INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY

BIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE OF LIFE

Biology is the study of life. The term Biology comes from two Greek words namely; Bios means life
and logos means knowledge or study of, hence Biology means the study of living things. Scientists
who primarily study living things are Biologists. Aristotle is regarded as the father of Biology. The
major groups of living things (organisms) are bacteria, viruses, fungi, plants and animals.
Biology basically involves the study of the structure (external and internal) and functioning of living
organisms and their interrelationships with the environment.
We find two types of life in nature. One is plant while the other is animal. Accordingly, Biology has
been divided into two main branches: Botany and Zoology. Botany is the study of plants and Zoology
is the study of animals.

Branches of Biology
Biology as a science is very wide and has many specialized branches. Biology has been divided into
Botany and Zoology on the basis of nature of living things. In spite of this, now – a – day’s extensive
research has been done on Microorganisms. They influence human life in various ways. So for
discussion about them a new branch is made. This is known as Microbiology: the study of very small
life forms.
Some of the specialized braches of biology are;
Botany: the study of plants
Zoology: the study of animals
Bacteriology: the study of bacteria
Cytology: the study of cells
Entomology: the study of insects
Morphology: the study of form and structure of organisms
Ecology: the study of organisms in relation to their environments.
Parasitology: the study of organisms which live on or in the bodies of other organisms and get their
nutrients from them.
Genetics: the study of heredity and variation.
Pathology: the study of disease of animals and plants.
Physiology: the study of processes and functioning of body parts.
Anatomy: the study of the development of organisms.
Paleontology: the study of fossils or pre – existing plants and animals
Phycology: the study of algae
Helminthology: the study of worms
Mycology: the study of fungi.
Evolution: the study of the origin and successive transformations of living organisms.
Taxonomy: the study of naming, grouping and classifying of organisms
The groups discussed above are the basic branches of biology. Scientists gradually started to utilize
the knowledge of these branches for welfare, and as a result applied branches of Biology were created.
Agriculture, Medical Science, Breeding etc. are some of the important applied branches of Biology.
Applied biology also includes Forestry, and Horticulture, Fishery, Pest control, Animal
Husbandry, Medicine, Dentistry, Vertinary Science, etc.

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 How Biologist Work
Biologists, in common with other Scientists, use the scientists method of investigating and solving
problems. In planning and carrying out experiments, both in the laboratory and in the field, biologist
carry out the Scientific method. During experiments or investigations biologists collect raw data which
are then analyzed. This analysis may provide an answer to the original problem, or provide
information on which to base a further experiment so as to continue to advance knowledge.

The Scientific Method

The Scientific method is the series of steps Scientists use to verify, analyze, and solve problems.
The Scientific method is characterized with experimentation and observation. The Scientific method
is a systematic approach to research.

Steps Involved In the Scientific Method

1. Identifying the Problem: Example, a Scientist might be interested in malaria.
2. Defining the Problem / collecting background information: If there is any available
information on the subject/problem in which the scientist has identified.
3. Hypothesis / Aim: Hypothesis is a statement that can be tested. It can be based on the
information available or an educated guess. Example: Mosquito is the transmitting vector of
malaria parasite.
4. Experimentation: Involve testing the hypothesis. In carrying out an experiment, a Scientist
uses two experimental set – up:

A test experiment: It is an experiment set up to show the effects produced by the absence or variation
of a particular factor.
Alternatively, it is an experimental set up in which all the conditions are alike except for the one to be
tested.
The factor or the condition eliminated is called the variable.
Example: absence of mosquito in the case of malaria.

A Control Experiment: It is an experiment placed under normal condition. All necessary factors are
present it has the factor to be texted.
For example: In an investigation to test the hypothesis that plants require light to produce the green
colour in their leaves, a plant could be grown in a pot in a dark cupboard.
Another plant, identical in every way to the first, would be grown in the light as control.

Importance of Control Experiment: It serves as a guide to ensure the result obtained by the test
experiment is not a fallacy.
5. Making and recording observations and interpretation. These involve:
- Equipment or materials used. E.g. five treated bed nets, mosquito repellants, and ten male
students.
- Method: e.g. five male students made to sleep in treated bed nets (or in a mosquito free
environment) for some time to serve as the test experiment whilst another five students made
to sleep without any effort to prevent mosquito bite to serve as the control experiment. All
students’ form each group are tested for the symptoms of malaria at the end of the period.
- Observation and Interpretations in the form of tables, written observations, graphs, diagrams,
pictures, sound recording etc.

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Note: Further experiments follow the first are to confirm the result. Example: ten student girls may be
used for a further experiment in the case of malaria.
Then, groups of students in another school, then a different age group etc.
6. Analyzing the results
7. Drawing conclusion on the results.

Skills Used By Biologist in Their Work

Example of skills required by biologists in their work are: Observing, measuring, formulating
hypothesis, predicting, designing investigations, recording data, interpreting results, drawing
conclusions and communicating / reporting.

Importance of Biology
Why do we have to study Biology as a subject?
Biology as a subject is a single Science based on the study of living things. Therefore by studying it
helps us:
1. Acquire knowledge which enables one to answer questions about life and living things e.g. can
identical twins be of different sexes?
2. Acquire scientific attitudes and methods, which help to solve problems. This is achieved by
increasing the powers of observing, which enables one to make critical evaluations hence
drawing correct conclusions.
3. Understand the basic principles of life which influence all event in the world.
4. Improve our general health standards through skills acquired in preventing germs that cause
diseases.
5. Develop and promote conservation program which enables the use of available resources
sustainably.
6. Understand and explain the different behaviours showed by different organisms.
7. Get introduced to different biological occupations and fields such as vertinary, medicine,
pharmacy etc.

Careers Associated With the Study of Biology

A knowledge of biology is required for entry into many careers such as public health, animal
husbandry, medicine, agriculture, vertinary, pharmacy, forestry, nursing, horticulture, dentistry,
fishery, microbiology, zoology, botany etc.

Steps for Writing Report on Biological Experiment or Investigation

Students should be able to present pertinent and precise reports on biological experiments or projects
they undertake. The following steps are to be followed or projects when writing report on such
experiments:
1. The Title / Aim: This should indicate the broad purpose of the experiment e.g. “Investigating
the effect of sunlight on photosynthesis.
2. Hypothesis / Scientific framework: This should give the precise aim of the experiment e.g.
to determine the rate of starch breakdown by amylase at temperatures in the range O – 100oc.
3. Materials / Drawing of set up: This is the write up of materials that would be needed for
carrying out the experiment, and the drawing set up of how the materials would be arranged
for its effective use.
4. Method / Procedure: This is a precise, step – by – step account of the procedures carried out.
It is written in the past tense and impersonally e.g. “a test tube was taken………………”

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 5. Results / Observation: These are complete account of your recording and observations. They
should be presented in descriptive prose, table, graph, histogram etc.
6. Discussion: This should be an attempt to relate known biological knowledge to the results in
trying to explain it could include:
➢ Criticisms of the method employed.
➢ Possible sources of error in the results
➢ Suggested improvement to the experiment.
7. Conclusion: This is a brief statement of the single main fast determined by the experiment.
For example “the optimum temperature for the breakdown of starch by amylase is found to be
45oc.”

Some Areas of Application of Biology to Human

1. Good water supply
2. Treatment of diseases and good health
3. Food security: food production, processing and preservation.
4. Biotechnology
5. Agriculture
6. Biogas production
7. Fishing industry
8. Proper maintenance of the environment.

Ways by Which Biology is Applied In The:

(i). Home and hospitals:
- In homes and hospitals, for example, knowledge of condition under which human can
maintain healthy bodies is gained through biological studies.
- In the choice and preparation of food for human beings, biological knowledge of the nature
and requirements of human nourishment is great importance.
(ii) Industry:
In industry, canning and bottling are major process for preserving food for humans. To achieve
this, the industry requires facts about the source and nature of organisms or products of
organisms to be preserved.
The biology of organisms is therefore essential to the preservation industry. Some examples of
food canned and bottled by industry include fruits, fish, meat and oils.
(iii). Agriculture:
Agriculture and agro – based industries provide almost all the food for the world. Productive
agricultural methods are based on the knowledge of the biology of organisms being cultivated.

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 Exercise 1
Answer the following questions

1. List five careers associated with the study of Biology.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Explain briefly the following terms used in scientific researches:
(i) Hypothesis;
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) Theory;
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

(iii) Law.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

3. Distinguish between a control experiment and a test experiment.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….

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 BODY SYMMETRY AND ORIENTATION
The morphology and arrangement of parts of an organism determines the plane along which it can be
divided into two equal parts.

Body Symmetry
This is a line of cut through an object resulting in mirror images of each other. It also refers to the
correspondence in size and shape of parts on the opposite sides of a median plane. Organisms show
different types of symmetry of the body. The symmetry of an organism can be radial or bilateral.

Bilateral Symmetry
When an organism can be divided along only one plane to produce two equal halves, which are mirror
images of each other, it is said to be bilaterally symmetrical. The two halves, right and left parts of
the body are exact mirror images. Examples are human body, other mammals, earthworm, fruits of
mango, the bean family of cowpea, flamboyant, pride of Barbados, fish, toad, snake, lizard, bird etc.

Radial symmetry
Radial symmetry means that the body of the organism can be divided along more than one plane in
order to produce mirror images.
Examples of such organisms are the star fish, sea anemone, the jellyfish, hydra, octopus, squid and
sea urchin, fruits of orange, okra, tomato, pawpaw, banana, and flower of milk bush or allamanda.

Asymmetrical body is the one which cannot be divided into two equal halves. Examples are Amoeba,
Euglena and Paramecium.

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 SECTIONING IN BIOLOGY
Description of the structure of organs usually requires cutting the organ for inspection. The plane along
which cuts are made determines what can be seen. When specimens are cut to show certain internal
details they are said to have been sectioned. Sections can either be made length-wise or across a
specimen.
Biological specimen can be sectioned in three different ways namely:
➢ Longitudinal section (L.S)
➢ Transverse section (T. S) and
➢ Vertical section (V.S)

Longitudinal Section: is a section that runs through the vertical axis, from top to bottom (Anterior –
Posterior), of an organ; usually along the length of the organ. It is often abbreviated as L.S.

Transverse Section: is a section that runs at right angles to the vertical axis; or a cut across the
horizontal axis / across the length of an organ.
A section that is cut along the shorter axis (from side to side) of a specimen is cross – section or
transverse section and often referred to as the XS or TX.

