UCC 102: ACADEMIC WRITING CLASS NOTES

LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. To be able to identify different types of information sources
2. To become familiar with the information sources available from the library and
to know which source to choose
3. To be able to devise and implement a search strategy to search the sources and
find the required information
4. To find out how to use the information correctly (evaluation, plagiarism, citing
sources correctly and creating a bibliography)

Lesson 1

What is Information Literacy?

 Types of information
 Information needs
 Information sources (Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Scholarly, & Electronic)

Lesson 2:

Information Search and Retrieval Methods

 How information is organized in libraries (physical holdings / electronic
databases)
 Information search techniques: keyword, Boolean, & truncation phrase
 Information retrieval (manual / online)

Evaluation of Information Sources

 Criteria of information evaluation
 Peer-reviewed journals
 What are they?
 Why use them?
 How to evaluate and retrieve data out of journals

Lesson 3:

Referencing Tools

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LESSON 1 : INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION LITERACY

Introduction: Information

Information is data presented in readily comprehensible form to which meaning has been
attributed within the context of its use. More concretely, all the facts, conclusions, ideas, and
creative works of the human intellect and imagination that have been communicated, formally or
informally, in any form, (Reitz, 2004)

Information may be seen to constitute facts, ideas, concepts, figures, systems etc. information
can be seen to be an aggregate (accumulation) of statements of facts, symbols or figures which
are interrelated. It is therefore a message containing a set of facts, figures, symbols which can be
meaningful or meaningless depending on their interpretation by the human mind.

What is Information Literacy?

1. Skill in finding the information one needs, including an understanding of how libraries
are organized, familiarity with the resources they provide (including information formats
and automated search tools), and knowledge of commonly used research techniques. The
concept also includes the skills required to critically evaluate information content and
employ it effectively, as well as an understanding of the technological infrastructure on
which information transmission is based, including its social, political, and cultural
context and impact. (Reitz, 2004)

2. Information literacy is the ability to recognize when information is needed and to locate,
evaluate, and use effectively the needed information (American Library
Association,1989)

3. Information literacy is ability to recognize when information is needed and then locate,
evaluate, manage, and use information efficiently, effectively, and ethically to answer the
need while becoming information independent and a lifelong learner (Lanning, 2014, p.
9).

A range of models and terminology has been developed worldwide by both academics and
librarians, and by national and international organisations, to articulate the suite of skills implicit
within the term ‘information literacy’.

To be information literate an individual must recognize when information is needed and have the
ability to locate, evaluate and use effectively the information needed.
The skills implied by this definition require an understanding of amongst others:
 The resources available
 How to find information
 The need to evaluate results
 How to work with or exploit results
 Ethical and responsible use

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  How to communicate or share your findings
 How to manage your findings

Because information now comes in many different forms and its quality varies enormously,
students need to develop the cognitive, transferable skills to be able to work efficiently with
information. Finding and evaluating information has never been more important; nor has the
need to develop skills in the ethical use of information, in order to mitigate against plagiarism.

The benefits of a information literacy include:

 Students acquire a clearer understanding of the research process

 Students produce better assignments and research papers
 Students use a wide variety of information resources
 Students evaluate information critically and systematically

According to Information literate person is one who:

 Recognizes that accurate and complete information is the basis for intelligent decision
making
 Recognize the need for information
 Identifies potential sources of information
 Develops successful search strategies
 Assess sources of information including computer-based and other technologies
 Evaluates information
 Organizes information for practical application
 Integrates new information into an existing body of knowledge
 Uses information in critical thinking and problem solving
 Formulates questions based on information needs

Information Need
A gap in a person's knowledge that, when experienced at the conscious level as a question,
gives rise to a search for an answer. If the need is urgent, the search may be pursued with
diligence until the desire is fulfilled. Persons with information needs often end up at the
reference desk of a library where it is the responsibility of the reference librarian to determine the
precise nature of the need, usually by conducting an informal reference interview, as a basis for
recommending relevant sources. To search the online catalog or bibliographic databases, the
need must be expressed in the form of a query (Reitz, 2004). Information need occur when we
hava a question and we need to find an answer.

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Primary sources

Primary sources are original materials. They are from the time period involved and have not been
filtered through interpretation or evaluation. Primary sources are original materials on which
other research is based. They are usually the first formal appearance of results in physical, print
or electronic format. They present original thinking, report a discovery, or share new
information.

