquifer, called watershed leakage. Wherever
the water table intersects the ground surface, a seepage surface or a spring
is formed.
Perched water table when a small water body is separated from the main
groundwater body by a relatively small impermeable stratum. Wells drilled
below the perched water table up to the small impervious stratum yield
very small quantity of water and soon go dry.
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Piezometric surface
The water in a confined aquifer is under pressure. When a well is drilled
in a confined aquifer, the water level in it will rise above the top of the
aquifer. The piezometric surface is an imaginary surface to which the water
level would rise if a piezometer was inserted in the aquifer. Thus, it
indicates the pressure of the water in the aquifer. Hence, a piezometric
surface is the water table equivalent of the confined aquifer (see Figure -).
For groundwater "potentiometric surface" is a synonym of "piezometric

surface" which is an imaginary surface that defines the level to which water
in a confined aquifer would rise were it completely pierced with wells.
Figure --: Water Table and Piezometric Surface "potentiometric surface".
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Groundwater flows due to differences in “head”
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Aquifer Properties
The following properties of the aquifer are required for the study of
groundwater hydrology:
Porosity
Specific Hydraulic
Retention Conductivity
(Sr) (K)
Aquifer
Properties
Specific Transmis
Yield (Sy) sivity (T)
Specific Storage
Capacity Coefficient
(Sc) (S)
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1. Porosity
Porosity (n) is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total
volume of the porous medium (rock or soil). The larger the pore space or
the greater their number, the higher the porosity and the larger the water-
holding capacity. It is defined mathematically by the equation:
𝑉𝑣
𝑛= 𝑋 100%
𝑉
Where:
n is the porosity (percentage).
Vv is the volume of void space in a unit volume of earth materials (L3, cm3,
or m3).
V is the unit volume of earth material, including both voids and solids (L3,
cm3, or m3).
In sediments or sedimentary rocks, the porosity depends on grain size,

the shape of the grains, the degree of sorting, and the degree of
cementation. In rocks, the porosity depends upon the extent, spacing, and
pattern of cracks and fractures.
* The porosity of well-rounded sediments, which have been sorted so that

they are all about the same size, is independent of particle size, depending
upon the packing.
* Well-rounded coarse-grained sediments usually have higher porosity

than fine-grained sediments, because the grains don’t fit together well (see
Figure --).
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Fig. --: Porosity of Well-Rounded Coarse-Sediments vs. Fine-Grained
Sediments
* In igneous and metamorphic rocks porosity is usually low because the

minerals tend to be intergrown, leaving little free space. Higher fractured
igneous and metamorphic rocks, however, could have high secondary
porosity.
* Since cement tends to fill in the pore space, highly cemented sedimentary
rocks have lower porosity (see Figure --).
Figure --: Highly Cemented Sedimentary Rock
* Porosity can range from zero to more than 60%. Recently deposited
sediments have higher porosity. Dense crystalline rock or highly
compacted soft rocks such as shale have lower porosity.
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* It is worth distinguishing between Intergranular or matrix or primary
porosity as the latter is the porosity provided by small spaces between
adjacent grains of the rock, and the secondary porosity of fractured rocks
is the porosity provided by discrete rock mass discontinuities (faults, joints,
and fractures).
The nature of porosity:

Figure – shows several types of interstices and their relation to porosity:
The significance of the porosity is that it gives the idea of the water
storage capacity of the aquifer. Qualitatively, porosity less than 5% is
considered to be small, between 5 and 20% as a medium, and the
percentage exceeding 20% is considered as large. Table --: lists
representative porosity ranges from various geologic materials.
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Table --: Range of Values of Porosity (after Freeze & Cherry, 1979)
2. Coefficient of Permeability (Hydraulic conductivity) (K)
The hydraulic conductivity is the constant of proportionality in Darcy's