Transverse Section through an Orange

Vertical Section: is a section that runs upright through a whole or part of an organism. This is usually
a section through an organism which has no distinct length or breadth. It is used when the organ or the
organism is irregular in shape and its dimensions (length and width). Example: V.S of the mammalian
eye, V.S of the mammalian skin, heart etc

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 In most organs the detailed arrangement and morphology presented in sections can be properly seen
with the aid of a microscope.
NB: In representing a section of a specimen and a drawing, the cut surface is required to be represented
by a double line to show the thickness of the section.

Orientation of Specimens
The shape and size or appearance of every object depends on the direction from which it is observed.
The direction from which an object or a specimen is seen is referred to as its orientation. Orientations
are also often referred to as views.
When an organism in its resting position under observation, only one surface of it can be viewed from
a single position. For example, when a dog is stationary and you observe it from a fixed position, only
the top, underneath, front, back, or side can be viewed completely. There are five body orientation and
this are:
❖ Anterior View – the front i.e. head end of an animal
❖ Dorsal view - The top view i.e. the back or the upper part of an organism.
❖ Posterior View – the rear view i.e. the head or tail end of an animal
❖ Ventral View – the belly or underside of an animal or looking at the specimen turned upside
down and viewed from above.
❖ Lateral View – the side view, this could either be the right or left side of the specimen when
it is facing the viewer.

The position of parts of an organism are fixed irrespective of how the organism is oriented. It is
therefore the position of the observer that determines the view obtained.

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 Exercise 2
Answer the following questions

1. Distinguish between a bilateral symmetry and radial symmetry.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Mention four characteristics of organisms that possess bilateral symmetry.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. Copy and complete the table below on orientations of specimens in biology.

Part of organism Orientation
Underside
Back
Tail
Head

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 THE MICROSCOPE
A microscope is an optical instrument which magnifies or enlarges the image of extremely small
objects (organisms and structures) at the cellular level which cannot be seen with the naked eye.
Microscope is the combination of two words, “Micro” meaning small and “Scope” meaning view.
The resolving power of the human eye is just about 0.1mm, i.e. the human eye can only distinguish
between two points that are of a distance 0.1 of a millimeter apart. To be able to observe biological
details of organisms or biological structures that are smaller than oil mm, the eye needs to be aided
with special optical instruments known as microscopes. Microscopes are able to magnify small objects
many times. The inventor of microscope is Anthony Van Leeuwenhoek.

TYPES OF MICROSCOPES
There are three types of microscopes. These are;
❖ Simple and Compound light (optical) microscopes
❖ Stereoscopic microscope and
❖ Electron microscope
The most common of these, which is readily available and extensively used in schools, is the optical
or compound light microscope.

The Compound Light Microscope

The compound light microscope and the stereoscopic microscope utilize glass lenses and may be used
in examining both living and dead organisms. The lenses can magnify objects from ×10 to ×1000
times, and can assist in resolving points that are 0.2 µm apart (l, µm = 10-6m).
The term light refers to the method by which light transmits the image to your eye. Compound deals
with the microscope having more than one lens. Resolving power is the ability to reveal fine detail of
a specimen. The light microscope uses a beam of light to illuminate the specimen being studied.
Simple microscopes have only one lens. An example is the magnifying lens or hand lens. It is of
limited use because it has a low resolving power compared to compound microscopes.

THE HAND LENS

The hand lens is a simple magnifying device with a biconvex lens mounted in a frame. The magnifying
power of the hand lens is always indicated on the lens. E.g X10, X5, X8. The magnifying power of a
lens shows how many times the image will be enlarged compared to the object.

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 The Use of Hand Lens
In order to use the hand lens as a magnifier, place the lens a short distance from the eye and bring the
object to be examined towards the lens. As the object comes into focus an enlarged image will be see.
Drawings are usually made of specimen viewed. The magnification of the size of the drawing in
relation to the object must be calculated.

NB: If a lens a lens is used in order to make a drawing of a specimen, the magnification of the lens
bears no relation to the size of the drawing.

MAGNIFICATION
Magnification is the ratio of the linear dimension (length or size) of the drawing to the linear
dimension (length or size) of the actual object or specimen. Or. Magnification is the number of times
a drawing has been enlarged or reduced when compared to the object that has been drawn.

Mathematically, magnification of a drawing be stated as:

Magnification = Linear dimension of drawing
Linear dimension of object

That is, in determining the magnification of a drawing, measure either the length or width (size) of the
drawing and divide it by the corresponding length or width of the object or specimen that has been
drawn.
For a specimen draw with the aid of a microscope, the magnification is the product of the magnification
of the eye – piece lens that of the objective lens and the number of time what has been observed under
the microscope has been enlarged or reduced.
The magnification of a drawing should be written just after the title of a drawing should or anywhere
by the drawing where it can easily be seen. The magnification of a drawing should always be indicated
with an “X” with the figure representing the number of times the drawing has been reduced or enlarged
written by it, for example, X3 or3X. This is a convention and nothing more or less should be done.
E.g. Mg = X3, Mg : X3, etc. are not acceptable in biology.

The magnification of a drawing should not be an improper fraction, it can however be written as a
proper fraction, a mixed fraction or as a decimal.

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 EXAMPLES
1. A student is provided with a specimen of a leaf of length 8cm. The student made a drawing of
the specimen of length 10cm. Calculate the magnification of the drawing.
Solution
Magnification = Length of specimen drawn
Length of object
𝟏𝟎𝐜𝐦
= = × 1.25 or X 1 ¼
𝟖𝐜𝐦

Seat work
2. A student observes and draws an Amoeba, using the high power lens of a microscope. The
diameter of the drawing is 100mm. The actual diameter of the Amoeba is 100µm. What is the
magnification of the drawing?
3.

Resolution or Resolving Power of a Microscope

Is the ability to distinguish clearly between two objects lying close to each other in a specimen as
separate points or objects.
At high magnification in the light microscope, the image becomes less clear or blurred or unsharpened.
That is, the observer cannot distinguish between small structures in the specimen lying close to each
other as being separate.
The greater the resolving, power the greater the details of the specimen observed.

Parts and Functions of the Compound Light Microscope

The compound light microscope has several parts but generally has three major components:
- An imaging system (a system of lenses( convex) mounted on a frame to produce images)
- An illuminating system (light system)
- Viewing and recording system in more advanced compound microscope.

Kinds of Microscopes
Two kinds of compound light microscope occur depending on the number of eyepiece or ocular lenses.
These are:
1. Monocular and
2. Binocular microscopes.

Monocular Microscope are microscopes that have one eyepiece (ocular) lens.
Binocular Microscopes are those with two eyepiece lenses.

THE IMAGING SYSTEM

The imaging system of a compound light microscope improve the resolving power of the
equipment. The imaging system consist of:
➢ The objective lens
➢ The eyepiece lens and
➢ The prism which is between the two eyepiece lenses.
Microscope with a fixed body tube have no prism between the objective and eyepiece lenses.
The prism is used to redirect light from an object that has been mounted on a slide and placed on
the stage of the microscope.

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 Objective Lens
The objective lenses of microscopes are designed such that they have different resolving powers
(magnifications). These lenses are usually four and are mounted on a resolving nosepiece. The
resolving powers of these are X4, X10, X40 and ×100. The objective lenses of resolving power
X4 and X10 are usually referred to as the low power lens, the X40 is the high power lens and X100
is the oil immersion lens. The X4 is also known as the scanning – power objective lens. The oil
immersion is used only when a very high magnification is required.

The Illuminating System

The illuminating system is made up of a source of light, which is located at the base of the
microscope. The components of the illuminating system are:
➢ The condenser
➢ The light source and
➢ The diaphragm

The Viewing and Recording System

Not all microscopes have this system. The viewing and recording system is made up of a camera,
for taking photomicrographs and a video screen, for viewing specimens mounted on the
microscope.
Simple (Single Lens) Microscope
A simple microscope is a microscope that uses only one lens for magnification, and is the original
design of light microscope. Van Leeuwenhoek’s microscopes, were called simple microscopes
because they consisted of a small, single converging lens mounted on a brass plate. The instrument
is called simple microscope because the structural and functional devices of it are simple.

Structure of a Simple Microscope

The structure of a simple microscope is very simple. It has a body, a stage made of thick glass for
placing slides, two clips to fix the slides, a handle, an eyepiece placed with the handle and a mirror.
There is an adjustment knob by which the eyepiece may be mived upward and downward. The
entire body stands on the base or foot.

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
A compound microscope is a microscope which uses multiple lenses to collect light from the
simple and then a separate set of lenses to focus the light into the eye or camera. Compound
microscopes are heavier, larger and more expensive than simple microscopes due to the increased
number of lenses used in construction.
The parts of a typical modern compound microscope, listed in order the light travels through them
are:
➢ Ocular lens (eyepiece) - Power switch
➢ Resolving nose piece - Illuminator control
➢ Nosepiece (objective) - Power cable
➢ Condenser lens - Focus knobs
➢ Stage - Stage holder
➢ Diaphragm - Stage clip
➢ Illuminator - Arm
➢ Base - Stage and slide mover

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 Parts Functions
Eyepiece lens Magnifying the mounted object / specimen /
viewing the mounted object / specimen.
Resolving nosepiece To hold objective lenses / allows the user to
switch between objectives.
Revolving nosepiece Holds the objectives
Condenser Focus light rays from mirror / light source unto
the specimen.
Mirror Reflects light rays through the condenser unto
the specimen on the stage.
Fine adjustment knob To focus image sharply; to focus the lens on
the specimen; to move the body tubes / stage.
Coarse adjustment Focuses the image
Stage A flat surface / platform where slide / mounted
specimens are placed.
Arm Supports the body tube/Used together with the
bases to lift the microscope. / attaches the
eyepieces and the objectives to the base.
Diaphragm Used to regulate the amount of light to be
concentrated on the specimen. / to vary the
amount and size from below.
Base The bottom of the microscope use for support
and house the power source, fuse and
illuminator controls light supply to the
microscope.
Illumination control Control the amount of light passing through
illuminator condenser.
Power cable Connects to the power source to provide light
to the microscope through the illuminator.
Rack stop To lock the stage level after adjusting how
close the objective lens can get to the slide.
Stage clip Holds the slide in place

Magnification of Images with the Microscope

Total magnification = magnification of eyepiece × magnification by objective lens.
Sizes of microscopic objects are measured in micrometers, (µm), and formally called microns.
Conversion: 1m = 102cm = 103mm, 1µm = 10-6, 1nm = 10-9m, (nm is read nanometer).
The magnification of an object viewed under the microscope is the multiple of eyepiece and
objective lens magnifications.
Objective lens Eyepiece Magnification of the microscope
X4 X10 X40
X10 X10 X40
X20 X10 X200
X40 X10 X400
X40 X20 X800

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Example
What is the magnification of the objective required in order to magnify the size of an insect by 200
times?