Primary sources of information are more current and up-to-date than any other sources of
information as it constitute the latest available information. It consists of new knowledge or new
interpretation of old knowledge.

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Examples include:

 Artifacts (e.g. coins, plant specimens, fossils, furniture, tools, clothing, all from the time
under study);
 Audio recordings (e.g. radio programs)
 Diaries;
 Internet communications on email, listservs;
 Interviews (e.g., oral histories, telephone, e-mail);
 Journal articles published in peer-reviewed publications;
 Letters;
 Newspaper articles written at the time;
 Original Documents (i.e. birth certificate, will, marriage license, trial transcript);
 Patents;
 Photographs
 Proceedings of Meetings, conferences and symposia;
 Records of organizations, government agencies (e.g. annual report, treaty, constitution,
government document);
 Speeches;
 Survey Research (e.g., market surveys, public opinion polls);
 Video recordings (e.g. television programs);
 Works of art, architecture, literature, and music (e.g., paintings, sculptures, musical
scores, buildings, novels, poems).
 Web site.

Primary sources of information are very important as they keep researchers up-to-date and well-
informed in their areas of interest and about current developments that take place in their fields.
The growth or development of a discipline depends upon the amount of literature produced in the
form of primary literature.

Importance of primary sources

 Primary sources keep researchers up-to-date and well-informed in their field of research.
 Avoid duplication of research
 Develop the further and generate much information

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Characteristics of primary sources

 Original source of information on which other research is based, such as surveys,

interviews, fieldwork, etc
 They present information in its original form, not interpreted or condensed or
evaluated by other writers.
 They present original report on discoveries or share new information such as a
report of scientific work
 They come as first-hand information from the source or person
 They are unfiltered through interpretation or evaluation
 They are records of a first-hand observation of an event, original work of fiction,
art,etc

Secondary sources

Definition:

Secondary sources are the sources which are compiled from the primary sources. They analyze,
interpret and discuss information about the primary source. Information is not original, but it is
analyzed or interpreted. Secondary sources do not carry new and original information but guide
the users to primary sources of information. They organize the primary sources in a convenient
form. Secondary sources of information are usually modified, selected or reorganized in such a
way that they are easy to consult. Secondary sources help the user to locate the information.
Generally, they are accounts written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight. They are
interpretations and evaluations of primary sources. Secondary sources are not evidence, but
rather commentary on and discussion of evidence.

Secondary sources are more easily and widely available than primary sources.

Characteristics

 they describe, interpret, analyze and evaluate primary sources

 they comment on and discuss the evidence provided by primary sources
 information in secondary sources is systematically arranged and is easy to consult
 either compiled from or referred to primary sources
 information given in primary sources is made available in a more convenient form
 they do not contain original information, they depend upon primary sources for reporting
and presenting information.
 In primary sources information is not arranged systematically whereas in secondary
sources, especially in reference books, information is arranged in systematic order.
 They contain a list of documents, e.g bibliographies.

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Examples include:

 Bibliographies (also considered tertiary);

 Biographical works;
 Commentaries, criticisms;
 Dictionaries, Encyclopedias (also considered tertiary);
 Histories;
 Journal articles (depending on the disciple can be primary);
 Magazine and newspaper articles (this distinction varies by discipline);
 Monographs, other than fiction and autobiography;
 Textbooks (also considered tertiary);
 Web site (also considered primary).

Tertiary sources

Definition:

Tertiary sources consist of information which is a distillation and collection of primary and
secondary sources. Tertiary sources compile, analyze and digest secondary and sometimes
primary sources of information.

The main function of tertiary sources of information is to help the researcher in the use of
primary and secondary sources of information. Tertiary sources are key to primary and
secondary sources.

Tertiary sources assist in selecting the primary and secondary sources.

They also help promote the use of primary and secondary sources.

Tertiary sources record the bibliographic information which is important for better utilization of
primary and secondary sources.

Examples:

 Almanacs;
 Bibliographies (also considered secondary);

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  Chronologies;
 Dictionaries and Encyclopedias (also considered secondary);
 Directories;
 Fact books;
 Guidebooks;
 Indexes, abstracts, bibliographies used to locate primary and secondary sources;
 Manuals;
 Textbooks (also be secondary).

