ACADEMIC YEAR 2023-2024

PAPER FORMAT
NOTEBOOK
FORMAT
THEORY OF STRUCTURES 1
Lecture 1: Types of Structures and Loads
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

“ Structural analysis is the prediction of the performance of a

given structure under prescribed loads and/or other external
effects, such as support movements and temperature
changes.”
Role of Structural Analysis in Structural
Engineering Projects
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

“science and art of planning, designing, and constructing safe

and economical structures that will serve their intended
purposes”
STRUCTURE—refers to a system of connected parts used to
support a load.
EXAMPLES:
1. Buildings
2. Bridges
3. Towers
4. In other branches of Engineering, ship and aircraft frames,
tanks, pressure vessels, mechanical systems and electrical
supporting structures.
When designing a structure to serve a specified
function for public use, the engineer must account for
its
1. SERVICEABILITY
2. AESTHETICS
3. SAFETY
4. TAKING INTO CONSIDERATION
ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL
CONSTRAINTS
Buildings may have different functions:
RESIDENTIAL: housing, which includes low-rise(up to 2-3 floors),
mid-rise(up to 6-8 floors) and high-rise buildings.
COMMERCIAL: Offices, retail stores, shopping centers, hotels and
restaurants.
INDUSTRIAL: warehouses, manufacturing.
INSTITUTIONAL: Schools, hospitals, prisons, church, government
buildings.
SPECIAL: Towers, stadium, parking, airport etc.
 PRELIMINARY
PLANNING PHASE STRUCTURAL DESIGN

ESTIMATION OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS LOADS

Are the
safety and
NO REVISED
serviceabilit
STRUCTURAL
y
DESIGN
requirement
s satisfied?

YES PHASES OF A TYPICAL

CONSTRUCTION PHASE
STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING PROJECT
CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES

• It is important for a structural engineer to recognize the various

types of elements composing a structure and to be able to
classify structures as to their form and function.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1. TIE RODS
• Structural members subjected
to tensile force are often
referred to as tie rods or
bracing struts.
• Due to the nature of this load,
these members are rather
slender and are often chosen
from rods, bars, angles, or
channels.
2. BEAMS
• Beams are usually straight
horizontal members used
primarily to carry vertical
loads.
• Quite often they are classified
according to the way they are
supported.
• Beams are primarily
designed to resist bending
moment; however, if they
are short and carry large
loads, the internal shear
force may become quite
large and this force may • Here the forces
govern the design. develop in the top
and bottom flanges
• When the material used for of the beam form the
beam is metal , the cross- necessary couple
section is most efficient used to resist the
when it is shaped as applied moment M,
shown: whereas the web is
effective in resisting
the applied shear V.
• This cross section is commonly referred to as a
“wide flange” and it is normally formed as a single
unit in a rolling mill in lengths up to 23 meters.
• If shorter lengths are needed, a cross section
having tapered flanges is sometimes selected.
• When the beam is required to have a very large
span and the loads applied are rather large, the
cross section may take the form of a plate girder.
• This member is
fabricated by using a
large plate for the web
and welding or bolting
plates to its ends or
flanges.
• The girder is often
transported to the field
in segments, and
segments are designed • Shown are typical