Solution
Magnification = eyepiece × objective
Objective = magnification = 200 = X20
Eyepiece 10

Using the Light Microscope

Focusing
To focus on an object on a microscope, follow the instruction below:
1. Place on the stage a clean microscope slide on which the specimen that is to be examined is
mounted.
2. Connect the microscope to a power source and switch it on.
3. Turn the resolving nosepiece until the low power lens is in line with the object to be viewed.
The object and lens are in line only when you hear a click sound as you turn the nosepiece.
4. While looking through the eyepiece lens, turn the coarse adjustment screw, and move the
objective lens away from the slide until a sharp image of the object is seen through the eyepiece
lens.
5. For microscope details to be seen, turn the resolving nosepiece until the high power lens is in
line with the object. Again, the lens and specimen are in line only when the click sound is
heard.
6. Refocus on the specimen by turning the fine adjustment to and fro.
7. When very high magnification is required, use the oil immersion lens. However, do not forget
to put a drop of cedar – wood oil on the specimen that is being viewed before turning on the
lens. You have to refocus using the fine adjustment screw.
8. You may have to adjust the diaphragm to get the illumination that provides the best view.

NB:
1. Always look into the microscope with both eyes opened, even if you are using a monocular
microscope.
2. Always focus up and down to obtain the best image.

Electron Microscope
The electron microscope is much more powerful microscope which can be used by research scientists
and with highest magnification (X 10000 – X 200000).
The electron microscope depends on a beam of electrons, and again on the voltage that is used
in generating the electron beam, while the compound light microscope utilizes light.

Types of electron microscope

There are two types, the transmission electron microscope (TEM) and scanning electron
microscope (SEM). The transmission electron microscope is used to examine thin section whiles the
scanning electron microscope allows biologists to see specimens as three dimensional objects.
They are useful for bacteria and studies and viruses etc. The electron microscope is used to study cells
in greater detail i.e. to study the cell organelles. It uses beam of electrons that are focused onto the
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specimen by powerful electromagnets instead of a beam of light. The image obtained is reproduced
onto a fluorescent screen for observation.
The resolving power (resolution) of a microscope is related to the wavelength of illumination, being
used.
The shorter the wavelength, the greater the resolution. The wavelength of visible light is 500mm and
that of beam a electron is 0.005mm. At best the light microscope can distinguish two points which are
200mm, (0.2mm) apart, whereas the transmission electron microscope can resolve points 1m apart
when used a biological specimens.

How the Light Microscope is used

1. Put he prepared specimen slide on the stage and use the clips to hold it.
2. Rotate the microscope until the low power objective is directly above the center of the stage.
Thus is indicated by a click.
3. Look through the eyepiece and adjust the mirror under the stage to ensure that sufficient light
can pass through the specimen.
4. Using the coarse adjustment, focus the microscope, and if necessary, shift the slide around
until the specimen comes into view.
5. Now use higher magnifying powers to view the object.
6. Use the fine adjustment to focus the image sharply.

Handling and Caring of the Microscope

Microscopes are delicate and expensive instruments. It is therefore necessary to treat them with care.

Precautions to be taken when using a light microscope

1. A microscope must always be carried with both hands. One hand holds the limb while the other
is placed under the base to provide support.
2. The lenses must be cleaned by wiping them with a special often lens tissue or tissue paper
moistened with ethanol. (Cleaning lenses with coarse cloth causes scratching, and touching
lenses with fingers leaves greasy finger – prints on them.)
3. The stage of the microscope must be kept clean and dry.
4. Lens should not be touched with bare fingers as they leave greasy finger prints on the lens.
5. To avoid wetting the lens, the object on the slide should always be covered with a cover slip
(a very thin piece of glass).
6. To avoid breaking the slide, the low power objective must always be used first to observe the
specimen and always moved upwards when focusing.
7. Before removing the slide from the stage, it is better to change to the low power objective to
avoid breaking the slide.
8. The microscope should be kept on a levelled surface.

Preparation of Slides
Slides making is an important part of many area of biological, medical and vertinary sciences and you
will often be required to prepared different kinds of slides in – house. Specimens may be smears of
fluids, thin sections or whole mounts of all or part of an organ or organisms. In all cases, the material
is mounted on a glass slide prior to its examination.
Mounting: involve placing the specimen on a glass slid for viewing. In mounting, the specimen is
placed on the slide. By means of a mounted needle a cover slip is lowered slowly and gently to a cover
the specimen. The cover slip prevents evaporation of water from the specimen. It is lowered gently in
order to avoid air bubbles becoming trapped beneath it.
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 Types of Microscope Slide
There are two types of slide:
1. Temporary slide/wet-mount
2. Permanent slide

Wet-mount or temporal slide: This is a slide with a specimen in a drop of water. The water soon
dries up so this type of slide is a temporary slide.

Permanent slide: is one in which the specimen is mounted in a special resin such as Canada Balsam
to last permanently (for a long time).

A microscope slide is a thin flat piece of glass, typically 75 by 26mm (3 by inches) and about 1mm
thick, used to microscope slides are often used together with a cover slip or cover glass, a smaller and
thinner, sheet of glass that is placed over the specimen. Slides are held in place on the microscope’s
stage by slide clips.

Exercise 3
Answer the following questions

1. Explain the following terms as applied to microscopes:

(i) Magnification;
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

(ii) Resolution.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. State four precautions to be taken when using a light microscope.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. State four differences between a light microscope and an electron microscope.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

17
 …………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. State the steps you would take to prepare a wet mount slide of onion epidermis.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

18
 BIOLOGICAL DRAWING
Biological drawings are important part of the science of biology and all biologists must be able to
produce good quality scientific drawings regardless of your artistic ability.
Generally, drawings are made for different purposes. For example, a drawing can be made to represent
an imagination or dream, or an abstract shape. Drawings can be images constructed from direct
observation on an object with intention of representing what has been seen. In this type of drawing an
attempt is made to present very closely an observation made on real objects. Such drawings are
referred to as biological or objective drawing.
To the biologists biological drawing is to be presented precisely as possible without losing details.
Drawings not only allow you to record an image of the specimen observed, but more importantly, they
help you to remember the specimen as well as the important features of the specimen.
Biological drawings provide evidence of descriptions of organisms/objects or biological structures.
Drawing in biology serves as summaries of what normally would be described in several sentences
before they can be understood.

Basic Tools for Biological Drawing

The basic materials a biologist needs to be able to draw quality diagrams include: clean plain sheets
(A4 bond sheets), well – sharpened HB pencil, sharpener, eraser, ruler/straight edge, and cutting
instruments.
1. Clean Plain Sheets
Paper on which biological drawings are to be made should be preferably A4 bond sheets. These
are reasonable thick and have smooth surface, they do not crumble easily and their smoothness
enhances effective drawing and erasing when necessary. Typing sheets are inappropriate for
biological drawings because they are too thin, and they easily crumble. Ordinary duplicating
sheets are too thick and rough and not neat when erased.

2. Well-Shaped HB this Pencil

Biological drawings are to be made with sharp HB pencil. This facilitates the making of thin
and sharp lines. They are not too soft like those used in artistic drawings (eg. 2B,BB,4B etc)
which makes drawings too deep, thick or gives a dirty appearance to drawings when erased.
HB pencils are also not too hard like H, HH or 2H pencils, which are normally used for
technical and engineering drawings. Hard pencils often leave marks that are difficult to erase
and can easily cut through paper. Pencils for biological drawings should be reasonably long.
Preferable 15cm long so that they can easily be turned through different angles without lifting
the hand while drawing. This allows the drawing of smooth lines without brakes. No coloured
pencil should be used.

5. Erasers
Most often errors are committed when drawing diagrams, such errors are corrected by erasing
using an eraser. An eraser should therefore be always readily available for the biologist. An
eraser for drawing biological diagrams should neither be too soft nor too hard. Such an eraser
will ensure effective and neat cleaning when necessary. The use of an eraser when drawing
biological diagrams should be very minimal because frequent use of eraser makes drawings
dirty or appear as if they have been shaded and shading is preserved for fine art. It should be
avoided.

19
 6. Sharpening and Cutting Instruments
In biology, sectioning of specimens and sharpening of pencils are quite regular activities.
Biology students should always have in their kits a sharpener and cutting instrument like a
razor blade.

7. Rulers or Straight Edge Tool

The biologist should always have in his possession a ruler or a straight-edge tool to be used for
ruling lines or for taking measurements.

Requirements for Biological Drawing

1. Title
2. Outline
3. Size of drawing
4. Proportionality
5. Magnification
6. Details
7. Orientation and sections
8. Guidelines
9. Labelling

Title or Heading
Every biological drawing must have a title. The title should be descriptive and self-explanatory, but
concise. The title of drawing should be reflective of what has been drawn. When drawing under the
microscope the title must include the name, view, section (T.S, L.S, or C.S) and power of
magnification (low or high). The title should be underlined. It must also be in pencil so that correction
can be made. The heading should be on top of the drawing. Examples
1. A drawing of the dorsal view of an adult cockroach
2. A drawing of the transverse section of a ripped tomato fruit.
3. Low power drawing of amoeba sp.

Outlines
The outlines of biological drawings should be made with a sharp HB pencil and should not be
deepened. Each line should be considered and draw without removing the pencil from the paper. There
should be no broken portion. Every broken portion of the outline should be joined or properly erased.
They should also not be wavy or woolly. To avoid any of these, the pencil must be held firmly and
drawing done with confidence without trying to sketch before the final drawing. There should be no
shading or painting.

Size
Biological drawing should be reasonably large. If not specified, it should not be less than two-third
(2/3) of the paper. Usually, biological drawings should be more than half the size of an A4 bond sheet
unless otherwise specified. Large diagrams provide enough space for the presentation of details of the
specimen on the diagram.
In practical examinations, drawings may be required of specimens to specified dimensions.
Instructions requiring the drawing of diagrams to specified dimensions should be strictly complied
with because they test candidate’s ability to comply with instructions.