LESSON 2: INFORMATION SEARCH AND RETRIEVAL

Effective searching can allow us to:

 find the materials we want amongst the huge number of online resources available

 more than 20,000 full text journals are online

 newspapers, databases, books, company web pages, dictionaries,

encyclopaedias, individual home pages, etc, are also online

 make efficient use of limited access to PCs and bandwidth

 save time and money

How materials are organized in libraries

Libraries use various methods to organize information sources. All libraries will use at least one
classification system to label materials for you to find them. In most cases, materials will be
located in different physical locations based on physical format or source type.

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Organization by Classification System

Every item in the library has a specific label with a call number that is unique to that item. The
system used at SPU Libraries allows users to browse the shelves and find items of similar topics
grouped together. It is called the Library of Congress Classification System.

Library of Congress Classification

Like most university libraries, St. Paul’s University Libraries use the Library of Congress (LC)
Classification System, in which letters and numbers are assigned to each item.

Ability to work with LC classification numbers, known as call numbers is a skill which develops
with practice. If you were looking for a book about serial killers, for example, you may find one
with the LC call number: HV6245 .N49 2000
HV = Social pathology. Social and public welfare. Criminology
HV 6245 = Collective biography of criminal classes
.N29 = author last name is Newton
2000 = publication date
HV
6245
.N49
2000
Catalogers assign subject headings to each item based on the Library of Congress Subject
Heading list
Knowing how the Library of Congress system works can be useful, especially when using print
reference materials in the library. You can go to a particular call number area in the reference
shelve and find useful dictionaries, encyclopedias, handbooks, directories, etc.--all on the same
subject. Likewise, when you are in the library general collection stacks, you will be able to
browse and find books on the same topic.

PLANNING A SEARCH STRATEGY

The process of planning a search strategy clarifies your thinking about your topic and helps you
ensure that you are looking for information appropriate to your task.

The following recommended process can be applied to any searching situation, electronic or
otherwise, and should be encouraged amongst all users of information resources

• Define your information need

• Decide which sources to use

• Find out how they function

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 • Run your search

• Review and refine you search

This process can be started away from the computer

Define your information need

 What sort of information are you looking for?

 Specific information, e.g. a fact or date

 Reference source, e.g. data book, encyclopaedia, dictionary, the Web or even
a textbook are usually best.

 General information, e.g. research areas

 May require more thought, including how much information is needed and
at what depth

 Who is going to use the information?

 Researcher? Academic? First year student?

 This might effect which sort of information you require

 Careful choice of search term(s) is vital

 What key words do you think will appear on the site/article you want?

 What key concepts is it a part of or related to?

 Are there any synonyms for these keywords or concepts?

 Are there any alternative spellings for your keywords/concepts

 Are plurals or capitalisation involved? Example: I want to find information

about the health implications of water pollution

Example: I want to find information about the health implications of water

pollution

Keywords–’water’ ‘pollution’ ‘health’

Concepts–‘environmental degradation’ or ‘agricultural management’ or ‘health’

Synonyms

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  rivers, lakes, sea, coastal,’domestic water’, etc

 ‘oil spills’, chemical, biological, etc

Alternative spellings: none

Plurals: river(s), lake(s), disease(s)

Capitals: maybe the name of a specific lake, disease, region

Decide which sources to use and search them out

Thinking about the subject and, bearing in mind your information needs, you can select
the best information sources to use. It is often best to search for recent information first as
good sources will lead you to earlier ones, through the lists of references at the end of
chapter of books or end of journal articles.

If you need specific information try:

Reference sources including data books, dictionaries, encyclopaedias, handbooks,

compilations of spectra, directories, or the Internet. Relevant text books often include
specific data also.

If you need an introduction to a subject try:

Reference works including encyclopaedias, dictionaries and handbooks; textbooks,

monographs, readers, theses or dissertations; broad subject journals (most have yearly
subject indexes), a review article.

It is really these last two tasks that are most suited for using electronic resources although
searching catalogues, etc, can be useful to alert you to the existence of a particular book,
etc, even if it doesn’t allow you to see the full text.

If you need a comprehensive literature search on a subject use:

Databases, abstracts, indexes, and citation indexes, bibliographies , or reviews should

enable you to compile a list of references to relevant books, journal articles, conference
papers, reports, theses and patents which you can then go and locate. The Internet can
also be useful, by using subject gateways or search engines, though be wary, as the
quality and accuracy of information on the Web can be very variable!

