Electron-phonon coupling: a tutorial

W. Hübner, C. D. Dong, and G. Lefkidis

University of Kaiserslautern and Research Center OPTIMAS,
Box 3049, 67653 Kaiserslautern, Germany

Targoviste, 29 August 2011

 Outline

1. The harmonic oscillator

 real space
 energy basis

2. 1D lattice vibrations
 one atom per primitive cell
 two atoms per primitive cells

3. Electron‐phonon interactions
 localized electrons
 small‐polaron theory
 phonons in metals

4. Superconductivity

5. A numerical example: CO

6. Literature
 Outline

1. The harmonic oscillator

 real space
 energy basis

2. 1D lattice vibrations
 one atom per primitive cell
 two atoms per primitive cells

3. Electron‐phonon interactions
 localized electrons
 small‐polaron theory
 phonons in metals

4. Superconductivity

5. A numerical example: CO

6. Literature
 1) The harmonic oscillator
quantization of the oscillator in real space
Eigenvalues of

Projection of eigenvalue equation to X basis

(Substitution by differential operators)

leads to
2 d 2 1
( 2
 m x )  E
2 2

2m dx 2
 1) The harmonic oscillator
quantization of the oscillator in real space
1) Dimensionless variables
d 2 2mEb 2 m 2 2b 4 2
x  by leads to 2
 2
 2
y 0
dy  

12
   mEb 2 E
b  and  2 
 m    10

 ''  (2  y 2 )  0
- 10 -5 5 10

-5

 y 0
'' 2
with solution   Ay e
m  y2 2

since
 2m  1 m(m  1) 
 ''  Ay m  2 e  y     m 2  y2 2
 y 2
2
2
1 2 4  y 
Ay e
 y y 
 1) The harmonic oscillator
quantization of the oscillator in real space

 ''  2  0 with solution   A cos[ 2 y ]  B sin[ 2 y ]

consistency requires 1.0

 
y 0
 A  cy  O( y 2 ) 0.5

thus (3) - 10 -5 5 10

- 0.5

 ( y )  u ( y )e  y
2
2
ansatz:
- 1.0

leads to u ''  2 yu '  (2  1)  0

 1) The harmonic oscillator
quantization of the oscillator in real space

4) Power‐series expansion: u ( y )   Cn y n
n0


inserted into differential equation  C [n(n  1) y
n 0
n
n2
 2ny n  (2  1) y n ]  0

 C n(n  1) y
n2
n
n2

with index shift m  n2

 

C
m 0
m2 (m  2)(m  1) y  Cn  2 (n  2)(n  1) y n
m

n 0


we get  y [C
n 0
n
n2 (n  2)(n  1)  Cn (2  1  2n)]  0

(2n  1  2 )
feeding back in the original leads to recursion: Cn  2  Cn
(n  2)(n  1)
 1) The harmonic oscillator
quantization of the oscillator in real space

so we have
 (1  2 ) y 2 (1  2 ) (4  1  2 ) y 4   (2  1  2 ) y 3 (2  1  2 ) (6  1  2 ) y 5 
u ( y )  C0 1      C1  y    
 (0  2)(0  1) (0  2)(0  1) (2  2)(2  1)   (1  2)(1  1) (1  2)(1  1) (3  2)(5  1) 

Problems

=> way out: termination of series required

C0  C2 y 2  C4 y 4  ...  Cn y n   y 2
 ( y )  u ( y )e  y  e
2
2 2
n 
 1
C  C3 y 3
 C5 y 5
 ...  C n y 
 1) The harmonic oscillator
quantization of the oscillator in real space

consequence energy quantization of the harmonic oscillator by backwards substitution

1
E n  ( n  ) 
2

Examples:

H 0 ( y)  1
H1 ( y )  2 y
H 2 ( y )  2 1  2 y 2 

 2 
H 3 ( y )  12  y  y 3 
 3 
 4 
H 4 ( y )  12 1  4 y 2  y 4 
 3 
 Outline

1. The harmonic oscillator

 real space
 energy basis

2. 1D lattice vibrations
 one atom per primitive cell
 two atoms per primitive cells

