“Introduction to Algorithm &

Data Structure”
Prepared By

Dr. Richa Sharma

(Assistant Professor)

GSMCOE AIDS Dept.

17AUG. 2023
.
 SYLLABUS
Introduction: From Problem to Program (Problem, Solution, Algorithm,
Data Structure and Program).
Data Structures: Data, Information, Knowledge, and Data structure,
Abstract Data Types (ADT), Data Structure Classification (Linear and
Non-linear, Static and Dynamic, Persistent and Ephemeral data structures)
Algorithms: Problem Solving, Introduction to algorithm, Characteristics
of algorithm, Algorithm design tools: Pseudo-code and flowchart.
Complexity of algorithm: Space complexity, Time complexity,
Asymptotic notation- Big-O, Theta and Omega, finding complexity using
step count method, Analysis of programming constructs-Linear,
Quadratic, Cubic, Logarithmic.
Algorithmic Strategies: Introduction to algorithm design strategies-
Divide and Conquer, and Greedy strategy.
INTRODUCTION
 Introduction
Computer : A programmable device that can store, retrieve,
and process data.(Combination of H/w & S/w )

Hardware : things which we can touch.

Software : things which we cannot touch.(Can only see)

Programming: A programming language is a set of
commands, instructions, and other syntax use to create a
software program.

Data : Information in a form a computer can use

Information : Any knowledge that can be communicated
 Introduction
Data type : The specification of how information is represented in
the computer as data and the set of operations that can be applied
to it Computer

Computer program : Data type specifications and instructions

for carrying out operations that are used by a computer to solve a
problem
 Introduction
Machine language : The language, made up of binarycoded
instructions, that is used directly by the computer

Assembly language : A low-level programming language

in which a mnemonic is used to represent each of the
machine language instructions for a particular computer

Assembler : A program that translates an assembly

language program into machine code
 Introduction
Compiler : A program that translates a program written
in a high-level language into machine code

Source code : Data type specifications and instructions

written in a high-level programming language

Object code : A machine language version of source

code.
 DATA
STRUCTURE
 DATA STRUCTURE
Data Structure is a way to store and
organize data so that it can be used efficiently.

Data :
“Data is nothing but collection of information i.e.
facts or figures.”

Data Object :
“Data object is a region of storage that
contains a value or group of value”
1. Stores huge data

2. Stores data in systematic way

3. Retains logical relationship

4. Provides various structure

5. Static and dynamic formats

6. Better algorithms
 ABSTRACT DATA TYPE
ADT :
“Abstract data types are mathematical models of a set

of data values or information that share similar behavior or qualities and that
can be specified and identified independent of specific implementations.
Abstract data types, or ADTs, are typically used in algorithms.”

Another definition of ADT is

ADT is set of D, F and A.
D – domain = Data object
F – function = set of operation which cannt carried out on data object.
A – axioms = Properties and rule of the operation
 TYPES OF DATA STRUCTURE
There are two types :
1. Primitives data structure
2. Non-primitive data structure
 TYPES OF DATA STRUCTURE
1. Primitives data structure :
“Primitive data structures are those which are predefined way of
storing data by the system. ”
e.g. int, char, float etc

2. Non-primitive data structure :

“The data types that are derived from primary data types are known
as non-Primitive data types. These datatype are used to store group of values.”
e.g. struct, array, linklist, stack, tree , graph etc.
 Linear and Non-Linear Data
Structure
1. Linear Data Strucute :
“Linear data structuretraverses the data elements
sequentially, in which only one data element can directly be
reached”
Ex: Arrays, Linked Lists, stack, queue.

2. Non-Linear Data Strucute :

“Every data item is attached to several other data items in a
way that is specific for reflecting relationships.”
Ex: Graph , Tree
 Linear vs Non-Linear Data
Structure
LINEAR DATA STRUCTURES N?›N-LINEAR DATA STRUCTURES
Linear Data structures are used to rep resent N on-linear data structures are used to
sequential data. rep resent hierarchical data.