If you need to keep up with new developments use:

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 Databases , recent issues of abstracts and indexes and current awareness publications
will alert you to new references on your subject that you can then go and locate.
Additionally, if your subject is well covered by a few key journals then you could look at
these as they are published. The Internet can also be useful, by using search engines,
bookmarking useful sites and re-visiting, and by joining relevant newsgroups (though be
wary, as again the quality and accuracy of information on the Web can be very variable!)

INFORMATION SEARCH TECHNIQUES

In search techniques, it important to identify keywords

 Keywords are words or concepts extracted from your topic (subject of research)

 They are unique and related to the field being investigated.

 Do not forget that you are dealing with a computer, not a human being! Do not write a
full sentence, just words (including synonyms) unique to your topic.

Electronic search tools may interpret your search terms using

• Boolean operators

• Phrase and proximity searching

• Truncation or wildcard functions

• Case sensitivity

• Fields

• Stop words

• Relevance sorting

Boolean searching

• Uses commands (operators) such as AND, OR, NOT

• Different search tools may use different symbols

AND +

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 NOT –

• Different search tools may use OR or AND as a default setting

• Sometimes Boolean operators must be entered in capital letters (e.g. Synergy)

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Phrase and proximity searching

• Using quotation marks allows you to search for an exact phrase, e.g. “information
literacy”

• Using NEAR allows you to specify how close to each other the terms you are searching
for should be

Truncation or wildcard searches

• Truncation: place a symbol at the end of the word so you search for variant endings of
that word

– E.g. litera$ would look for literature, literacy, literal

• Wildcards: place a symbol within a word to find variations on it

– E.g. analy*e would find analyse or analyze

• Different symbols— including $ * # ! : —are used by different search tools

Why Evaluate?

Once you have found information that matches the topic and requirements of your research, you
should analyze or evaluate these information sources. Evaluating information encourages you to
think critically about the reliability, validity, accuracy, authority, timeliness, point of view or bias
of information sources.

Just because a book, article, or website matches your search criteria and thus seems, at face
value, to be relevant to your research, does not mean that it is necessarily a reliable source of
information.

It is important to remember that sources of information comprising the Library's print and
electronic collections have already been evaluated for inclusion among the Llbrary's resources.
However, this does not necessarily mean that these sources are relevant to your research

This does not necessarily apply to sources of information on the Web for the general public.
Many of us with Internet/Web accounts are potential publishers of websites; most of this content
is published without editorial review. Think about it. Many resources are available to help with
evaluating web pages.

Questions to Ask

What criteria should you use to judge information sources?

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Initially, look at the author, title, publisher, and date of publication. This information can be
found in the bibliographic citation and can be determined even before you have the physical item
in hand.

Next, look at the content, e.g. intended audience, objectiveness of the writing, coverage, writing
style, and, if available, evaluative reviews.

The following questions should be asked:

Who is the author (may be individual or organization) and/or publisher?

 What are the credentials and affiliation or sponsorship of any named individuals or
organizations?
 How objective, reliable, and authoritative are they?
 Have they written other articles or books?
 Is the author(s) listed with contact information (street address, e-mail)?
 Has the publisher published other works?
 Do they specialize in publishing certain topics or fields?
 Is the publisher scholarly (university press, scholarly associations)? Commercial?
Government agency? Self (“vanity”) press?

What can be said about the content, context, style, structure, completeness and accuracy of the
information provided by the source?

 Are any conclusions offered? If so, based on what evidence and supported by what
primary and secondary documentation?
 What is implied by the content?
 Are diverse perspectives represented?
 Is the content relevant to your information needs?

When was the information published?

 Publication date is generally located on the title page or on the reverse side of the title
page (copyright date).
 Is the information provided by the source in its original form or has it been revised to
reflect changes in knowledge?
 Is this information timely and is it updated regularly?

Where else can the information provided by the source be found?

 Is this information authentic?

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  Is this information unique or has it been copied?

Why was the information provided by the source published?

 What are the perspectives, opinions, assumptions and biases of whoever is responsible for
this information?
 Who is the intended audience?
 Is anything being sold?

References

Lanning, S. (2014). Reference and Instructional Services for Information Literacy Skills in

School Libraries. ABC-CLIO.

SINGH, G. (2013). INFORMATION SOURCES, SERVICES AND SYSTEMS. PHI Learning

Pvt. Ltd.

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