Proportionality
20
When presenting a biological drawing, the various parts of the drawing should be proportional to
themselves just like they are on the specimen that is being draw. No part of a drawing should be drawn
out of proportion. For examples the legs of the mosquito are tiny when they are compared to the wings,
this should be noted and taken into consideration when drawing the mosquito. Likewise, in the tilapia,
the length from the head to the tail is three times the length across the middle portion. Obviously, when
parts of a drawing are proportional to themselves, the drawing looks more like the specimen that has
been drawn.

Magnification
In biology, the number of times a drawing has been enlarged or reduced when compared to the size of
the specimen that has been drawn should always be written by the drawing. Magnification can be
written just after the title or anywhere, but preferably beneath the drawing on the right side. Drawings
to illustrate points in theory examinations require no magnification.

Details
Every specimen that is to be drawn is to be examined critically for the identification of every
peculiarity on it to be represented on the drawing. The peculiar features of a specimen that are to be
represented on a drawing are known as the details. In practical examination, where specimens are
provided, students are expected to draw exactly what they see and not what they think they should see,
and certainly not a textbook copy, although, previous knowledge about the specimen may be an
advantage.
A drawing appears more representative of a specimen when the peculiarities on the specimen are
shown on the drawing.

Guidelines
In biology, every drawing must be fully labelled, in labelling, guidelines or label lines should be
provided to show areas being labelled.
- Guidelines should always be ruled with a straight edged tool.
- They should not be made of broken lines or strokes.
- They should not carry arrowheads
- They must not touch labels.
- Should not carry labels (should not be drawn under the label).
- Should not be made to cross each other
- Curly brackets ({ }) should not be used because they are not ruled lines.
- Short guidelines should be erased completely if they are found to be wrong.

Labelling
Every biological drawing must be fully labelled, guidelines must be provided to indicate the structures
that are being labelled.
One word answers and biological terms should be spelt correctly. When a label is to be singular but is
written as plural, it is assumed to have been wrongly spelt, and vice versa. Labels should be
horizontally written.

21
 Exercise 4
Answer the following questions

1. State five important parameters to consider in a biological drawing.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. List four characteristics of guidelines in biological drawing.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….

3. What is magnification as used in biological drawing.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

22
 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS
A living thing is one which performs certain life activities such as movement, respiration, growth,
reproduction, excretion, response to stimuli and feeding. These activities are also called life process.
Although non-living things may exhibit some of these features, they do not carry out all of them.

Life Processes
The processes by which living things can be distinguished from non-living things are seven, namely:
i. Nutrition
ii. Irritability
iii. Reproduction
iv. Movement
v. Growth
vi. Excretion
vii. Respiration

NUTRITION: Nutrition is the process by which living things obtain or make food. This food is a
source of energy and of materials which are required for growth and maintenance.

Types of Nutrition
There are two main types of nutrition namely: Autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition.
Autotrophic Nutrition: Is the process by which organisms manufacture or synthesize their own food
from simple inorganic compounds or molecules using light energy for photosynthesis or using
chemical energy for chemosynthesis.
Autotrophs or autotrophic organisms: are organisms that are able to use sunlight or chemical energy
to manufacture their own food or organic substance from simple inorganic substances.

Groups of Autotrophs
Depending on the source of energy for the synthesis of tier food, there are two groups of autotrophs.
Only two sources of energy are used by living organisms, these are solar (light) and chemical energy.
The two groups of autotrophs are:

(i) Photoautotrophs (phototrophic): these are organisms that manufacture their own food or
organic substance using energy from the sun to drive the necessary chemical reaction. The
process is called photosynthesis. These organisms contain pigments. For example chlorophyll,
which are used to absorb the light energy. They include algae, plants, phytoplankton and simple
organisms such as photosynthetic bacteria. Since it is light energy that is taken in for synthesis
of food they are holophytic. The process of photosynthesis is represented by the equation
below:

(2) Chemoautotroph (chemotrophic): These are organisms that use chemical energy to
manufacture their own food instead of getting the energy from the sunlight. Bacteria e.g.
Azotobacter, Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas, sulphur bacteria (thiobacillus uses hydrogen
sulphide), Hydrogen bacteria (Desusulphovibrio) uses molecular hydrogen), iron bacteria etc.
fungi and animals. These organisms synthesize all their protoplasmic constituents from
inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide, water, ammonia or nitrates and obtain the initial
energy for the synthesis from the oxidation of inorganic substances. The process is called
chemosynthesis.
Difference between Photoautotroph (Phototrophy) and Chemoautotrophs (Chemotrophy)
23
 PHOTOAUTOTROPH CHEMOAUTOTROPHS
They use solar/sunlight energy to They use chemical energy to manufacture
manufacture their food their food
They use chlorophyll to manufacture their Do not need chlorophyll to manufacture
food their food
They are able to synthesize more complex Are not capable of synthesizing complex
food substances like lipids and proteins food.

Heterotrophic Nutrition
It is a nutrition in which organisms feed on other organisms or depends on already manufactured food
materials from other living organisms. Heterotrophs are the organisms that feed on already
manufactured food materials.

Types of heterotrophic nutrition

There are four main kinds of heterotrophic nutrition namely: holozoic, saprophytic (saprobiontic),
parasitic and symbiotic nutrition.

1. Holozoic nutrition: Involves the ingestion of complex organic food substances for digestion
and absorption. It consists of five (5) stages, ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and
egestion. Examples: Humans, protozoa, most animals and carnivorous plants such as the sundew
(Drosena Indica), Venus fly trap (Dionaea) and Bladderwort (utricularia inflex), mammals such as
rabbits, birds and reptiles.

2. Saprophytic/saprobiontic nutrition: A mode of nutrition in which organisms feed on dead

organic remains of other organisms and digest the food outside (extracellular) their body. E.g. Fungi
such as mushrooms, Rhizopus and certain bacteria.

3. Parasitic nutrition: This is where organisms obtain already digested food from other living
organisms called host and causes harm to it, with the host receiving no benefit from the parasite. E.g.
tapeworms, ticks etc.

4. Symbiotic nutrition: This is where certain organisms live in close association with other
organisms for long periods and share their shelters. E.g. Fungi and algae, rhizobium and leguminous
plants roots, anaerobic bacteria in the alimentary canal of herbivores.

Difference between Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Modes of Nutrition

AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
Involves intake of simple inorganic Involves complex organic substances
substance
Manufacture its own food and does not Depends on other organisms for food
depend on other organisms
Requires pigment to absorb energy Does not require any pigment
Mostly found in plants Found

RESPIRATION
24
Respiration is the breakdown of food substances by aerobic or anaerobic means in the cell to release
energy needed for all processes of life.

Types of Respiration
There are two (2) types of respiration namely:
1. Internal (cellular) respiration: It is the breakdown of complex food substance in the cell to
obtain energy either in the absent or presence of oxygen, it is also called tissue respiration. A
living things release energy for food by this method. It occurs at the cellular level, that is, it
takes place in the cell. There are two forms of tissue respiration. These are aerobic and
anaerobic respiration.

Aerobic respiration: Involves the breakdown of food substances to release energy using oxygen.
It produces carbon dioxide and water as waster products.

Formula for aerobic respiration

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6H2O + 6CO2 + energy
The energy produced is used for movement, growth and other life processes.

Anaerobic respiration: Involves the breakdown of food substances to release energy without using
oxygen. It produces alcohol or lactic acid and carbon dioxide as by products. In plants, plant-like
organisms and yeasts, anaerobic respiration produces alcohol (ethanol) while in animals and
animal-like organisms lactic acid is produced.

2. External respiration (gaseous exchange): Is the exchange of gases between the living
organisms and its surroundings. That is, intake of oxygen from the surrounding and giving out
carbon dioxide across the respiratory surface. The respiratory surface may be the cell surface
membrane of a single- celled organisms or a specialized tissue such as the alveoli in the lungs
of mammals.
Examples of Respiratory Surfaces
Respiratory surface Examples
Body surfaces Amoeba, earthworms, flatworms etc
Skin Toad, frog etc.
Gills Fish, crab, shrimps etc
Lungs Birds, mammals, amphibians, such as toads and frogs,
reptiles such as lizard.
Trachea Insects
Stomata and lenticels Plants

Excretion
Is the removal of metabolic waster substances from the body which are poisonous and harmful if
allowed to accumulate in the body. In animals excretory substances include: CO2, water, ammonia or
urea, uric acid and salts such as NaCl. They are removed by special excretory organs e.g. the lungs,
kidneys, skin and the liver. Plants excrete oxygen and carbon dioxide during day time and carbon
dioxide only at night time through their leaves. They may store certain substances in a harmless form
in tier stems and leaves such as tannins, resins, gums, latex and alkaloids. Plants do not have special
excretory organs.

25
 Irritability
This is the process by which living organisms responds to stimuli or changes in both the internal and
external environment to ensure survival. Living things respond to changes in temperature, humidity,
light, presence or absence of certain chemicals, touch, water, sound and pain.
Generally response to stimuli is faster in animals than in plant because animals have sensory cells
which can detect different types of stimuli that plants do not have. Plants have no special sensory cells
and respond slowly to stimuli. Only a few can respond rapidly to stimuli such as the sensitive plant
Mimosa Pudica. Plants respond to conditions such as light, water, gravity, which permit growth and
food production.

Movement
Movement refers to change in position (displacement) of part of an organisms. In plant, movement
involves only part of the body. Movement in plants includes folding of leaves, closing of flowers,
growing of shoots towards light and closing of leaves in some plants resulting in insects being trapped
e.g. shadow.
The change of position of an entire organism from one position to another as locomotion. Locomotion
in animals is obvious and differs from animal. E.g. swimming, walking, running, flying and jumping.
As a result of locomotion animals may find food, water, shelter, mate and avoid enemies.

Growth
Growth refers to an irreversible increase in length, size and mass increase in number of cells through
cell division and it requires the use of energy from food and materials. Growth is a gradual process.
Plants continue to grow throughout their lives (indefinite) they continually grow new parts e.g.
branches and leaves. Growth in animals cease after reaching maturity. Most animals grow rapidly
when young, then more slowly as they mature until they attain a certain size, when growth stops.

Reproduction
This is the process by which living organism give rise to new individuals of the same sexual or asexual
means.
Types of Reproduction
There are two main types of reproduction namely sexual and asexual reproduction.