Linear data structures are easy to implement These data structures are difficult to
implement.
Implementation: Linear data structures are Implementation: Non-linear data structures
implemented using array and linked lists are mostly implemented using linked lists.
e.g: The basic linear data structures are list, e.g: The basic non-linear data structures are
stack and queue. trees and graphs.
For the implementation of linear data For the implementation of non-linear data
structures, we don’t need non-linear data structures, we need linear data structures.
structures.
USE: These are mostly used in application USE: These are used for the development of
software development. game theory, artificial intelligence, image
processing
1. Static data strucure :
“A static data structure is an organization or collection
of data in memory that is fixed in size.”
Ex: Arrays

2. Dynamic Data Strucute :

“ In Dynamic data structure the size of the structure in not
fixed and can be modified during the operations performed on it”
Ex: Linked list
 Ephemeral
1. Persistent data strucure :
“A persistent data structure is a data structure that
always preserves the previous version of itself when it is
modified..”
Ex: Linked list, tree
2. Ephemeral Data Strucute :
“ An ephemeral data structure is one of which only one
version is available at a time(it does not preserve previous
version).”
Ex: RAM , Cache memory
Relationship among Data, Data
Structure and Algorithms
Data is considered as set of facts and figures or data is value of
group of value which is in particular format.

Data structure is method of gathering as well as organizing data

in such manner that several operation can be performed

Problem is defined as a situation or condition which need to

solve to achieve the goals

Algorithm is set of ordered instruction which are written in

simple english language.
ALGORITHM
 ALGORITHM – PROBLEM SOLVING
COMPUTER :
“Computer is multi purpose Electronic Machine which is
used for storing , organizing and processing data by set of
program

Problem :
“Problem is defined as situation or condition which needs
to solve to achive goal”

Steps in Problem Solving :

1. Define the problem
2. Data gathering
3. Decide effective solution
4. Implement and evaluate the solution
5. Review the result.
 PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES
There are two types :
1. Algorithmic
2. Flowchart
Algorithms is set of instructions which are writeen in simple
english language.
Flowchart is graphical representation of the algorithms.
1. Trial and error techniques

2. Divide and conquer techniques

3. Merging solution

4. The building block approach

5. Brain storming techniques

 INTRODUCTION OF ALGORITHMS
DEFINITION :
“An algorithm is defined as a step-by-step procedure or method for
solving a problem by a computer in a finite number of steps.”

From the data structure point of view, following are some important
categories of algorithms −

Search − Algorithm to search an item in a data structure.

Sort − Algorithm to sort items in a certain order.

Insert − Algorithm to insert item in a data structure.

Update − Algorithm to update an existing item in a data structure.

Delete − Algorithm to delete an existing item from a data structure.

CHARACTRISTICS OF ALGORITHM
1. Unambiguous − Algorithm should be clear and unambiguous. Each of
its steps (or phases), and their inputs/outputs should be clear and must
lead to only one meaning.
2. Input − An algorithm should have 0 or more well-defined inputs.
3. Output − An algorithm should have 1 or more well-defined outputs,
and should match the desired output.
4. Finiteness − Algorithms must terminate after a finite number of steps.
5. Feasibility − Should be feasible with the available resources.
6. Independent − An algorithm should have step-by-step directions,
which should be independent of any programming code.
 EXAMPLE OF ALGORITHM
Example
Let's try to learn algorithm-writing by using an example.
Problem − Design an algorithm to add two numbers and display the result.

Step 1 − START

Step 2 − declare three integers a, b & c

Step 3 − define values of a & b

Step 4 − add values of a & b

Step 5 − store output of step 4 to c

Step 6 − print c

Step 7 − STOP
ALGORITHM DESIGN TOOL
• There can be two tools :
1. Flowchart
2. Pseudo Code

Flowchart :
“ Flowchart is graphical representation of the algorithms”

Pseudo Code :
“It is simply an implementation of an algorithm in the form of
annotations and informative text written in plain English.

Prof. Anand Gharu

 FLOWCHART
Symbol used in Flowchart :
Flowch art Symbols

—useJ whea rhece ar» 2 or 3

-indie ales inputs and outputs from

-SHOW 1hH dirR KlXOn tñul t he

Stan or Stop The beginning and end points in the sequence.

