MR CLASSES SIKHARGARH 8005816663

ALGEBRA

Common Identities

(𝑖)(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)2 + 4𝑎𝑏

(𝑖𝑖)(𝑎 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 − 4𝑎𝑏

(𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏) (𝑎 − 𝑏)
(𝑖𝑣)(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3
= 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 + 3𝑎𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑏)
(𝑣)(𝑎 − 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 − 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 − 𝑏 3
= 𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 − 3𝑎𝑏(𝑎 − 𝑏)
(𝑣𝑖)𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )

= (𝑎 + 𝑏)3 − 3𝑎𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑏)
(𝑣𝑖𝑖)𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
= (𝑎 − 𝑏)3 + 3𝑎𝑏(𝑎 − 𝑏)
(𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖)(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 + (𝑎 − 𝑏)2 = 2 (𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 )
(𝑖𝑥)(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 − (𝑎 − 𝑏)2 = 4𝑎𝑏
(𝑥)(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 2𝑏𝑐 + 2𝑐𝑎

Quadratic Equation
An equation of second degree is called a quadratic equation. It is of the form:
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
The roots of a quadratic equation are
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
Example 1. Solve the equation: 6𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 6 = 0.

Solution. Here a = 6, b=-13, c=6

−𝑏±√𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 13±√169−4×6×6 13±√169−144
𝑥= = =
2𝑎 2×6 12
13 ± 5 8 18 2 3
= = , = ,
12 12 12 3 2
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Binomial Theorem

If n is any integer, positive or negative, or a fraction and x is any real number, then

𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) 3

(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 …
2! 3!

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 2! = 2 𝑥 1, 3! = 3𝑥2𝑥1

In general,
𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) (𝑛 − 2). .3 × 2 × 1.

𝐼𝑓 |𝑥| << 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 ≈ 1 + 𝑛𝑥.

Example 2. The acceleration due to gravity at a height h above the surface of the earth (radius = R) is given
by

𝑔𝑅 2
𝑔′ =
(𝑅 + ℎ)2

2ℎ
If h<< R, then show that: 𝑔′ = 𝑔 (1 − )
𝑅

Solution.

2. MENSURATION

Important Formulae

𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋𝐷

𝜋𝐷2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 2 =
4
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋𝐷2
4 3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟
3

𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + 𝑙)

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𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑙
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟𝑙

1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
3

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 = (𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒)3

𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 = 6 × (𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒)2

3 TRIGONOMETRY
Systems of Measurement of an Angle
(i) Sexagesimal system. In this system,
1 right angle =90° (degree)
1°=60' (minute)
1'=60" (second)
(ii) Centesimal system. In this system
1 right angle = 100g (grade)
1g = 100' (minute)
1'=100" (second)
(iii) Circular system. In this system, the unit of angle is radian.
One radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc whose length is equal to the radius of the
circle.
If 𝑙 is the length of an arc and 𝜃 is the angle subtended at the centre of the circle as shown in Fig., then
𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙
𝜃= = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟

Angle subtended at the centre of the circle by Circumference

𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 2𝜋𝑟
𝜃= = = 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟
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𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 180° = 200𝑔

1 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 57° 916′ 22′′ = 63𝑔 63′ 64′′

Trigonometrical Ratios
In right angled ∆, of Fig. ∠𝑂𝑀𝑃 = 90° and ∠𝑃𝑂𝑀 = 𝜃.