Sexual Reproduction
Involves the fusion of male and female gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote which develops into a
new individual. Fishes, reptiles, birds, mammals and many plants reproduce by asexual reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction
Is the production of a new individual from a single parent without the fusion of sex cells (gametes).
Asexual reproduction is carried out by a single organisms. Part of the organisms breaks or is broken
away and develops into a new individual identical to the parent. E.g. of organisms in which asexual
reproduction takes place include Amoeba, bacteria, sweet potatoes, yams and cassava.

Differences between Living and Non Living Things

All other things in the world which are incapable of undertaking the life processes are classified as
non-living things. Some of the life process occur in non-living things, but never all of them. Often an
outside force is responsible. A flag moves, but it is caused by the wind. Cars take in petrol (nutrition),
give out exhaust gases (excretion), generate energy with the aid of oxygen (respiration) and move

26
(locomotion). Some non-living things can grow by simple gaining more of the material of which they
consist adding it to the outside. A good example of this is a crystal.

The table below shows the difference between living and non-living things.
LIVING THINGS NON-LIVING THINGS
They are made up of basic structural units They are not made up of cells
called cells
They move on their own Can be moved by pushing or pulling
They require nourishment to exist Do not require nourishment to exist
They respire to release energy for their Do not respire
activities
They get rid of unwanted materials in their Do not get rid of substances
body
They grow by addition of new materials They many increase in size by addition of
produced by the organisms substances from the environment.
They spontaneously reproduce No self-reproduction
They are irritable or sensitive to internal and They are not irritable or respond to stimuli.
external stimuli

Living Things as Mainly Plants and Animals

Most of the organisms belong to two broad groups namely: plants and animals.
Examples of plants: Grasses, mosses, ferns, mango etc.
Examples of animals: Rabbits, cows, monkeys, goat, cats, man etc. plants and animals have in
common the seven basic characteristics of living things. However, these two groups of organisms
below show fundamental differences between them.

Differences between Plants and Animals

PLANTS ANIMALS
Have chlorophyll Lack chlorophyll
Make their own food(autotrophic mode of Unable to make their own food
nutrition) (heterotrophic mode of nutrition)
Do not locomote Do locomote for various reasons.
Have cell wall around their cells No cell wall
Response to stimuli is very slow Sow a quick response to stimuli
Growth is localized to the tips/growth is Growth occurs throughout the body/growth
unlimited is limited.
No special excretory organs Have special excretory organs
Sense organs absent Sense organs present
No respiratory organs Respiratory organs.

27
 Exercise 5
Answer the following questions
1. The table below indicates different methods by which organisms obtain food. Place the
following organisms under the headings in the table below:
Human, Mushroom, Venus flytrap, Waterleaf plant, Tapeworm, Elephant grass, Housefly,
Lichen, Spirogyra, Rhizopus.
Holozoic Parasitic Symbiotic Saprophytic Autotrophic

2. State two differences between growth in plants and animals.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. Distinguish between holophytic and holozoic nutrition.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. The table below describes some of the characteristics of living organisms. Complete the table
by identifying each characteristic described.

Description Characteristic
Responding to stimuli in the environment

Releasing energy from sugars

Producing more organisms of the same type

Getting rid of waste chemicals made in the

organism
Obtaining the materials for growth

28
 THE CELL
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life. All living things are made up of cell. The
cell was discovered by an English physicist called Robert Hooke in the year 1665. He examined a
very thin section of a cork under the microscope. He found out that they were made up of tiny spaces
bounded by walls. He called these units cells because they look like cubicle where monks studied and
prayed. Later in the year 1838 Mathias Schleiden (a botanist discovered that plant are made up of
many cells. In 1839, Theodore Schwann, a Zoologist also examined animals and brought out his
observation that animals are also made up of many cells. The discoveries made Schleiden and Schwann
and other scientists lead to the formulation of the cell theory in 1839.

THE CELL THEORY

It states that:
1.All organisms are made up of cells.
2.The cell is basic unit of life
3.Cells beget cells that is new cells come from existing cells. The cell exhibit all the characteristics
of life and therefore refers to as the basic function/ working unit of life. Living things are
grouped into two depending on the number f cells they have.

1. Unicellular Organisms: They are organisms which are made up of single or one cell. Eg.
Amoeba, paramecium, Euglena.

2. Multicellular Organisms: They are organisms which are made up of two or multiple
cells. E.g. Plants and animals.

TYPES OF CELLS
All cells are classified on the basis of the presence or absence of a nucleus, and if present, whether
or not it is membrane bound. On this basis there are three types of cells. These are: Akaryotic cells
–prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells.
Akaryotic Cells
These are the types of cells which have no nucleus. They have a nucleic acid core surrounded by
a protein coat. Akaryotes are organisms that do not have a nucleus. They depend on other living
organisms for their existence. Being able to grow and reproduce, only in the cells of other
organisms. They are also referred to as being non-cellular i.e. they are not cells because they have
no nucleus and other organelles. E.g. viruses.

29
 A virus
Prokaryotic Cells
These are the type of cells which do not have true nucleus. The cell has nuclear material, bit it is
not bounded by a nuclear membrane. There are no membrane bund organelles. Prokaryotes are
organisms that contain nuclear material that is not bonded by a membrane reproduction in
prokaryotic cells is usually asexual. After a period of growth, the cell divides into two similar cells.
Their nuclear material (DNA) lies free in a region known as nucleoid.
e.g. Bacteria and blue-green algae.

A bacterium

Eukaryotic Cell
These are cells which possess truce nucleus bounded by a nuclear membrane. There are membranes
and membrane bound organelles in the cytoplasm. E.g., plant cell, animal cell, fungi and protoctists.

Eukaryotic Cell Structure and Functions

When a cells is studied using an electron microscope a nucleus. Embedded in the cytoplasm can be
identified. The cytoplasm also contains other structures, each one bounded by a membrane each of the
structures in the cytoplasm is called an organelle. An organelle is a minute membrane bound structure
within a eukaryotic cell that performs a particular or specific function in the cell. Eukaryotic cells are
made up of three main parts i.e. cell membrane at the surface, cytoplasm and nucleus. It is compost of
many chemical substances, but is about 70% water.

i. Cell membrane: It is a thin membrane or layer which bound the outer surface of the cytoplasm. It
is part of living component of the cell and it is made up of lipids and proteins. It also has pores or holes
in it. The cell membrane allows some materials to pass through whiles others are not allowed. It thus
controls the passage of substances into and out of the cells. The cell membrane is described as semi-
permeable (partially). The semi – permeable nature of the cell membrane helps to maintain a constant
internal environment in the cell for optimum activities of the cells. The cell membrane also protect the
cell from external influence such as germs and pressure.

ii. Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm occurs beneath the cell membrane. It is jelly like in nature, like the
white or albumen of an uncooked egg. Within the cytoplasm are specific structures with the specific
function called organelles.
Examples of organelles found in the cytoplasm are mitochondrion, chloroplasts, ribosome, vacuole,
endoplasmic-reticulum, Golgi bodies, lysosome and centriole. Organelles divides activities of life at
the cellular level. That is organelles divides the cell into department.
30
iii. Nucleus: it is a dense, round or spherical body or organelle in the cytoplasm. It is bounded by
a membrane called nuclear membrane which allows substances to move into and out of the nucleus. It
contains thread-like bodies called chromosomes which contains the hereditary materials called genes.
The nucleus regulate or controls the life activities of the cell as well as cell division.

Cell as seen with Light Microscope

A plant cell as seen under light microscope (a generalised plant cell)

An animal cell as seen under light microscope (a generalised animal cell)

31
 Ultrastructure of Animal and Plant Cells
Ultrastructure of the cell is the fine structure of the cell as seen under electron microscope.

Structure and Function of Cell Organelles

An organelle is a minute membrane bound structure within a eukaryotic cell that performs a particular
or specific function in the cell. Examples of organelles are nucleus, mitochondrion, endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi bodies, ribosomes, lysosomes, vacuole, centrioles and chloroplast.
Some organelles have single membrane whilst others have double membrane enclosing them.
Examples of organelles: Mitochondria, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, vacuoles,
ribosomes and nucleus.
Examples of organelles that bounded by a double membrane: Nucleus, mitochondrion and
chloroplast.
Examples of organelles which are not membrane bound: Ribosome.
NB: The internal structure of organelles was revealed through electron micrographs.

NUCLEUS
The nucleus is the largest organelle in a cell. It is generally spherical or oval in shape and in animal
cells they are typically located in the center of the cell. The nucleus is the control center of the cell.
The nucleus is surrounded by two membranes, which together form the nuclear envelope. The two
membranes of the nuclear envelope are perforated by nuclear pores which connect the interior of the
nucleus with the cytoplasm. At these pores, the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope is continuous
with the inner membrane. Inside the nucleus, there is a matrix called nucleoplasm which contain
chromatin and nucleolus. The chromatin condenses and undergoes coiling into rod-like structures
called chromosomes, just before the cell divides. The nucleolus is very prominent in cells actively
synthesizing proteins. The nucleus contains hereditary material called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid),
which determines the characteristic of the cell. The nucleus also contains enzymes such as DNA
polymerase, helicase etc. responsible for the synthesis of ribosomal RNA (rRNA), DNA, and
coenzymes.

Functions of the nucleus

• It controls the activities of the cell through the process of protein synthesis.
32
 • It contains genetic material (DNA) that determines the characteristics of the individual cell.
• It is the center for the formation of mRNA.
• It initiates cell division.
• Site of ribosome subunit assembly.

Nucleolus
It is a small rounded body found in the nucleus, not bounded by a membrane.
Functions
Manufactures ribosomal RNA and assembles them.

Mitochondria (Sing. Mitochondrion)

It is a minute spherical or sausage-shaped or rod shaped organelle bounded by a double membrane. It
is separated by a fluid filled space. The inner of the two membranes. Is folded into cristae which
provide a large internal surface area for chemical reactions. On the surface of the cristae are enzymes,
which are involved in the release of energy in respiration for this reason the mitochondria are
sometimes called the “power house of the cell”. The outer membrane is smooth and controls the entry
and exit of chemicals. Between the inner and the outer membranes is a space called cisterna. The
matrix contains proteins. Lipids and traces of DNA. The number and arrangement of mitochondria in
the cell depends on the cell’s energy requirements. Cells which require much energy contain many
mitochondria, concentrated at the site of energy use. E.g. near the base of a tail of sperm.