An insVuctian or a command.

Oecision A decision, either yes or no.

Input or Output An input is data reooiy‹ed Dy a computer. An

ou@ut is a signal or data sent from a computer.

Connector A jump from one point in the sequenoe to

another.

Oirection of flow Conne<«ts the symbols. The arrow shows the

direction of flaw of instrucbons.
Action
EXAMPLE OF FLOWCHART
 EXAMPLE FOR ALGORITH & FLOWCHART
Step1: Start
Step2: Initialize the count variable to zero
Step3: Initialize the sum variable to zero
Step4: Read a number say x
Step 5: Add 1 to the number in the count variable
Step6: Add the number x to the sum variable.
Step7: Is the count variable in the memory greater than
50? If yes, display the sum: go to step 8. If
No, Repeat from step 4
Step8: Stop
Design an algorithm and flowchart to input
fifty numbers and calculate their sum.
WRITE A PROGRAM FOR ADDING 10 NUMBERS
WRITE A PROGRAM TO FIND FACTORIAL OF
NUMBER
Types of approach :
1. Top down approach
2. Bottom up approach

TOP DOWN APPROACH BOTTOM UP APPROACH

1. Larger problem divided into smaller Smaller pieces are combined together

2. Execution Start from top to down Execution start from bottom to top

3. C is top down approach language C++ is bottom up approach language

4. Main() is written at beginning Main() is written at end of program

Complexity of
Algorithms
 A Priori Analysis − This is a theoretical analysis of an algorithm.
Efficiency of an algorithm is measured by assuming that all other
factors, for example, processor speed, are constant and have no
effect on the implementation.

• A Posterior Analysis − This is an empirical analysis of an algorithm.

The selected algorithm is implemented using programming
language. This is then executed on target computer machine. In this
analysis, actual statistics like running time and space required, are
collected.

Prof. Anand Gharu

 CASES OF ANALYSIS ALGORITHMS
There are 3 types.
1. Worst case
2. Best case
3. Average case

Best Case − Minimum time required for program execution.

Average Case − Average time required for program execution.

Worst Case − Maximum time required for program execution

There are two important complexity measures:
1. Time complexity
2. Space complexity

Time complexity :
“The time which is required for analysis of given problem
of particular size is known as time complexity”

Space complexity :
“The amount of computer memory required tp solve the
given problem of particular size is called as space complexity”

Time efficiency - a measure of amount of time for an algorithm to execute.

Space efficiency - a measure of the amount of memory needed for an algorithm to

execute.
 Asymptotic notations
Asymptotic Notations are languages that allow us to
analyze an algorithm's running time by identifying its behavior
as the input size for the algorithm increases. This is also known
as an algorithm's growth rate

Asymptotic Notation gives us the ability to answer

these questions.

Following are the commonly used asymptotic notations

to calculate the running time complexity of an
algorithm.
1. Ο Notation
2. Ω Notation
3. θ Notation
Big Oh Notation, Ο
The notation Ο(n) is the formal way to express the upper bound
of an algorithm's running time. It measures the worst case
time complexity or the longest amount of time an algorithm
can possibly take to complete.
 Omega NOTATION
Omega Notation, Ω
The notation Ω(n) is the formal way to express the lower bound
of an algorithm's running time. It measures the best case time
complexity or the best amount of time an algorithm can
possibly take to comp
 Theta NOTATION
Theta Notation, θ
The notation θ(n) is the formal way to express both the lower
bound and the upper bound of an algorithm's running time.
It is represented as follows −
 Common Asymptotic Notation
Following is a list of common asymptotic notations —

gi
constant — 0{1)

logarithmic — 0(log n)

linear o(nl
n log n — 0{n log n)

quadratic — o(n^)

cubic — o(n^)

polynomial —
exponential —
Analysis of Programming Construct
Algorithmic
Strategies
ALGORITHMIC STRATEGIES
Algorithm design strategies are the general approaches used to
develop efficient solution to problem.