to be spliced or joined splice plate joints used
together at points to connect the steel
where the girder carries girders of a highway
a small internal bridge.
moment.
• Concrete beams
generally have
rectangular cross-
sections.
• In constructing concrete
beams, steel “reinforcing
rods” are cast into the
beam within regions of
the cross section
subjected to tension.
• Precast concrete beams
or girders are fabricated
at a shop or yard in the
same manner and then
transported to the job
site.
• Beams made from timber may be sawn from a solid piece of wood
or laminated.
• Laminated beams are constructed from solid sections of wood,
which are fastened together using high-strength glues.
3. COLUMNS
• Members that are generally
vertical and resist axial
compressive loads are referred
to as columns.
• Tubes and wide-flange cross
sections are often used for
metal columns and circular
and square cross sections with
reinforcing rods are used for
those made of concrete.
• Occasionally, columns
are subjected to both
an axial load and a
bending moment,
these members
referred to as a beam
columns.
• Wide-flange members
are often used for
columns. Here is an
example of a beam
column.
TYPES OF STRUCTURES
• The combination of structural elements and the materials from
which they are composed is referred to as structural system.
• Each system is constructed of one or more of four basic types of
structures.
1. TRUSS
• When the span of a structure is
required to be large and its
depth is not an important
criterion for design, a truss
may be selected.
• Trusses consist of slender
elements, usually arranged in • Loading causes
triangular fashion. bending of truss. Which
develops compression
in top members,
tension in bottom
members
• PLANAR TRUSSES- composed of members that lie in the same
plane and are frequently used for bridge and roof support.
• SPACE TRUSSES- members extending in three dimensions and are
suitable for towers.
3. CABLES
• Are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension.
• They are commonly used to support bridges and
building roofs.
• When used for these purposes, the cable has an
advantage over the beam and truss, especially for
spans that are greater than 46 meters.
• Because they are always in tension, cables will not
become unstable and suddenly collapse, as may
happen with beams or trusses.
• In addition, the truss
will require added
costs for construction
and increased depths
as the pan increases.
• Use of cables, on the
other hand, is limited
only by their sag,
weight and methods of
anchorage.
4. ARCH
• Achieves its strength in compression, since it has a reverse
curvature to that of the cable.
• The arch must be rigid, however, in order to maintain its shape,
and this results in secondary loadings involving shear and
moment, which must be considered in its design.
• Arches are frequently used
in bridge structures, dome
roofs, and openings in
masonry walls.
5. FRAMES
• Frames are used in buildings
and are composed of beams
and columns that either pin or
fixed connected.
• Here is an example of a steel
frame that is used to support a
crane rails. The frame can be
assumed fixed connected at its
top joints and pinned at the
support.
6. SURFACE STRUCTURES
• Made from a material having a very small
thickness compared to its other dimension.
• Sometimes this material is very flexible and
can take the form of a tent or air-inflated
structure.
• In both cases the material acts as a
membrane.
• Surface structures may also be
made of rigid material such as
reinforced concrete.
• As such they may be shaped as
folded plate, cylinders, or
hyperbolic paraboloids and are
referred to as thin plates or
shells.