3. Electron‐phonon interactions
 localized electrons
 small‐polaron theory
 phonons in metals

4. Superconductivity

5. A numerical example: CO

6. Literature
 1) The harmonic oscillator
quantization of the oscillator in energy basis

Oscillator in energy basis

 P2 1 2
  m 2
X  E E E
 2m 2 

Direct way: Fourier transform from real to momentum space

No savings compared to direct solution of Schrödinger equation in real space

 1) The harmonic oscillator
quantization of the oscillator in energy basis

commutator
 X , P   i I  i 
definition and adjoint
 m   m 
12 12 12 12
 1    1 
a  X i  P a   X i  P
 2   2m    2   2m  

further

 a, a    1

New operator (dimensionless)

H 
Hˆ  (a a  1 2)

 1) The harmonic oscillator
quantization of the oscillator in energy basis
Commutator of creation and annhiliation operators with Hamiltonian

 a, Hˆ    a, a  a  1 2    a, a  a   a
     
 a  , Hˆ   a 
 

Raising and lowering properties

   
ˆ   aHˆ  [a, Hˆ ]   aHˆ  a   (  1)a 
Ha

a    C 1   1

But eigenvalues non‐negative

requirement
a 0  0
1
no further lowering allowed a a 0  0

0 
2
 1) The harmonic oscillator
quantization of the oscillator in energy basis

1
0   0  (n  1 2), n  0,1, 2,... En  (n  1 2) , n  0,1, 2,...
2
A possible second family must have the same ground state, thus it is not allowed

a n  Cn n  1 and adjoint equation n a   n  1 Cn*

form scalar product of both equation

n a  a n  n  1 n  1 Cn*Cn

n Hˆ  1 2 n  Cn*Cn

n n n  Cn Cn  n
2 2
Cn  n1 2 ei
 1) The harmonic oscillator
quantization of the oscillator in energy basis

a n  n1 2 n  1

a  n  (n  1)1 2 n  1

a  a n  a  n1 2 n  1  n1 2 n1 2 n  n n

with number operator N  aa

Hˆ  N  1 2

further

n ' a n  n1 2 n ' n  1  n1 2 n ',n 1

n ' a  n  (n  1)1 2 n ' n  1  (n  1)1 2  n ',n 1
 1) The harmonic oscillator
quantization of the oscillator in energy basis

position and momentum operators

12 12
       
X   (a  a ) P  (a  a)
 2m   2m 

n  0 n  1 n  2 ...
0 0 0 ...  0 11 2 0 0 ... 
n0 11 2   
0 0 0 0 21 2 0 
 
a  n 1

0 21 2 0  a  0 0 0 312 
n2    
0 0 31 2  . 
. . 
 
.
 1) The harmonic oscillator
quantization of the oscillator in energy basis
What do we learn?

0 11 2 0 0 ...  0 11 2 0 0 ... 

 12   12 
1 0 21 2 0  1 0 21 2 0 
 0    0 3 
12 12
  21 2 0 312
 m  21 2 0 12

X     P  i   
 2m   0 0 31 2 0   2  0 0 31 2 0 
.  . 
   
 .   . 

Analogously for derived operators

1 2 0 0 0 ...
0 3 2 0 0 
 
H    0 0 52 
 
 . 
. 
 Outline

1. The harmonic oscillator

 real space
 energy basis

2. 1D lattice vibrations
 one atom per primitive cell
 two atoms per primitive cells

3. Electron‐phonon interactions
 localized electrons
 small‐polaron theory
 phonons in metals

4. Superconductivity

5. A numerical example: CO

6. Literature
 2) 1D lattice vibrations (phonons)
1 atom per primitive cell

force on one atom Fs   C p (us  p  us )

p
d 2us
equation of motion of atom M 2   C p (us  p  us )
dt p

solution in the form of traveling wave

us  p  uei ( s  p ) Ka e it
EOM reduces to

 2 MueisKa e  it   C p (ei ( s  p ) Ka  eisKa )ue  it  2 M   C p (eipKa  1)

p p

translational symmetry

2
finally leads to  M    C p (e
2 ipKa
e  ipKa
 2) 2 
M
C
p 0
p (1  cos pKa )
p 0
 2) 1D lattice vibrations (phonons)
1 atom per primitive cell

d 2 2 w
since
dK M
  paC
p 0
p sin pKa  0 1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
nearest‐neighbor interaction only 0.2
1
 2  (4C1 M ) sin 2 ( Ka) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
K