Functions
1. It is the site for aerobic/cellular respiration for the release of energy.
2. The matrix enzymes which is the site of Kreb’s cycle.
3. It is the site for adenosine triphosphate (ATP) generation.

Lysosome
They are very small, spherical, fluid-filled bodies bounded by a single membrane, they are present
in the cytoplasm of most eukaryotic cells, but are abundant in animal cells. They contain many
enzymes involved in the intracellular digestive breakdown during growth and repair of cells.

Functions.
1. It contain digestive or lytic enzymes called lysosomes which breakdown structures or
molecules, within or outside the cell by autolysis.
2. Defends the cell against attack by bacteria, viruses and toxic substances.
3. Digests and destroy worn out organelles and parts of the cell, a process known as autophagy.
4. It isolates strong enzymes from the rest of the cell.

33
 Autolysis: Is the self-destruction of a cell by releasing the contents of lysosome within the cell.
For tis reason, lysosomes are sometimes called “suicide bags” or “self breaking down”
Autophagy: Is the process by which unwanted structures within the cell are engulfed and digested
within lysosome.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
It is an elaborate network of membrane bounded channels running throughout the cytoplasm. Its
membrane is continuous with the nuclear membrane. There are two types of endoplasmic
reticulum, rough or granular endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. The rough
endoplasmic reticulum has a rough surface of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is not associated
with ribosomes. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is more common in cells that secrete enzymes.
E.g. the pancreas and salivary gland in mammals. The endoplasmic reticulum is the frame work
which divides the internal volume of the cell into separate compartments.

Functions
1. Rough endoplasmic reticulum provides surface for ribosomes to attach themselves.
2. It is the site for protein synthesis.
3. It transports proteins from one part of the cell to another.
4. Smooth ER synthesizes lipids and steroids to build cell membranes.
5. Smooth ER helps to neutralize poisons.
NB: Protein synthesizing cells have a large amount of ER’s . Examples:
1. White blood cells which produce antibodies.
2. Liver cells that produce blood proteins
3. Pancreatic and salivary gland cells that produce digestive enzymes.

Ribosomes
They are minute, dense spherical organelles found in large numbers in the cytoplasm of all prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells. Some occur free in the cytoplasm whilst others are bound to endoplasmic
reticulum. They are composed of RNA (Ribonucleic acid) and proteins.
Functions
1. They are the sites for protein synthesis.
2. They bind amino acids together, forming polypeptide chains.

34
Golgi Bodies (Apparatus)
The Golgi body consists of a stack of flattened, smooth, membrane bound sacs called cisternae
(singular: cisterna) with a cluster of vesicles at the edges. They are present in the cytoplasm of all
eukaryotic cells but absent in those of prokaryotic cells (bacteria). The Golgi apparatus is the delivery
system of the eukaryotic cell. It collects, packages, modifies and distributes molecules that are
synthesized at one location of the cell and used at another. Golgi bodies produce cell membranes and
also make lysosomes. It is particularly abundant in secretory or glandular cells. Complex
carbohydrates are both synthesized and secreted from the Golgi bodies. In the plant cell, the Golgi
apparatus is known as dictyosome. It provides the materials to form new cell membranes during cell
division.

Functions
• It produces cell membrane
• It is involved in collection, packaging and secretion of complex carbohydrates and proteins
• Formation of spindle in cell division
• It makes lysosomes.

Chloroplasts
They are large egg or disc-shaped double membrane bound structures fond in the cytoplasm’s of some
cells of green plants they are found mostly in mesophyll cells of leaves. It has a system of three
membranes namely, the outer membrane, inner membrane and the thylakoid system. The outer
membrane is smooth and continuous. The inner membrane is folded inwards to form a series of layers
called lamellae or thylakoids. The outer and inner membranes enclose a semi-gel-like fluid known as
stroma. The stroma is the matrix in which the grana are suspended. The grana disc-like stacks of paired
membranes called thylakoid.
The thylakoids pass through the stroma, as intergranal thylakoids linking neighbouring grana. The
stroma contains starch grains. And enzymes involved in the dark reaction of photosynthesis small
amounts of DNA and lipid droplets are always present within the stroma.

Functions
1. It is the site of photosynthesis where organic food is synthesized
NB: The stroma contains the enzyme carboxylase.
The thylakoid contains the enzyme ATP synthase.

Vacoules
They are fluid filled sacs, bonded by a single membrane. They are fond in all cells, but they vary
greatly in size and function. Animal cell contain relatively small vacuoles, in comparison with those
35
of plant cells their functions vary e.g. food vacuole, autaphagic vacuoles and contractile vacuoles. The
vacuole of plant cells are large and surrounded by a membrane called the tonoplast. They contain a
fluid called cell sap, which is a concentrated mixture of salts, sugars, gases and water materials.

Functions
1. It regulates water content of the cell
2. It acts as strange organelle for food and excretory substances.
3. Provides turgidity/support in plant cell
4. Contain waste products and certain secondary products of plants and metabolism such as
tannins, calcium oxalate etc.

Centrioles
They are small rod-like structure which lie in pairs in the cytoplasm near the nuclear membrane. They
are numerous in animal cells. A centriole is made up of nine triplets of microtubules which are
arranged in a ring, forming a hollow cylinder. Each pair of centrioles lie close together with their axes
at right angles to each other. Centrioles separate and move to opposite poles of nucleus at the onset
of cell division.

Function
Responsible for the formation of spindle fibres during cell division.

PLASTIDS
Plastids are ovoid or spherical organelles found in plant cells and in certain unicellular organisms like
algae. They are bounded by two membrane which form an envelope. Some plastids store food while
others contain pigments. There are three main types of plastids, these are:
1. Chloroplasts 2. Chromoplast 3. Leucoplast.

Chloroplast: Contain the pigment chlorophyll (green) which is responsible for absorbing from the
sunlight and convert it to chemical energy.

Chromoplast: are non-photosynthetic pigments which are fond mainly in fruits and flowers and
ornamental plants (leaves). They contain mainly red, orange or yellow pigments which are commonly
known as carotenoids.

Function
Their bright colour attracts insects and birds for pollination and seed dispersal.

Leucoplasts: are colourless plastids which have no pigments. They are numerous in storage organs
such as roots, stems, seeds and young leaves where they store food.

CELL INCLUSIONS
These are the non-living chemical substances found in cells. They are not membrane bound so are not
part of the membrane system. They exist in soluble form in the vacuoles, and as insoluble substances
in the cytoplasm of both plant and animal cells, and in the cell wall of plant cells.
Examples: Include carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, fats and oils (food materials), tannins, resins,
gums, alkaloids, (waster materials), mineral (inorganic) crystals, such as silicon, calcium carbonate,
calcium oxalate, latex, organic acids. Respiratory gases (carbon dioxide and oxygen) are also present
in the cytoplasm.
36
 Differences between plant and animal cells.
Plant cell Animal cell
Do not contain chloroplast
Contains chloroplast
Do not have cell wall
It possess rigid cell wall
Small temporal vacuole
Have large permanent vacuole
Presence of centriole
Absence of centriole
Has no constant shape or form
Has a constant shape and form
Presence of more dense protoplasm.
Presence of less dense protoplasm
Carbohydrate stored food in the form of
Carbohydrate are stored in the form of starch glycogen.

SPECIALIZED EUKARYOTIC CELL

In multicellular organisms there are different types of cell with diverse shapes and sizes and have
specific function. These cells are specialized cell. Some specialized cells in animals include red blood
cell, muscle cell, sperm cell. Specialized cells in plant include root tip cells, leaf epidermal cell, and
leaf palisade cell.

Red blood cell: they are small biconcave disc, lack nucleus at maturity and contain the red pigment
called Haemoglobin.

Function:
1. Transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissue.
2. It transports carbon dioxide from the tissue to the lung.
3. It fills the pores in blood clot.

Red blood cell

Smooth muscle cell: they are spindle shaped elongated flexible tissues that have one nucleus in the
middle.

Function:
Contract to bring about movement.

37
 Smooth muscle cell

Nerve cell: long and thin, and has cytoplasmic projections.

Function: Transmission of nerve impulse from one part of the body to the other.

Nerve Cell

Sperm cell: they consist of their main parts; the head, the neck and the tail.
Function: Uses the tail to swim to reach the egg cell and fertilize it.

Sperm cell

Leaf epidermal: They are sheet of transparent closely packed cell found on the surfaces of plant.
Their transparent nature makes it possible for air to pass through the leaf to get to the spongy and
palisade layer for photosynthesis to occur. It also has waxy layer or cuticle on the cell wall.
Function: Protects he leaf from mechanical injury and reduces the rate of transpiration.

38
Leaf palisade cell: They are elongated, has large central vacuole and a peripheral cytoplasm. They
also have chloroplasts in the cytoplasm.
Function: They help in photosynthesis.

Leaf palisade cell

Root tip cell: They have thin cellulose cell wall with the absence of vacuole.
Function: They undergo cell division.

Root tip cell

Levels of organization in organisms

A multicellular organism performs many different functions to stay alive. For cells of an organisms to
carry out the different activities of life, they develop special features to perform particular functions.
A group of cells similar in structure and performing the same function is called tissue. Example.
Muscle cells form muscle tissue. Bone cells forms bone tissue in animals. In plant for example cells
of the lower and upper surfaces of a leaf are alike and forms the epidermal tissue. Another group of
cell just below the epidermal layer of a leaf is a group of similar cell whose principal function is
photosynthesis. This cell makes the palisade tissue.
Similar tissue or different kinds of tissues may lay adjacent to each other and consequently form an
organ which is able to perform a specific function. Examples of organs in mammals are heart, liver,
stomach etc.
A number of organs which works together or whose functions are interrelated forms a system.
Example: digestive system is made up of organs like Stomach, liver, intestine, oesophagus, and all
carry out parts of the digestive process.

39
All system together make up a complete organism.
Cell Tissue Organ Organ system Organism.

Unicellular organisms: Do not have all five levels of organization.

Forms in which cells exist

1. Single and free living. Example: Paramecium, Amoeba.
2. Colony example volvox.
3. Filament: Spirogyra
4. Part of a living organism: e.g. Epidermal cells, root hair cell etc.

Exercise 6
Answer the following questions

1. list three structures each that are found in:

(i) plant cells only;
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

(ii) animal cells only.