We can define the trigonometric ratios as follows:

𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑃𝑀
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝜃 = = = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑂𝑃
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑂𝑀
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝜃 = = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑂𝑃
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑃𝑀
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝜃 = = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑂𝑀
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑂𝑀
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝜃 = = = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑂𝑃
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑂𝑃
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝜃 = = = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑂𝑀
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑂𝑃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝜃 = = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑃𝑀

Fundamental Trigonometric Relations

1 1 1
1. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 = , 2. 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 = , 3. 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
4. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = , 5. 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

6. sin2 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃 = 1; 7. 1 + tan2 𝜃 = sec 2 𝜃; 8. 1 + cot 2 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃

T- ratio of allied angles

sin(− 𝜃) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃; cos(−𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

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tan(−𝜃) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃; cot(−𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃

sec(−𝜃) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(−𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃

sin(90 − 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃; cos(90 − 𝜃) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

tan(90 − 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃; cot(90 − 𝜃) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

sec(90 − 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(90 − 𝜃) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃

sin(90 + 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃; cos(90 + 𝜃) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

tan(90 + 𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃; cot(90 + 𝜃) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

sec(90 + 𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(90 + 𝜃) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃

sin(180 − 𝜃) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃; cos(180 − 𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

tan(180 − 𝜃) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃; cot(180 − 𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃

sec(180 − 𝜃) = −𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(180 − 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃

sin(180 + 𝜃) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃; cos(180 + 𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

tan(180 + 𝜃) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃; cot(180 + 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃

sec(180 + 𝜃) = −𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(180 + 𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃

sin(270 − 𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃; cos(270 − 𝜃) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

tan(270 − 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃; cot(270 − 𝜃) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

sec(270 − 𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(270 − 𝜃) = −𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃

sin(270 + 𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃; cos(270 + 𝜃) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

tan(270 + 𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃; cot(270 + 𝜃) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

sec(270 + 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(270 + 𝜃) = −𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃

sin(360 − 𝜃) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃; cos(360 − 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

tan(360 − 𝜃) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃; cot(360 − 𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃

sec(360 − 𝜃) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(360 − 𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃

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sin(360 + 𝜃) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃; cos(360 + 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

tan(360 + 𝜃) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃; cot(360 + 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃

sec(360 + 𝜃) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(360 + 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃

𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵

𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵

𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵

𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) =
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
tan(𝐴 − 𝐵) =
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝐴 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 =
1 + tan2 𝐴

𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴 = cos 2 𝐴 − sin2 𝐴 = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 = 2 cos 2 𝐴 − 1 = (1 − tan2 𝐴)/(1 + tan2 𝐴)

𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝐴 = 2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴/(1 − tan2 𝐴)

𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝐴 − 𝐵) = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵

𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝐴 + 𝐵) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝐴 − 𝐵) = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵

𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵

𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝐴 + 𝐵) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝐴𝐵) = −2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵

𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐷 = 2 sin cos
2 2

𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐷 = 2 cos sin
2 2

𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐶 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐷 = 2 cos cos
2 2

𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐶 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐷 = −2 sin sin
2 2
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Values of Trigonometrical Ratios of Some Standard Angles

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝜃 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180° 270° 360°
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 1 1 √3 1 √3 1 1 0 −1 0
2 √2 2 2 √2 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 √3 1 1 0 1 1 √3 −1 0 1
− − −
2 √2 2 2 √2 2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 0 1 1 √3 ∞ −√3 −1 1 0 −∞ 0
−
√3 √3

4. Logarithms
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟.
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒, 81 = 34 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚 𝑜𝑓 81 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 4.
𝑆𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦, 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 81=4
𝐼𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙, 𝑖𝑓 𝑁 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑁 = 𝑥.
The common logarithm of a number is the power to which 10 must be raised to obtain that number.
As 1000=103 ∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 1000 = 3
0
As a = 1 ∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 1=0
As a1=a ∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑎 = 1
Logarithmic Formulae
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎: 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑛
𝑚
𝑄𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎: 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 ( ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑛
𝑛

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎: 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚

𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎: 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑚 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑚 × 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏

5. EXPANSION SERIES

Convergent for the given Range of x

1. Exponential expansion

𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + + + ⋯ … … ….
2! 3!
2. Logarithmic expansion
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
ln(1 + 𝑥) = 𝑥 − + − + ⋯ … … ..
2 3 4
MR CLASSES SIKHARGARH 8005816663