2
 2  (2C1 M )(1  cos Ka)
1
  (4C1 M )1 2 sin( Ka) dispersion relation
2

wK, dwdK

0.4
0.2
K
1 2 3 4 5 6
- 0.2
- 0.4
 Outline

1. The harmonic oscillator

 real space
 energy basis

2. 1D lattice vibrations
 one atom per primitive cell
 two atoms per primitive cells

3. Electron‐phonon interactions
 localized electrons
 small‐polaron theory
 phonons in metals

4. Superconductivity

5. A numerical example: CO

6. Literature
 2) 1D lattice vibrations (phonons)
2 atoms per primitive cell

d 2us d 2 vs
2 EOMs M 1 2  C (vs  vs 1  2us ) and M 2 2  C (us 1  us  2vs )
dt dt

ansatz us  ueisKa e  it and vs  veisKa e  it

substituting  2 M 1u  Cv(1  e  iKa )  2Cu and  2 M 2 v  Cu (eiKa  1)  2Cv

 1 1 
 2  2C   
2C  M 1 2 C (1  e  iKa )  1
M M 2 
leads to 0
C (1  e ) 2C  M 2
iKa 2
C 2
2  K 2a2
M1  M 2
 2) 1D lattice vibrations (phonons)
2 atoms per primitive cell
Lattice with 1 atom per primitive cell gives only 1 acoustic branch
Lattice with 2 atom per primitive cell gives 1 acoustic and 1 optical branch

http://dept.kent.edu/projects/ksuviz/leeviz/phonon/phonon.html
 Outline

1. The harmonic oscillator

 real space
 energy basis

2. 1D lattice vibrations
 one atom per primitive cell
 two atoms per primitive cells

3. Electron‐phonon interactions
 localized electrons
 small‐polaron theory
 phonons in metals

4. Superconductivity

5. A numerical example: CO

6. Literature
3) Electron-phonon interaction: Hamiltonian

The basic interaction Hamiltonian is H  H p  H e  H ei

q

H p   q a q a q  1 2

 He  
pi2 1 2 1
 e 
  
H ei   V (r i )   Vei (r i  R j )

i 2m 2 ij rij i ij

Taylor series expansion for the displacements

the electron‐phonon interaction reads

and the Fourier transform of the potential

 1  iqr  1   iqr
Vei (r ) 
N
Vei (q )e
q
Vei (r )  i
N
 qVei (q )e
q
3) Electron-phonon interaction: Hamiltonian

we need to calculate
 i   iqr   iqR (j 0) 
V (r )  q qVei (q )e  j Q j e 
N  
by using

 
i  iqR (j 0 ) i  
N
j j
Q e 
N1 2
 Qq G   (
G G 2 MN q G
)1 2 q G a qG  a qG

and

MN  

we can write the Hamiltonian in the form

   
 
 
  
V (r )   e
 ir ( q  G )
Vei (q  G )(q  G )   q ( )1 2 a q  a q
q ,G 2 q
3) Electron-phonon interaction: Hamiltonian

by integrating the potential over the charge density of the solid

     
  
H ep   d r  (r )V (r )    (q  G )Vei (q  G )(q  G )   q (
3

q ,G

2 q

)1 2 a q  a q 
or in an abbreviated form

 
H ep 
1
1 2

  (q  G )M q G aq  aq
q ,G

with
     12
M    Vei (q  G )(q  G )   q ( )
q G
2 q
 Outline

1. The harmonic oscillator

 real space
 energy basis

2. 1D lattice vibrations
 one atom per primitive cell
 two atoms per primitive cells

3. Electron‐phonon interactions
 localized electrons
 small‐polaron theory
 phonons in metals

4. Superconductivity

5. A numerical example: CO

6. Literature
 3) Electron-phonon interaction:
localized electrons

If the electrons are localized the Hamiltonian becomes


 eiq ri   iG ri 
   
 
H  H p  H ep   q a q a q  1 2   1 2 a q  a q

G 0 (q  G)M q G e 
q  i  


here the electron density operator is the Fourier transform the localized charge density
       2     
 (q  G )   d re
3 ir ( q  G )
 0 (r  r0 )   d re 0 (q  G)
i
3 ir ( q  G )