• The roof of the “Georgia

Dome” in Atlanta,
Georgia can be
considered as a thin
membrane.
 1. Vertical Loads/Gravity
LOADS Loads
a. Dead Load(DL)
• Once the dimensional b. Live Load(LL)
requirements for a
structure have been Also include snow load
defined, it becomes 2. Lateral Loads-act
necessary to determine
the loads the structure horizontally on the
must support. structure
a. Wind Load
b. Earthquake Load
Also include hydrostatic
and earth loads
• The main purpose of a structure is to transfer load
from one point to another: bridge deck to pier, slab
to beam, beam to girder, girder to column, column
to foundation, foundation to soil.
• Thus, a building floor slab would be designed first,
followed by the supporting beams, columns, and
last the foundation footings.
• In order to design a structure, it is therefore
necessary to first specify the loads that act on it.
Design loading for a structure is often
specified in codes.
1. General Building Codes 2. Design Codes
• Specify the requirements of • Provide detailed technical
governmental bodies for standards and are used to
minimum design loads on establish the requirements for
structures and minimum the actual structural design.
standards for construction.

The ultimate responsibility for the

design lies with the structural
engineer.
1. DEAD LOADS
• Gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed positions that act
permanently on the structure.
• For example the dead loads for a building structure include the
weights of frames, framing and bracing systems, floors, roofs,
ceilings, walls, stairways, heating and air-conditioning systems,
plumbing, electrical systems and so forth.
• Once the materials sizes of the various components of the
structure are determined, their weights can be found from that
lists their densities.
• Normally, the dead load is not large compared to the design load
for simple structures such as beam or a single story frame;
however, for multistory buildings it is important to have an
accurate accounting of all the dead loads in order to properly
design the columns, especially for the lower floors.
Sample 1. Dead Load
• The floor beam is used to support
the 6 ft width of a lightweight plain
concrete slab having a thickness of
4in. The slab serves as a portion of
the ceiling for the floor bellow, and
therefore its bottom is coated with
plaster. Furthermore, an 8-ft-high,
12-in-thick lightweight solid
concrete block wall is directly over
the top flange of the beam.
Determine the loading on the beam
measured per foot length of the
beam
Practice Problem
• The second floor of a light manufacturing building
is constructed from a 4-in-thick stone concrete
slab with an added 3-in cinder concrete fill shown.
If the suspended ceiling of the first floor consists of
metal lath and gympsum plaster, determine the
dead load for design in pounds per square foot of
floor area.
Practice Problem
• The pre-cast T-beam has
the cross-section shown.
Determine its weight per
foot of length if it is made
from reinforced stone
concrete and eight ¾
inch cold formed steel
reinforcing rods.
2. LIVE LOADS
• Are loads of varying magnitudes and/or positions caused by the
use of the structure.
• Sometimes, the term live loads is used to refer to all loads on the
structure that are not dead loads such as snow load and wind
load.
• However, since the probabilities of occurrence for environmental
loads are different fro those due to the use of structures, the
current codes use the term live loads to refer only to those
variable loads caused by the use of structures.
• Live loads for buildings are usually specified as uniformly
distributed surface loads in pounds per square foot or
kilopascals.
• Minimum floor live loads for some common types of buildings are
given in NSCP.
• For some types of buildings having very large floor areas, codes
will allow a reduction in the uniform live load for a floor
• Reduction of live load on a member having an influence area of
(400 sq. ft) 37.2 sq. m. or more.
Where:
L=Reduced design live load per area supported by the member
Lo= Unreduced design live load per area supported by member

KLL= Live load element factor

for columns =4, and for beams=2

AT= Tributary area in square meters

• The reduced live loads is limited to not less than 50 % of Lo for
members supporting one floor, or not less than 40 % of Lo for
members supporting more than one floor.
• No reduction is allowed for loads exceeding 4.79 kN/sq.m (100
lb/sq.ft), or for structures used for public assembly, garages or
roofs.
Sample Problem 2.
Reduced Live Loads
• A two story office
building shown has
interior columns that
are spaced 22 ft apart in
two perpendicular
directions. If the (flat)
roof loadings is 20
lb/sq.ft., determine the
reduced live loads
supported by a typical
interior column located
at ground level.
Sample Problem 3: Reduced Live Load
• A four-storey office building
has interior columns
spaced 30 ft apart in two
perpendicular directions. If
the flat-roof live loading is
estimated to be 30 lb/sq.ft,
determine the reduced live
load supported by a typical
interior column located at
ground level
 Sample Problem 3: Live Load, Dead Load
• The T-beam used in a heavy storage
warehouse is made of concrete having a
specific weight of 125 lb/cu.ft.
• a. Determine the dead load per foot
length of beam,
• b. Determine the live load on the top of
the beam per foot length of the beam.
• c. If the length of the simply-supported
beam is 15 ft calculate the reaction at
the supprts.
Use 1.2DL + 1.6LL
Tributary Loading
One-Way or Two Way Slab
For floor systems you need to get the ratio of Beam Length (L) to
Spacing (S)
If L/S > 2 One-Way Slab the tributary are is Rectangle
If L/S < 2 Two-Way Slab The tributary area is as shown
Sample Problem 4. DL and LL Floor Framing
• The floor system of a gymnasium consists of a 130-mm-thick concrete slab resting on four
steel beams (A = 9,100 mm2) that, in turn, are supported by two steel girders (A = 25,600
mm2), as shown in the Figure.
Determine the dead loads acting on beam BF and girder AD.
Determine the live loads acting on beam BF and girder AD.
Practice Problem
• A four-story office building has interior columns spaced 9 apart in
two perpendicular directions. If flat roof live load is estimated to
be 1.25kN/sq.m., determine the reduced live load supported by a
typical interior column located at ground level.
WIND LOAD
WIND LOAD
3. WIND LOAD
• Produced by the flow of wind around the structure.
• The magnitudes of wind loads that may act on a structure depend
on geographical location of the structure, obstructions in its
surrounding terrain, and the geometry and the vibrational
characteristics of the structure itself.
• When structures block the flow of wind, the wind’s
kinetic energy is converted into potential energy of
pressure which causes a wind loading.
• For static approach, the pressure q of the wind is
defined by its kinetic energy