………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

2. State four structural differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………

3. If a cell actively synthesizes proteins, name three organelles that are likely to be abundant
in the cell.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………

40
4. Describe how the following cells are specialized for their functions:
(i) Palisade cell
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

(ii) Root hair cell

………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

(iii) Red blood cell

………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

(iv) Nerve cell

………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

(v) Sperm cell

………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

41
 MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCE IN AND OUT OF THE CELL
Substances are always moving in and out of cells. They move into and out of the cells in order to
obtain nutrients, excrete waste, to secrete useful substances to generate ionic gradient for nervous and
muscular within the cell for enzyme activity.
The ways through which substance move in and out of the cell are diffusion, osmosis, active transport,
and endocytosis.

DIFFUSION:
Diffusion is the movement of molecules or substances from a region of higher concentration to a
region of lower concentration until equilibrium is established.

Factors that affect the rate of diffusion.

1. Concentration gradient: the greater the difference in concentration between the two regions of
a substance the higher the rate of diffusion.
2. Temperature: Molecules moves faster when they acquire energy. The rate of diffusion is
therefore increased with increased temperature and vice versa.
3. Nature of particles: Smaller particles moves faster than larger particles. As a result
gaseous particles diffuse faster followed by liquids and solids.
4. Stirring: Stirring sets molecules of the solute in motion and allow them to move from the higher
concentrated region to low concentrated region.

Examples of diffusion in nature:

1. Absorption of mineral salts by the root hairs of plant from the soil.
2. Gaseous exchange in lungs.
3. Gaseous exchange in gills
4. Gaseous exchange in plants.
5. Movement of food, gases, waste product across the cell membrane of unicellular organisms.

Experiment to demonstrate diffusion in liquids

Aim: To demonstrate diffusion in liquids
Apparatus: Test tubes, copper II sulphate or potassium permanganate.
Methods: i. A test tube is half filled with clear and clean water.
ii. About 2/3 drops of potassium permanganate is added to the water in the test
tube.
iii. The setup is allowed to stand for a few hours.
iv. Draw and label the set up after a few minutes and few hours.

Observation: After a short time, particles of potassium permanganate spread themselves up from
the original point of drop in the water and diffusion continues.

2. After some few hours, the particles are uniformly dispersed throughout the test tube and the
whole water assumes the colour of potassium permanganate therefore an equilibrium is
reached.

42
 To demonstrate the process of diffusion in air
Aim: to demonstrate the process of diffusion in the air.
Apparatus: Bottle of perfume with a high scent,

Method:
i. Get a bottle of highly scented perfume.
ii. Close all doors and windows in the room.
iii. Stand at one corner of the room and spray the perfume into the air.
iv. Quickly move to the opposite corner from where you stood to spray the perfume.
v. Detect the time you were able to smell the scent of the perfume.

Observation: The scent of the perfume gets to all parts of the room after sometime.
Conclusion: Diffusion occurs in air (gases).

OSMOSIS
It is defined as the movement of water molecule from a dilute solution to the more concentrated
solution across a semi permeable membrane. OR it can also be defined as the movement of water
molecules from a hypotonic solution to a hypertonic solution through a semi permeable membrane.

Factors that affect the rate of osmosis.

1. Concentration gradients: The greater the concentration of the regions or solution the
higher the rate of osmosis.
2. Temperature: When temperature increase, the rate of movement of molecules increase
and this in turn increase the rate of osmosis.
3. Permeability of membrane;

Examples of osmosis in nature;

1. Absorption of water by the root of plants.
2. Osmoregulation in protoctists e.g. Amoeba
3. Opening and closing of stomata
4. during urine formation in the nephron in mammals.

Experiment to demonstrate osmosis in a living tissue

Aim: To demonstrate osmosis in living tissue.
Apparatus: Petri dish, Pins, water, sugar/ salt, knife, yam tuber or pawpaw or cocoyam.
Method.
1. Peel the yam and cut it into three pieces.
2. Make a cavity in each of the three pieces of the cut yam by scraping away some of the
yam with a knife.
3. Label the three pieces of yam with cavities A, B and C.
4. Boil the yam labeled C for about three minutes to kill the living cells.
5. Fill A with water, B and C with sugar solution and place them in a petri dishes filled
with water.
6. Mark the initial level with pins.
Observation: After two hours the level of water in B rises while that of A and C remain the same or
unchanged.
Conclusion: Osmosis occurs in living tissue and water moves from dilute solution to a concentrated
43
 solution.
Effects of osmosis in animal cells.
When a red blood cell is placed in a hypotonic solution water will tend to pass into the red blood cell
by osmosis. As the water continues to enter into the cell, the cell will swell and eventually burst. This
phenomenon is known as haemolysis. The red blood cell is said to be haemolised. When the red cell
is placed in hypertonic solution the cell will lose water to its surrounding by osmosis. This will cause
the cell to become wrinkled. This condition is known as crenation. A cell in this state is said to be
crenated.

Red Blood Cell Haemolyse

Effects of osmosis in plant cells.

The cell wall of plant helps to keep excess water from exploding the cell. As water enters the plant
cell, it becomes stiff. Water pressure forces the content of the cell against the cell wall. This is called

Turgidity can be defined as a condition in which the cell absorbs plenty of water up to a point where
the cell is fully stretched, firm and rigid.
Turgor pressure.
Turgor pressure helps to keep the leaves and stem of young plant stiff and upright. When the pressure
exerted by content of the cell outwards is equal to the resistance of the cell wall inwards, the cell is
said to be turgid.

On the other hand when the cell is placed in hypertonic solution, water will lose the cell by osmosis.
As the cell lose water the cytoplasm shrinks and the cell membrane get detached from the cell wall
and the vacuole reduce and becomes smaller. The shrinking of the content of the cell is called
plasmolysis. And the cell is said to be plasmolysed.

44
Importance of turgidity.
1. It keeps the stem firm and rigid
2. It give support to non-woody parts of plants eg. Leave and flowers.
3. It is a necessary condition for growth.

Active Transport
Active transport is the movement of solute particle substances from a region of lower concentration to
a region of higher concentration against the concentration gradient across a living membrane, using
energy from the cell.
Factors affecting the rate of active transport
1. Temperature: The rate of active transport increases as temperature increase.
2. Oxygen concentration: Active transport reduces when the oxygen tension is low because
oxygen is needed for cellular respiration to provide energy for process.

Examples of active transport

1. Absorption of mineral salts by root hairs of plants.
2. Absorption of digested food materials in the small intestines.
3. Selective reabsorption of some substances during excretion.

BULK TRANSPORT
This involves endocytosis and exocytosis. These are active processes involving the bulk transport of
materials through membranes either into cells (known as endocytosis) or out of cells (known as
exocytosis).
Endocytosis (Gk. Endon = within or inside; within cell): This is the process by which materials enter
a cell without passing through the cell membrane. The membrane folds around the material outside
the cell resulting in the formation of a sac-like vesicle or vacuole into which the material is
incorporated. The vesicle is then pinched off from the cell surface so that it lies within the cell. A
vacuole is a fluid-filled membrane-bound sac while a vesicle is a small vacuole. Endocytosis is of two
types namely; phagocytosis and pinocytosis.

Phagocytosis (Gk. phagein, to eat; cell eating): This is the process by which animal cells take in solid
materials. The cell engulfs or invaginates or takes in solid materials and form a food vacuole where
the food is digested. Cells that are specialized in phagocytosis are known as phagocytes (e.g. some
white blood cells) and are said to be phagocytic. The sac formed during phagocytosis is called a
phagocytic vacuole. For example, phagocytosis occurs regularly when a white blood cell engulfs and
digests a bacterium. It is also employed by Amoeba during feeding.

Examples or importance of phagocytosis

1. Used by Amoeba during feeding
2. White blood cells destroy pathogens by phagocytosis
3. Unicellular organisms egest undigested materials by phagocytosis

Pinocytosis (Gk. pinein, to drink; cell drinking): This is a process whereby substances are taken into
a cell across the membrane in liquid form. The vesicles formed in the process are very small and are
called micropinocytic vesicles.

Examples or importance of pinocytosis

1. In humans, pinocytosis is used by the egg cell to absorb nutrients from the follicle cells.
45
 2. Uptake of nutrients by the cells of the intestine containing microvilli.
3. Uptake of extracellular fluids such as hormones and enzymes by body cells.
4. Kidney cells use pinocytosis to separate nutrients from urine.
Exocytosis (Gk. Exo = outside; outside cell): This is the movement or discharge of materials from
the inside of the cell by packaging it in membrane-bound vesicles to the cell surface. The membrane
of the vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane releasing their contents to the exterior. Under
exocytosis waste materials can be removed from cells in the form of solid undigested remains from
phagocytic vacuole or the secretion of useful materials. An example of this process is observed in the
pancreas, where cells release digestive enzymes into a pancreatic duct for transport to the small
intestine.

Exercise 7
Answer the following questions
1. State four ways in which osmosis is of importance to:
(i) Plants;
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………
(ii) Animals.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………

2. A normal terrestrial plant was watered daily with a hypertonic solution for about seven days.
It was discovered that the plant was not doing well. Explain why.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………

3. Explain the following terms:

(i) Plasmolysis;
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………

(ii) Turgidity;
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………

(iii) Flaccidity;

46
 …………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………

(iv) Haemolysis.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

47
 LIFE PROCESS IN LIVING THINGS.

AMOEBA
(Amoeba proteus)
Amoeba is a unicellular protoctist which lives at the bottom of ditches and ponds, in mud and on the
surface of stones and rocks.
Structure
Amoeba has an irregular-lobed jelly like material when viewed under a microscope. The body is
bounded by cell surface membrane. Inside the membrane is the protoplasm (cytoplasm and nucleus).
The cytoplasm has an outer clear area the plasmagel (ectoplasm) and inner granulated region called
plasmasol (endoplasm). It has dense nucleus surrounded by the cytoplasm. A cell membrane also
called plasmalemma surrounds the ectoplasm on the outside. The endoplasm contains food vacuole
and contractile vacuole. Each food vacuole encloses food in a droplet of water. Projecting from the
body surface are the pseudopodia, a locomotory structure.

Nutrition
Amoeba feeds on microscopic algae and bacteria. When it senses chemical in nearby food particle, it
uses the pseudopodia to flow around them, capture and engulf it in a drop of water to form food
vacuole. Digestive enzymes are secreted from the cytoplasm into the food vacuole to break the
complex food substances into soluble forms. Undigested remains of the food are egested.