    
0 (q  G )   d re
3 ir ( q  G )
 0

2
( r )
i

rearranging terms

  1

H   q a q a q  1 2  1 2 a q  a q e  

iq ri
Fq (ri ) 
q 
  i 
with the periodic function
    
Fq (r )   0 (q  G )M q G e iG r

G
 3) Electron-phonon interaction:
localized electrons

we now transform the creation and annhiliation operators

 * 
1 q F ( r ) 1 F q (r )

e
 
e

iq ri    iq ri
Aq  aq  1 2
  and A q  a q  12
 
 q i  q i

and rewrite the Hamiltonian

2 2

 
1 Fq
H   q Aq Aq  1 2     e

iq ri
    q i q
q

which has the eigenstates and eigenvalues

 
nq 2
 2
Aq F
E   q  nq  1 2      e

1 
0 and     iq ri q

 n !  q i q
12 
 q
q
 3) Electron-phonon interaction:
deformation potential

Traditionally in semiconductors one parametrizes electron‐phonon interactions

(long wavelengths)
•deformation‐potential coupling to acoustic phonons
•piezoelectric coupling to acoustic phonons
•polar coupling to optical phonons

the deformation‐potential coupling takes the form

H ep  D  (

q

2 q
 

)1 2 q  (q ) a q  a q 
 3) Electron-phonon interaction:
piezoelectric interaction
The electric field is proportional the the stress

Ek   M ijk Sij
ij

Stress is the symmetric derivative of the displacement field

1  Qi Q j  1  12

) i q j   j qi  a q  a  q e 

  
 iq ri
Sij    (
2  x j xi  2 
q 2  
q
The field is longitudinal and can hence be written as the gradient of a potential
  1
 iq  e

Ek    (r )   1 2 
iq r

xk  
q
k q

This potential is proportional to the displacement

 
 (r )  Q(r )

 (r )  i  (

q 2 q
  

)1 2 M  (q )eiq r a q  a q 
leading to
H ep  i  (

q

2 q
 

)1 2 M  (q )  (q ) a q  a q 
 3) Electron-phonon interaction:
polar coupling
The coupling is only to LO (TO do not set up strong electric fields)
    iqr
  D  0   q ( Eq  4 Pq )e

q

induced field
 
Eq  4 Pq

The polarization is proportional to the displacement


 
   
Pq  UeQq and Eq  4 UeQq  4 Ue( )1 2 iqˆ a q  a q
2 LO

  iqr
E    i  iqq e

q

4 Ue

 (r )   eiq r

 

( )1 2 a q  a q

q q 2 LO
 3) Electron-phonon interaction:
polar coupling
The interaction of two fixed electrons is

2 2   d 3 q eiq r
VR (r )    4 Ue   
LO  2  LO  (2 )
3
q2

Fourier transforming
2
4 U 2 e2 e2  1 
VR (r )  
e
with  and   
r  2 LO r 0 r    

 2 LO  1 1 
U 
2
  
4     0 

and the interaction Hamiltonian

H ep  
M
q
 (

q 
) a q  a q  with
 1 1
M 2  2 e 2 LO   
  0 
12
q
 Outline

1. The harmonic oscillator

 real space
 energy basis

2. 1D lattice vibrations
 one atom per primitive cell
 two atoms per primitive cells

3. Electron‐phonon interactions
 localized electrons
 small‐polaron theory
 phonons in metals

4. Superconductivity

5. A numerical example: CO

6. Literature
 3) Electron-phonon interaction:
Fröhlich Hamiltonian
describes the interaction between a single electron in a solid and LO phonons

H 
p2 
p 2m

M 1
c p c p  0  a q a q   1 02 c p  q c p a q  a q
q q  q
 
where

4   0 
32

M 02 
 2m 
12

and
12
e2  m   1 1 
     
  20      0 

For a single electron it can be rewritten as


iq r

a 
2
p M e
H  0  a q a q   1 02  a q
q 

2m q q q
 3) Electron-phonon interaction:
small polaron theory – large polarons

Transform to collective coordinates


1
Ck  1 2 C e
ikR j
j
N j

H  zJ 

 
C  C  
k k k   0 a  a  C

q q

q


 C  M
k q k

q a q
 
  a 
q

k kq optical absorption
 
1
 k   e ik 

z 

the polaron self‐energy in first‐order Rayleigh‐Schrödinger perturbation theory becomes