Algorithm Strategies are :

1. Divide and conquer

2. Merge sort

3. Recursive algorithm

4. Backtracking algorithms

5. Heuristic algorithms

6. Dynamic Programming algorithm

 DIVIDE AND CONQUER
In divide and conquer approach, the problem in hand, is divided into
smaller sub-problems and then each problem is solved independently. When
we keep on dividing the subproblems into even smaller sub- problems, we
may eventually reach a stage where no more division is possible. Those
"atomic" smallest possible sub-problem (fractions) are solved. The solution
of all sub-problems is finally merged in order to obtain the solution of an
original problem.
 DIVIDE AND CONQUER
Operation for strategy :
Divide – Break the problem into subproblem of same type
Conquer – Recursively solve these sub problem
Combine – Combine the solution of sub problem

Following algorithms are based on divide and conquer

strategies :
1. Merge sort
2. Binary search
3. Quick sort
4. Closest pair
5. Tower of Hanoi
1. Merge sort :
Merge Sort is a Divide and Conquer algorithm. It divides input array in two
halves, calls itself for the two halves and then merges the two sorted halves.
The merge() function is used for merging two halves. The merge(arr, l, m,
r) is key process that assumes that arr[l..m] and arr[m+1..r] are sorted and
merges the two sorted sub-arrays into one.
 DIVIDE AND CONQUER
2. Tower of Hanoi :

Tower of Hanoi is a mathematical puzzle where we have three rods and n

disks. The objective of the puzzle is to move the entire stack to another

rod, obeying the following simple rules:

1) Only one disk can be moved at a time.

2) Each move consists of taking the upper disk from one of the stacks and

placing it on top of another stack i.e. a disk can only be moved if it is the

uppermost disk on a stack.

3) No disk may be placed on top of a smaller disk.

 DIVIDE AND CONQUER
2. Tower of Hanoi : Example
 GREEDY STRATEGIES
Greedy algorithm :
An algorithm is designed to achieve optimum solution for a given
problem. In greedy algorithm approach, decisions are made from the given
solution domain. As being greedy, the closest solution that seems to
provide an optimum solution is chosen.

Example of greedy strategy :

1. Travelling Salesman Problem
2. Prim's Minimal Spanning Tree Algorithm
3. Kruskal's Minimal Spanning Tree Algorithm
4. Dijkstra's Minimal Spanning Tree Algorithm
5. Knapsack Problem
6. Job Scheduling Problem
 GREEDY STRATEGIES
1. Minimum Spanning tree (Prims or Kruskal’s algorithms)
The cost of the spanning tree is the sum of the weights of all the edges
in the tree. There can be many spanning trees. Minimum spanning tree is the
spanning tree where the cost is minimum among all the spanning trees.
There also can be many minimum spanning trees.
 GREEDY STRATEGIES
1. Kruskal’s algorithms :

Kruskal’s Algorithm builds the spanning tree by adding edges one by

one into a growing spanning tree. Kruskal's algorithm follows greedy
approach as in each iteration it finds an edge which has least weight and add
it to the growing spanning tree.

Algorithm Steps :

Sort the graph edges with respect to their weights.

Start adding edges to the MST from the edge with the smallest weight
until the edge of the largest weight.

Only add edges which doesn't form a cycle , edges which connect only
disconnected components.
 GREEDY STRATEGIES
2. Kruskal’s algorithms : Example

.
 GREEDY STRATEGIES
2. Kruskal’s algorithms : Example

.
 GREEDY STRATEGIES
2. Prims algorithm: Prim’s Algorithm also use Greedy approach to find the
minimum spanning tree. In Prim’s Algorithm we grow the spanning tree
from a starting position. Unlike an edge in Kruskal's, we add
vertex to the growing spanning tree in Prim's.

Algorithm Steps:

1. Initialize the minimum spanning tree with a vertex chosen at random.

2. Find all the edges that connect the tree to new vertices, find the minimum
and add it to the tree.

3. Keep repeating step 2 until we get a minimum spanning tree.

 GREEDY STRATEGIES
2. Prims algorithm: Example
 GREEDY STRATEGIES
2. Prims algorithm: Example
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