law (Equation ---). It is defined as the volume of water that will move
through a porous medium in unit time under a unit hydraulic gradient
through a unit area measured at right angles to the direction of flow.
(Kruseman and de Ridder, 1994).
Rock permeability is the ability of rocks to the passage of water between
its granules, rock permeability can be expressed in Darcy's equation:
𝑄
𝑄=𝐾𝐼𝐴 ; 𝐾=
𝐼𝐴
𝑑ℎ
𝑄=𝐾 𝐴
𝑑𝑙
where:
K: Permeability (Length/Time), it is usually expressed as cm/s, m/s, m/day,
etc.
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Q: Volume rate of flow (Length3/Time), in another meaning, is (Discharge
(m3/day).
A: Cross-sectional area normal to flow direction (Length2), i.e. Area of
groundwater (m2).
dh/dl = I: Represent hydraulic gradient (dimensionless unit).
The rocks that allow the water to permeate through its pores are called the
Permeable or Previous rocks. And those that do not allow water to
permeate through its pores with the impermeable or impervious rocks.
Therefore, it is noted that every water-permeable rock is a porous, and
porous rock is not necessarily a water-permeable.
The figure below shows a laboratory approach to the type of sediments

and their ability to pass water or retention.
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[Hazen method] Hydraulic Conductivity can be determined and
expressed as follows:
The coefficient of permeability (K) depends on the properties of both
porous medium and fluid. It can be expressed as,
2 ]𝜌𝑔
[𝐶𝑑𝑚
𝐾=
𝜇
where,
C is the shape factor that depends upon the shape, particle size, and
packing of the porous media. dm is the mean particle size (L, m). ρ is the
mass density (M/L3, kg/m3). g is the acceleration due to gravity (L/T2,
m/s2). μ is the viscosity (M/T. L, kg/s.m).
Another coefficient of permeability, called intrinsic permeability (k), is

sometimes used. The intrinsic permeability depends upon the porous
medium and is independent of the properties of the fluid. It is usually
expressed as,
2
𝑘 = 𝐶𝑑𝑚
The intrinsic permeability k has the dimensions of [L2] and is usually

expressed in cm2 or Darcy, where 1 Darcy = 0.987 * 10-8 cm2.
The intrinsic permeability is rarely used in groundwater hydrology, but

this term is very popular in the petroleum, natural gas industries, and in
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density-dependent flow problems such as saline water intrusion. The
intrinsic permeability is also called the absolute permeability.
Typical values of hydraulic conductivity for unconsolidated and hard

rocks are given in Table -- which are taken from Marsily [1986].
Table --: Hydraulic Conductivity for Unconsolidated and Hard Rocks
References:
- Groundwater hydrology third edition, Todd, D. K. 2005.
- Analysis and Evaluation of Pumping Test Data, Kruseman, G. P., and de
Ridder, N. A. 1994.
- Hydrogeology Principles and Practice, Second Edition, Kevin M. Hiscock
and Victor F. Bense.
- Watershed management, Prof. T I Eldho, Department of Civil Engineering,
IIT Bombay.
- Manual on artificial recharge of groundwater, Central Ground Water Board
2007.
- Getting Up to Speed, for “Ground Water Contamination” is adapted from US
EPA Seminar Publication.
- Lectures by Professor Bayan Muhie Hussien. 2011.
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University of Anbar

Department of Applied Geology

Water Table and Piezometric Surface

For groundwater "potentiometric surface" is a synonym of "piezometric

Figure --: Water Table and Piezometric Surface "potentiometric surface".

n is the porosity (percentage).

In sediments or sedimentary rocks, the porosity depends on grain size,

* The porosity of well-rounded sediments, which have been sorted so that

* Well-rounded coarse-grained sediments usually have higher porosity

* In igneous and metamorphic rocks porosity is usually low because the

Figure --: Highly Cemented Sedimentary Rock

The nature of porosity:

2. Coefficient of Permeability (Hydraulic conductivity) (K)

The hydraulic conductivity is the constant of proportionality in Darcy's

The figure below shows a laboratory approach to the type of sediments

Another coefficient of permeability, called intrinsic permeability (k), is

The intrinsic permeability k has the dimensions of [L2] and is usually

The intrinsic permeability is rarely used in groundwater hydrology, but

Typical values of hydraulic conductivity for unconsolidated and hard

Table --: Hydraulic Conductivity for Unconsolidated and Hard Rocks

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