 N q  1  nF (  ) N q  nF (  ) 
 RS (k )  q M         k         k  
(1) 2

q
 k k q q k k q q 

 3) Electron-phonon interaction:
small polaron theory – small polarons

Canonical transformation

a 
 Mq
H  e He S
S   n j e  a q
S iqR j
with
q

 q
jq

leads to

H  J  C j  C j X j  X j   0 a q a q   n j 
j q j

 
 
M q2 
iqR j M q
with polaron self‐energy  and X j  exp   e 
a q  a  q 

q q  q
 q 

finally we write

H  H0  V

with H 0   0 a q a q   n j  and V  J  C j  C j X j  X j

q j j
 Outline

1. The harmonic oscillator

 real space
 energy basis

2. 1D lattice vibrations
 one atom per primitive cell
 two atoms per primitive cells

3. Electron‐phonon interactions
 localized electrons
 small‐polaron theory
 phonons in metals

4. Superconductivity

5. A numerical example: CO

6. Literature
 3) Electron-phonon interaction:
phonons in metals

The Hamiltonian is
Pj2 1 2   (0)  
H 
pi2
i 2m

i 2M j
1

 e      Vei ri  R   Vii R  R
2 ij ri  rj i 
  
first we neglect phonons

  (0) 1  (0)  (0)

H 0e  
pi2
i 2m i
  e2 1
  Vei ri  R       Vii R  R 
2 ij ri  rj 2 
 

within the harmonic approximation for the phonons

  (0) 
R  R   Q H  H 0 e  H 0 p  H ep
   (0)

 

 
  R     Vii R H ep   Q Vei ri  R
j
 
with the bare‐phonon Hamiltonian
     (0)  (0)
H0 p  
 2
P2
M
1
4 

  Q  Q 

Q  Q 

   R  R 

 3) Electron-phonon interaction:
phonons in metals

expand displacements and conjugate momenta in a set of normal modes

 1  ikR ( 0 )  1   ikR ( 0 )
12  
Q  Q e 
P  Pe 

 Ni  k  Ni  k
k 1 2 k

thus
 1    1      
H0 p 
 
k  2 m
Pk  P k  Qk  Qk  k 
2 
 
where

  e  
 1  (0)  (0)   
       
       
1
k   e     G  k    G 
 ik  R ( 0) ik  R ( 0)
 ik  R ( 0 )
e  ik  R ( 0)
e R  R 
2 

0 G  

and
 iqR

   q    d R  R e
3
 
 3) Electron-phonon interaction:
phonons in metals

if the ions were point charges we would have

 Z 2 e 2    3R R  4 Z 2 e 2 q q
  Z 2e2
Vii R  
i R
   
 i  R3

R5 
    q  
iq2

find the normal modes of the bare‐phonon system through



2

 
det M  k      k   0


and use the frequencies and eigenstates to define a set of creation and annihilation operators
12
  
Qk   



  2  k 

  k a k  a  k





  1
H0 p    k   k k
 a  a   

k  2
 3) Electron-phonon interaction:
phonons in metals
the same set can be used as a basis for the electron‐ion interaction

  iG  q r
H ep 

1
 M 
12  
q  ,G
Gq e  
a q  a q 
where
12
       
M  Gq  
 2     
  q G  q Vei G  q
 
 k 

in second quantization

M q 
H 

 
C  C  
k k k
k
1

 
2 qkp  '
 q C 
k  q

  C  C C 
p  q' p' k 

q 
 q

 a a 
 q q 
 
nq  k   12
C   C
k  q k 
a 
q
 a 

 q


Note: the phonon‐states basis is unrealistic and serves only as starting point for
a Green´s function calculation
 3) Electron-phonon interaction:
phonons in metals

If the electron‐plasma frequency is much larger than the phonon frequency we write
the interaction between to electrons as a screened Coulomb interaction and screened
phonon interaction

vq M 2  q  
Veff  q, i      
 i  q , i     q , i  2  
D q , i 

where
 vq 
  q , i   1  P  q , i 
i

and the phonon Green´s function

 D (0)
D  q , i    
1  M 2 D (0) P  q , i    q , i 
 Outline

1. The harmonic oscillator

 real space
 energy basis

2. 1D lattice vibrations
 one atom per primitive cell
 two atoms per primitive cells