3. Trigonometric expansions
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − + ⋯ … … . .
3! 5! 7!
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
cos 𝑥 = 1 − + − + ⋯ … … . .
2! 4! 6!
𝑥 3 2𝑥 5 17𝑥 7
tan 𝑥 = 𝑥 + + + + ⋯…….
3 15 315
6. CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY
Equations of:
1. a straight line: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
2. a circle of radius a and centre at the origin:
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2
3. a parabola: 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥
𝑥2 𝑦2
4. an ellipse: 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 1

𝑥2 𝑦2
5. a hyperbola: 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 = 1

6. a rectangular hyperbola: 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑐 2 c is a constant.

7 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Differential Coefficient
Let y be a function of x i.e., 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
Suppose the value of 𝑥 increases by a small amount ∆. Then the value of 𝑦 also increases by a small amount,
say ∆𝑦.
∆𝑦
The ratio ∆𝑥 is called the average rate of change of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥.
∆𝑦
When ∆𝑥 approaches zero, the limiting value of ∆𝑥 is called differential coefficient or derivative of 𝑦 w.r.t.
𝑑𝑦
𝑥 and is denoted by 𝑑𝑥 .
𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦
Hence 𝑑𝑥 = lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Physically, the derivative 𝑑𝑥 gives the instantaneous rate of change of function 𝑦
with respect to variable 𝑥.

Some Important Results on Differentiation

𝑑
(i) Let 𝑐 be a constant. Then (𝑐) = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
(ii) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐𝑦) = 𝑐 𝑑𝑥
MR CLASSES SIKHARGARH 8005816663
𝑑
(iii) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
(iv) Let 𝑦 = 𝑢 ± 𝑣, where 𝑢 and 𝑣 are functions of 𝑥.
Then
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= ±
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(v) Product Rule
Let 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑
Then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹. 𝐹 𝑑𝑥 (𝑆. 𝐹. ) + 𝑆. 𝐹. 𝑑𝑥 (𝐹. 𝐹. )
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
=𝑢 +𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(vi) Quotient rule
𝑢
Let 𝑦 = 𝑣
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑦 𝐷𝑒𝑛 (𝑁𝑢𝑚)−(𝑁𝑢𝑚) (𝐷𝑒𝑛)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Then 𝑑𝑥 = (𝐷𝑒𝑛)2
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑦 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑢 𝑑𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑣2
(vii) Chain rule. Let 𝑦 be a function of 𝑢 and 𝑢 be a function
of 𝑥.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
Then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢 . 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑛
𝑑 𝑑𝑢
Then 𝑑𝑥 (𝑢𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑢𝑛−1 . 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1
(viii) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑑 1
(ix) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑎
𝑑
(x) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑
(xi) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑎 𝑥 ) = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑎
𝑑
(xii) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑑
(xiii) 𝑑𝑥 (cos 𝑥) = −sin 𝑥
𝑑
(xiv) (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥) = sec 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(xv) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑
(xvi) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
𝑑
(xvii) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Example 3. Find 𝑑𝑥 for the following functions:
1
(𝑖) 𝑦 = 𝑥 5 + 𝑥 3 + 10 (𝑖𝑖) 𝑦 = 𝑥 + √𝑥 +
√𝑥
3
(iii) 𝑦 = 5𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 + 6𝑥. 2
 MR CLASSES SIKHARGARH 8005816663
Solution.
(i) 𝑦 = 𝑥 5 + 𝑥 3 + 10
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 5 𝑑 3 𝑑
= (𝑥 ) + (𝑥 ) + (10)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
5𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 2 + 0 = 5𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 2
1
(ii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 + √𝑥 + 𝑥
√

