13. Discuss the measure to conserve mineral resources.

Measures to Conserve Mineral Resources:

Recycling: Recovering and reprocessing metals from used products, scrap, and waste
to reduce the demand for virgin minerals.

Examples: Recycling aluminum cans, steel from old vehicles, and electronic waste (e-
waste) to extract precious metals like gold and silver.

Sustainable Mining Practices: Implementing techniques that minimize environmental

impact and ensure long-term availability of minerals.

Examples: Reducing land disturbance, using energy-efficient technologies, and

rehabilitating mined areas.

Substitution: Using alternative materials to replace scarce or environmentally damaging

minerals.

Examples: Using ceramics or polymers in place of metals in certain applications, and

developing new materials like graphene.

Efficiency Improvements: Enhancing the efficiency of mineral use in industrial

processes to reduce waste and increase productivity.

Examples: Implementing lean manufacturing practices and optimizing extraction and

processing techniques.

Legislation and Regulation: Enforcing laws and regulations to promote responsible

mining and sustainable resource management.

Examples: Setting quotas on mineral extraction, requiring environmental impact

assessments, and implementing land reclamation policies.

Public Awareness and Education: Raising awareness about the importance of

conserving mineral resources and promoting responsible consumption.

Examples: Educational campaigns, industry certifications, and encouraging the use of

recycled materials.
11. What is ozone depletion? Discuss the impact of ozone depletion.

Ozone Depletion:

• Definition: The thinning of the Earth's ozone layer, primarily caused by human-
made chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and other ozone-
depleting substances (ODS).
• Mechanism: CFCs and other ODS released into the atmosphere eventually
reach the stratosphere, where they are broken down by ultraviolet (UV) radiation,
releasing chlorine and bromine atoms. These atoms react with ozone (O3)
molecules, causing their destruction.

Impacts of Ozone Depletion:

• Increased UV Radiation: Thinning of the ozone layer allows more UV-B radiation
to reach the Earth's surface.
o Human Health: Increased UV exposure leads to higher rates of skin
cancer (melanoma and non-melanoma), cataracts, and other eye
disorders. It also suppresses the immune system, reducing the ability to
fight off certain infections.
o Ecosystems: UV-B radiation can harm marine ecosystems, particularly
plankton, which form the basis of the marine food web. It also affects
terrestrial plant growth, reducing agricultural productivity and forest
health.
o Materials: Increased UV radiation accelerates the degradation of
materials like plastics, wood, and rubber, reducing their lifespan and
leading to higher maintenance and replacement costs.
3. Define groundwater contamination. Classify the groundwater recharge techniques.
Explain.

Groundwater contamination occurs when pollutants are introduced into the

groundwater system, making it unsafe for consumption and ecosystem health.
Contaminants can include chemicals, heavy metals, pathogens, and nutrients from
various sources like industrial discharge, agricultural runoff, and improper waste
disposal.

Groundwater Recharge Techniques:

Natural Recharge:

Infiltration: Rainwater infiltrates the soil and percolates down to replenish aquifers.

River/Stream Bed Percolation: Water from rivers and streams seeps into the ground
naturally.

Artificial Recharge:

Recharge Wells: Specially designed wells that directly introduce surface water into
aquifers.

Percolation Tanks: Constructed tanks that store runoff water, allowing it to slowly
infiltrate the ground.

Recharge Pits/Trenches: Excavated areas filled with porous materials like gravel to
enhance infiltration.

Injection Wells: Wells that inject treated wastewater or surface water directly into
aquifers.

Explanation:

Recharge Wells: Effective in urban areas where space is limited. They can quickly
replenish groundwater levels but require regular maintenance to prevent clogging.

Percolation Tanks: Suitable for rural and agricultural areas. They enhance natural
recharge by storing large volumes of water, which gradually seep into the ground.
Recharge Pits/Trenches: Used in areas with permeable soil. They capture rainwater and
allow it to percolate, recharging shallow aquifers.

Injection Wells: Used to artificially augment groundwater in over-exploited aquifers.

These require careful monitoring to prevent contamination of groundwater.

6. Discuss the impacts of air pollution on human health and vegetation.

Impacts on Human Health:

Respiratory Diseases: Pollutants like particulate matter (PM), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and
nitrogen oxides (NOx) cause respiratory issues, including asthma, bronchitis, and lung
infections.

Cardiovascular Diseases: Long-term exposure to air pollution increases the risk of heart
diseases, hypertension, and stroke.

Cancer: Certain pollutants, such as benzene and formaldehyde, are carcinogenic and
can lead to lung cancer and other cancers.

Premature Death: Air pollution is a significant contributor to premature mortality,

particularly among vulnerable populations like children, the elderly, and those with pre-
existing health conditions.

Impacts on Vegetation:

Reduced Growth: Pollutants like ozone (O3) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) damage plant
tissues, reduce photosynthesis, and stunt growth.

Yield Loss: Crop yields decline due to reduced growth rates and increased susceptibility
to diseases and pests.

Biodiversity Loss: Air pollution alters ecosystems, leading to the loss of sensitive plant
species and reduced biodiversity.

Soil and Water Contamination: Deposition of pollutants like heavy metals and acidic
compounds can contaminate soil and water, affecting plant health and growth.
7. Define air pollution. List and explain the sources and classification of air pollution.

Definition:

Air pollution is the presence of harmful substances in the atmosphere, resulting from
natural processes or human activities, which can have adverse effects on human
health, the environment, and property.

Sources:

Natural Sources: Volcanic eruptions, wildfires, dust storms, and pollen release.