3. Electron‐phonon interactions
 localized electrons
 small‐polaron theory
 phonons in metals

4. Superconductivity

5. A numerical example: CO

6. Literature
 4) Superconductivity
BCS (Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer) theory

Screened interaction of two scattering electrons

vq M q2 (2 q )
Vs  q, w   
  q, w    q 2  2  q2 

V0  q  D
Vs  q, w   
 0  q  D

The Hamiltonian takes the form

1
H    p C p C p   V (q )C p  q , C p ' q , 'C p ', 'C p ,

p 2v qp
 
' p '
 4) Superconductivity
BCS (Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer) theory

consider the EOMs

 1
C p , ( )   H , C p ,    p C p ,   V (q )C p ' q , 'C p ', 'C p ,
 v qp

' '

first derivative of the equation for the Green´s function

  
G  p,   '   [    ' C p ,   C p ,  '    '   C p ,  ' C p ,   ] 
 
 
     ' C p , , C p ,   T  C p , ( )  C p ,  '
  
   
G  p,   '      '  T  C p , ( )  C p ,  '
   

leads after some math to

    1
 
 
   G  p,   '  
p


v qp

' '
V (q )  T C p ' q , ' ( )C p ', ' ( )C p  q , ( )C p , ( ')      '
 4) Superconductivity
BCS (Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer) theory

  
 T C p ', ( )C p  q , ( ) T C p ', ( ')C p ' q , ( )   , ' p ' p  q F  p  q , 0  F   p, '  

and
  
 T C p  q , ( )C p ', ( ) T C p ' q , ( )C p ', ( ')   , ' p ' p  q F   p  q , 0  F    p,   '

thus we get
1 1     
' '
v qp

V ( q )  T C   ( )C 

 p '  q , ' p ', ' ( )C   ( )C  ( ') 
p  q ,

p ,  
v q
V ( q )  G  p ,    '  n    F  p  q , 0  F  p, '   
pq 

 1    1 
defining   p     V ( q ) F  p  q ,  0  with F  p,  0   
v q  ip pn2  E p2

gives the EOM for the Green´s function

 4) Superconductivity
BCS (Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer) theory

we sum over frequencies by the contour integral

and get

    Ep 
F  p,   0   tanh  
2E p  2
 

which, in turn, gives the equation for the gap function

 
 1  p  q   E p  q 
  p     V (q) tanh  
v q
 2E pq  2
 
 

tanh   E 2
2
 E     
D  
p q 2 12
  N FV0  d 
2
where and
2 D E
 4) Superconductivity
BCS (Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer) theory

D


   2  2
 
12  2 
1 N V ln  N FV0 ln  D 
F 0   0
  

which, solved, produces the energy gap

Eg  2  4D e 1 N FV0

The energy gap decreases as the temperature increases.

The critical temperature is
kTc  1.14D e 1 N FV0

BCS predicts

Eg 4.0
  3.52
kTc 1.14
 Outline

1. The harmonic oscillator

 real space
 energy basis

2. 1D lattice vibrations
 one atom per primitive cell
 two atoms per primitive cells

3. Electron‐phonon interactions
 localized electrons
 small‐polaron theory
 phonons in metals

4. Superconductivity

5. A numerical example: CO

6. Literature
 A numerical example: CO

Static
nonrelativistic
Hamiltonian

SOC, external
magnetic field, and
eletron‐phonon
coupling involved
 5) A numerical example: CO
The Hellmann-Feynman theorem

In quantum mechanics, the Hellmann–Feynman theorem

relates the derivative of the total energy with respect to a
parameter, to the expectation value of the derivative of the
Hamiltonian with respect to that same parameter.
 5) A numerical example: CO
calculating the electron-phonon coupling

Wavefunctions of the harmonic oscillator

 5) A numerical example: CO
calculating the electron-phonon coupling

When

With coupling

Diagonalizing

Result in
 Example:
5) A numerical CO CO
example:
calculating the electron-phonon coupling

(GAUSSIAN 03)
 Literature

1. N. W. Ashcroft and D. N. Mermin,

Solid state physics,
Holt, Rinehart and Winston (1976)

2. G. D. Mahan,
Many particle physics,
Springer (2000)

3. R. Shankar,
Principles of quantum mechanics,
Kluwer academic, Plenum publishers (1994)

4. C. Kittel,
Introduction to solid state physics,
John Wiley & Sons, inc. (2005)