• Where rho is the density1of the air and V is the its

velocity q = V 2

2
• This equation is modified to account for the
importance of the structure, its height, and the
terrain in which it is located:

qz = 0.00256K z K zt K dV I 2
FPS 
qz = 0.613K z K zt K dV I 2
SI 

• Note: V is in miles/hr (m/s)

• 1km=0.6214 miles
 Sample Problem 3:
Wind Load
• The enclosed building shown
in the photo is used for
agricultural purposes and is
located in Pampanga on open
and flat terrain. When the wind
is directed as shown ,
determine the design wind
pressure acting on the roof
and sides of the building.
STEP 1: Occupancy Category
STEP 2: Importance Factor, I
STEP 3: Wind Velocity, V
STEP 4: Wind Direction Factor, Kd

• Accounts for the

reduced probability of
maximum winds
coming from any given
direction
STEP 5: Topographic Factor, Kzt
• A factor that accounts for wind speed increases due to hills.
• Equals 1 if building is located on flat ground.
• For building located on elevated sites (top of hills) Kzt increases.
STEP 6: Compute qz in terms of Kz

qz = 0.00256K z K zt K dV I 2
FPS 
qz = 0.613K z K zt K dV I
2
SI 

• Note: V is in miles/hr (m/s)

• 1km=0.6214 miles
STEP 7: Compute the mean height of the roof
STEP 8: Velocity Exposure Coefficient, Kz
• Accounts for both the influence of height above
grade and exposure conditions.
EXPOSURE B- urban and suburban or wooded areas
with low structures.
EXPOSURE C- open terrain with scattered
obstructions generally less than 30 ft(9.1m). This
category flat open country and all water surfaces
in regions with records of extreme typhoons.
EXPOSURE D- flat, unobstructed areas exposed to
wind flowing over open water for a distance of at
least 1 mi(1.61 Km)
STEP 9: Calculate qz/qh in each level using
the equation in STEP 6
STEP 10: Proceed to Design Wind Pressure for
Enclosed Buildings
• Using “directional procedure” the wind pressure on an enclosed
building of any height is determined using two termed equation
resulting from both external and internal pressures.

p = qGCp − qh (GCpi )
STEP 11: Gust Factor (G)
q= qz for the windward wall at height z above the ground, and qh for
the leeward walls, side walls and roof, where z=h, the mean height
of the roof.
G= a wind-gust effect factor, which depends upon the exposure, for
a rigid structure, G=0.85
Cp= wall or roof pressure coefficient
(Gcpi)= internal pressure coefficient.
STEP 12: Internal Pressure Coefficient (GCpi)

The signs indicate that either positive or

negative(suction) pressure can occur within the
building.
STEP 13: Use the formula in STEP 10, Solve
for P in terms of q and Cp

p = qGCp − qh (GCpi )
STEP 14: Calculate internal loading
in each side of the building using
equation in STEP 13
STEP 15: Free-Body
Diagram of the
internal loadings in
each side of the
building
Design Wind Pressure for Signs
• If the structure represents a sign, the wind will produce a resultant
force acting on the face of the sign which is determined from

F = qhGC f As
Here:
qh= the wind pressure evaluated at
the height h, measured from the
ground to the top of the sign.
G= the wind-gust coefficient factor
Cf= a force coefficient which
depends upon the aspect ratio
(width B of the sign to height s of
the sign), and the clear are ratio
(sign height s to the elevation h,
measured from the ground to the
top of the sign.
As- the area of the face of the sign
in square meter.
Sample Problem
The sign is located in
Bataan on open and flat
terrain. Determine the
resultant force of the
wind acting on its face.
Use an importance factor
I=0.87.
Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure
• Structures used to retain water, such as dams and tanks, as well
as coastal structures partially or fully submerged in water must be
designed to resist hydrostatic pressure.
• Underground structures, basement walls and floors and retaining
walls must be designed to resist soil pressure.

q = h
Load Combinations:
Load Resistance and Resistance Factor
Design(LRFD)
Allowable Stress Design(ASD)