1 1
= 𝑥 1 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 −2

𝑑𝑦 𝑑 1 𝑑 1 𝑑 −1
= (𝑥 ) + (𝑥 2 ) + (𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 1 1 1
= 1 + 𝑥 2−1 + (− ) 𝑥 −2−1
𝑑𝑥 2 2
𝑑𝑦 1 1 1 3
= 1 + 𝑥 −2 − 𝑥 −2
𝑑𝑥 2 2
3
(iii) 𝑦 = 5𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑 3 𝑑
= (5𝑥 2 ) + (3𝑥 2 ) + (6𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 9 1
= 10𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 6
𝑑𝑥 2
Example 4. Differentiate the following functions:
(i) (3𝑥 2 + 7) (6𝑥 + 3)
𝑥 2 +1
(ii) 𝑥−2

(iii) √4𝑥 2 − 7
Example 5. Find the differential coefficient of the following functions:
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
(𝑖)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏)(𝑖𝑖) tan3 𝑥 (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
Example 6. A particle is moving with a uniform acceleration. Its displacement at any instant t is given by
𝑠 = 10𝑡 + 4.9 𝑡 2 . What is (i) initial velocity (ii) velocity at t=3 second and (iii) the uniform acceleration?

Example 7. A particle starts rotating from rest according to the formula, where 𝜃 is in radian and t in second.
Find the angular velocity 𝜔 and angular acceleration 𝛼 at the end of 5 seconds.
3𝑡 3 𝑡 2
𝜃= −
20 3
 MR CLASSES SIKHARGARH 8005816663
Example 8. Show that power is the product of force and velocity.

Example 9. A balloon is being filled by air so that its volume V is gradually increasing. Find the rate of
increase of volume with radius r when r = 2 units.

Example 10. For a particle executing simple harmonic motion, the displacement from the mean position is
given by 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + ∅ ) where a, 𝑤 and ∅ are constants. Find the velocity and acceleration of the
particle at any instant t.

8. INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Integration is the reverse process of differentiation. It is the process of finding a function whose derivative is
given.
If derivative of function 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑓′(𝑥), then integration of 𝑓′(𝑥) 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑓(𝑥). Symbolically,
we can say
𝑑
if [𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Some Standard Elementary Integrals

1. ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶

2. ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶

𝑛
𝑥𝑛 + 1
3. ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ( )+𝐶; 𝑛 ≠ 1
𝑛+1

4. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = – 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝐶

5. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶

6. ∫ sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶

7. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 + 𝐶

8. ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝐶

9. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = – 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝐶

MR CLASSES SIKHARGARH 8005816663

1
10. ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 |𝑥| + 𝐶
𝑥

11. ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶

𝑎𝑥
12. ∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ( ) + 𝐶 ; 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1
𝑙𝑛𝑎
(𝑎𝑥+𝑛)𝑛
13. ∫(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 = +𝑐
𝑎(𝑛+1)

14. ∫(𝑢 ± 𝑣 ± 𝑤)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑤𝑑𝑥

Definite integral
When an integral is defined between two definite limits a and b, it is said to be a definite integral. It is given by
𝑏
∮ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = [∅(𝑥)]𝑎𝑏 = ∅(𝑎) − ∅(𝑏)
𝑎

where ∅(𝑥) is the integral of 𝑓(𝑥). Here a and b are the lower and upper limits of integration.

1
Example 11. Integrate: 𝑥 2 − cos 𝑥 + 𝑥

𝜋/6
Example 12. Evaluate ∫0 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∞ 𝐺𝑀𝑚
Example 13. Find the value of ∫𝑅 𝑑𝑥 ; G, M and m are constants.
𝑥2

𝑥
Example 14. Find the value of ∫0 𝐹𝑑𝑥; where 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥.

𝑉2 1
Example 15. Find the value of ∫𝑉1 𝑑𝑉.
𝑉

𝑙
𝑀
Example 16. Evaluate ∫2 𝑙 . 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥. where M and l are constant.
− 𝑙
2