Anthropogenic Sources: Industrial emissions, vehicle exhaust, fossil fuel combustion,

agricultural activities, and waste disposal.

Classification:

Primary Pollutants: Directly emitted from sources. Examples include:

Carbon Monoxide (CO): Produced by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels.

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): Emitted from burning coal and oil, and from industrial processes.

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Released from vehicle exhaust and industrial activities.

Particulate Matter (PM): Tiny particles from construction, mining, and combustion
processes.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Emitted from solvents, paints, and gasoline.

Secondary Pollutants: Formed in the atmosphere through chemical reactions between

primary pollutants and other atmospheric components.
16. Explain briefly the harmful effects of sulfur dioxide on human beings and plants.

Harmful Effects of Sulfur Dioxide on Human Beings:

Respiratory Problems: SO2 can irritate the respiratory system, leading to coughing,
throat irritation, and shortness of breath. It can aggravate existing conditions such as
asthma and bronchitis.

Cardiovascular Issues: Long-term exposure to sulfur dioxide has been linked to

cardiovascular diseases, including heart attacks and strokes.

Increased Hospital Admissions: Elevated levels of SO2 are associated with higher rates
of hospital admissions for respiratory and cardiovascular conditions.

Mortality: High concentrations of SO2 can lead to premature death, particularly in

individuals with preexisting health conditions.

Inflammation: SO2 exposure can cause inflammation of the respiratory tract, leading to
discomfort and potential long-term damage.

Decreased Lung Function: Chronic exposure to sulfur dioxide can result in decreased
lung function and increased susceptibility to respiratory infections.

Eye Irritation: SO2 can irritate the eyes, causing redness, burning sensations, and
tearing.

Worsening of Asthma: Asthma patients may experience more frequent and severe
attacks due to SO2 exposure.

Nervous System Effects: There is some evidence that long-term exposure to SO2 may
affect the nervous system, potentially leading to neurological disorders.

Skin Irritation: Direct contact with sulfur dioxide can cause skin irritation and burns.

Harmful Effects of Sulfur Dioxide on Plants:

Leaf Damage: SO2 can cause visible injury to leaves, including chlorosis (yellowing),
necrosis (death of tissue), and leaf drop.

Photosynthesis Inhibition: SO2 interferes with the photosynthetic process, reducing the
plant’s ability to produce energy and grow.

Reduced Crop Yields: Prolonged exposure to sulfur dioxide can lead to lower
agricultural productivity and reduced crop yields.
Acid Rain Formation: SO2 contributes to the formation of acid rain, which can leach
essential nutrients from the soil, harming plant growth.

Growth Suppression: SO2 exposure can stunt plant growth by damaging root systems
and reducing nutrient uptake.

Fruit and Flower Damage: Sulfur dioxide can cause damage to flowers and fruits,
reducing the quality and quantity of the produce.

Decreased Seed Germination: SO2 can negatively affect seed germination rates and
seedling development.

Increased Susceptibility to Disease: Plants exposed to SO2 are more vulnerable to

diseases and pest infestations.

Reduced Plant Biodiversity: High levels of SO2 can alter plant communities, leading to a
decrease in plant biodiversity.

Soil Acidification: SO2 deposition can acidify soils, disrupting soil chemistry and
affecting plant growth and soil microorganisms.

17. Discuss the economic effect of air pollution.

Economic Effects of Air Pollution:

Healthcare Costs: Air pollution leads to increased healthcare costs due to the
treatment of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, hospital admissions, and medical
consultations.

Productivity Losses: Health issues caused by air pollution result in lost workdays,
decreased worker productivity, and increased absenteeism, negatively impacting the
economy.

Agricultural Impact: Air pollutants like ozone and sulfur dioxide can damage crops,
reducing agricultural yields and leading to economic losses for farmers and higher food
prices.

Infrastructure Damage: Acid rain, formed from pollutants like sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides, corrodes buildings, bridges, and other infrastructure, leading to
increased maintenance and repair costs.

Tourism Decline: Poor air quality can deter tourists, reducing revenue from tourism-
related activities and affecting local economies.

Reduced Property Values: Areas with high levels of air pollution often experience
decreased property values as people prefer to live in cleaner environments.
Increased Energy Costs: Air pollution can reduce the efficiency of solar panels and
other renewable energy sources, leading to higher energy costs.

Forest and Wildlife Impact: Pollution damages forests and wildlife habitats, affecting
industries that rely on natural resources, such as forestry, fishing, and outdoor
recreation.

Regulatory Costs: Governments and businesses incur costs associated with

implementing and enforcing air quality regulations, including monitoring, compliance,
and mitigation measures.

Insurance Costs: Increased health problems and infrastructure damage from air
pollution lead to higher insurance premiums and claims, impacting both individuals and
businesses.

1. Explain the water cycle (Hydrological cycle) with the help of a diagram.

The water cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle, describes the continuous
movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth. The cycle involves
several key processes:

Evaporation: Water from oceans, rivers, lakes, and other bodies of water is heated by
the sun and turns into water vapor.

Transpiration: Water absorbed by plants from the soil is released as water vapor through
pores in their leaves.

Condensation: Water vapor rises into the atmosphere and cools, turning back into
liquid droplets to form clouds.

Precipitation: Water droplets in clouds combine and fall to the Earth as rain, snow,
sleet, or hail.

Infiltration: Some of the water that precipitates onto the ground seeps into the soil,
replenishing groundwater supplies.

Runoff: Water that does not infiltrate the ground flows over the surface and returns to
bodies of water, continuing the cycle.