RESPIRATION: it does not have special respiratory structure. Oxygen in the surrounding water
diffuses across the cell surface membrane into the cytoplasm and carbon dioxide also diffuse out in a
reverse direction to the surrounding water.

EXCRETION: Metabolic waste products like urea, ammonia, carbon dioxide diffuses out through
the cell surface membrane into the surrounding water. Some waste products also get dissolved in the
water in the contractile vacuole and excreted alongside water in the contractile vacuole.

48
OSMOREGULATION: Amoeba has self-regulating water mechanism to maintain constant ionic
concentration. ie. Water and salt balance of the body fluid. As water collects in the contractile vacuole
due to difference in concentration between the cytoplasm of the amoeba and the water in which it
lives. Cytoplasm contain more dissolved salt than surrounding water, therefore water enter the
cytoplasm by osmosis. Contractile vacuole remove excess water from the cytoplasm, enlarges, moves
to the surface and bursting releasing its content to the outside this is termed osmoregulation.
Osmoregulation: Is the maintenance or regulation of water and solute (ionic) balance in an organism
or body cell.

IRRITABILITY: It is sensitive to its environment. If it comes in contact with chemical such as acid
or base it withdraws its pseudopodia at a point of contact, new pseudopodia are formed in opposite
side and the organism moves away in opposite direction. It show negative response to strong light and
positive response to food (moves towards food).

MOVEMENT: Locomotory structure is the pseudopodia. During movement new pseudopodia are
constantly being formed in the direction of movement, at the same time others are being withdrawn
from further back.

REPRODUCTION: Reproduces asexually by binary fissions. Binary fission is the division of a

single cell to produce two identical new cells. At the one set of binary fission, it withdraws its
pseudopodia and stops moving. The nucleus constricts and divides into two identical parts followed
by the division of the cytoplasm. Two identical new Amoeba are produced and feed and grow into
full-sized Amoeba. This occurs during favorable conditions. In unfavorable conditions eg. Drought,
amoeba encyst itself by forming tough resistant wall called cyst around it. Amoeba divides within the
cyst and burst to release daughters. This is called multiple fission.

49
 PARAMECIUM
(Paramecium caudatum)
Paramecium is a unicellular organism in the Kingdom Protoctista and Phylum Ciliophora.
Habitat: it is found in muddy fresh water ponds and ditches where there is a high quantity of decaying
organic matter.
Structure
Paramecium is flat transparent and slipper-shaped with round anterior end and pointed at posterior end
It has a stiff outer covering called pellicle. The pellicle consists of an outer membrane with numerous
fluid –filled cavities beneath it. Numerous hair-like structures called cilia (sing. Cilium) projects from
the cytoplasm. They cover the entire body. All cilia are inter connected at their base by fibres called
neuronemes. Beneath the pellicle are numerous oval capsules called trichocysts. When disturbed it
discharge long, fine threads to defend itself from intruders. It also serves anchorage to hold firmly
onto food during feeding. In the cytoplasm, like in amoeba, is distinguished into an outer dense or
thick ectoplasm or plasmagel and an inner granular and more fluid endoplasm or plasmasol. In the
endoplasm (plasmasol) are two unequal sized nuclei, the large mega nucleus and the smaller
micronucleus centrally placed. Also present in the endoplasm are anterior contractile vacuole and
posterior food vacuole. On one side of the body is an intrusion or opening called oral groove. The oral
groove leads to a canal called gullet or cytopharynx. The cytopharynx also leads to the cystosome or
mouth pore, which is the site for ingestion of food in paramecium.

Nutrition
Paramecium mainly feed on bacteria. It attaches itself to the food (substrate) with the trichocyst and
by lashing the cilia. Water containing bacteria draws along the oral groove into the gullet. The cilia
lining the gullet pushes the bacteria into the lysosome to form food vacuole. Digestive juices are
secreted into the food vacuole to break complex food into soluble forms. Soluble food products are
absorbed into the endoplasm. Undigested food is egested via the anal pore.

Excretion: Main excretory products are carbon dioxide from respiration and urea and ammonia from
break down of protein diffuse out across their cell membrane. Some of the products also move into
the contractile vacuole. For osmoregulation the two contractile vacuoles works alternatively. The
radiating canals remove excess water from the protoplasm, which burst after enlargement releasing its
contents to the outside.

Irritability: Paramecium is sensitive to touch, light, temperature and strong acids. When it encounters
an obstacle, it reverses the beating of it cilia and swims forward in a new direction.
50
Movement: Move about by means of cilia. The cilia beat rhythmically in a wave, which starts at the
anterior end and progresses backward. This produces a metachronal rhythm rotating the organism. It
moves backward by reversing the cilia.

Reproduction
Reproduction is by sexual and asexual means. Sexual reproduction is by conjugation and asexual by
binary fission.

Conjugation in paramecium
It occurs at unfavorable condition: e.g. food shortage. During conjugation, two paramecia called
conjugants come together with their ventral surface touching. Their cytoplasm then unite on the oral
surface. The mega nuclei break up and disappear. The micronuclei divide into four, three of them
disappear and the remaining one splits into two. One of the migratory nucleus passes to the other
conjugant and fuse with the stationary nucleus to form a zygotic nucleus. After the exchange of nuclear
material the conjugants separate and each undergoes binary fission twice to form four new young
paramecia.

Binary fission is similar to amoeba.

51
 EUGLENA
(Euglena viridis)
It is a microscopic unicellular protoctist found in ditches and ponds especially those contaminated
with urine and faeces of farm animals.

Structure
Euglena is spindle shaped and measures about 0.1mm long. It has unique characteristics of possessing
both plant-like and animal- like features. Body is covered by pellicles and cytoplasm is made up of
plasmagel and plasmasol. At the anterior end of the body is the gullet with a reservoir at its base.
Pigment spot is at one side of reservoir. Arising from the base of the reservoir also is one long slender
flagellum. Many rod like chloroplasts radiate from paramylum granules, starch storage complex. Thin
contractile threads called myonemes are also present in the cytoplasm.

RESPIRATION: Oxygen diffuses across entire body surface to breakdown food and carbon dioxide
produced also diffuses out in a reverse direction across the body surface.

NUTRITION: Euglena produces food through photosynthesis by trapping sun’s energy with the
chloroplast to combine simple inorganic substance, water and carbon dioxide to glucose. Excess
glucose is converted to starch and stored in paramylum granules. Glucose, mineral salts from
surrounding water is used for the synthesis of protein and other substances.

EXCRETION: the process is the same as in amoeba

IRRITABILITY: presence of light sensitive pigment spot to detect light, chemical and touch.

REPRODUCTION: it reproduces asexually by binary fission. The nucleus divides into two,
followed by the division of the cytoplasm, which split, longitudinally into two halves to produce two
new Euglenae.

Animal Like Feature

1. It has flagellum as a locomotory organ
2. Body covered by pellicle
3. Contractile vacuole for osmoregulation
4. Presence of gullet
5. It has light sensitive spot.

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Plant Like Features
1. Presence of chloroplast.
2. Presence of starch storage structures paramylum granules and pyrenoids
3. Carbohydrate is stored as starch.

SPIROGYRA
Spirogyra is a multicellular, filamentous chlorophyte protoctist and also a green alga.
Habitat: It is commonly found on the surface of water in ponds, ditches and slow – flowing streams
as a filamentous green mass of tangled filaments.

Structure
Spirogyra is seen with the naked eye as a thin, bright green threads or filament. Under the microscope,
however, the filament is found to consist of cylindrical cells joined end to end. There is no
specialization of cell type as found in more complex plants. All the cells look alike. The filament is
surrounded by a thick layer of a slimy protective mucilage. Each cell consist of cell wall made of
cellulose and vacuole field with cell sap occupies much of the cell. Nucleus is central with two rod –
like chloroplast spirally arranged. Starch storage pyrenoid is embedded in the intervals of the
chloroplast.

NUTRITION
Spirogyra contains chlorophyll and is therefore capable of manufacturing its own food from water and
carbon dioxide by photosynthesis. Many colourless ovoid and protein-like bodies called pyrenoids
occur in the chloroplast. The glucose formed during photosynthesis is converted to insoluble starch
for storage in the pyrenoids. Spirogyra is therefore Holophytic (Feeds itself)
IRRITABILITY: They are sensitive to light. They show positive response to diffuse light and
negative response to intense light.

REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is both asexual and sexual. Sexual reproduction is by conjugation and asexual is by
binary fission.

Binary Fission in Spirogyra

Binary fission occurs under favorable conditions. The nucleus constricts and divide into two. A new
cellulose cell wall forms to separate the nuclei and the other cell structures. Two daughter cells are
formed and each daughter cell photosynthesise, grows to normal size contributing to increase in length
of the filament.
Another method of asexual reproduction is called fragmentation.

53
During fragmentation, the filament break by splitting of the cross walls. Two shorter filaments are
formed and each filament grows to regain its original length.

Sexual Reproduction (Conjugation) In Spirogyra

Conjugation occurs in adverse conditions such as cold or drought. Two filaments lies side by side and
protuberance (lateral outgrowth) develops from opposite cells towards each other. When the
protuberance meets, the cell wall breakdown and form a narrow conjugation tube. Cell contents round
off to form a gamete. The gamete moves through the conjugation tubes to fuse with the protoplasm of
the other cell to form a zygote which develops a thick resistant wall to become a zygospore. When
conditions are favorable the zygospore split and a new spirogyra emerges.

RHIZOPUS
(Rhizopus Stolonifer)
It is multicellular organism belonging to kingdom Fungi and Phylum Zygomycota.
Habitat: It grows on moist decaying bread, fruit and other organic matter.

Structure
Rhizopus forms a mass of white, fluffy, interwoven (branching) fine threads called hyphae (sing.
hypha).This mass is the vegetative body of the fungus called mycelium. Each hypha has a cell wall
composed of chitin, which is made up of proteins and carbohydrate. The hyphal thread is hollow or
tubular and contains cytoplasm. The cytoplasm contains several scattered nuclei. Hyphae which are
less than three days old have no cross walls (i.e. non –septate) but older hyphae develop cross walls.
All hyphae are multinucleated. In the cytoplasm are number of nuclei and food reserves such as lipid
droplets and complex carbohydrate. Three types of hyphae make up the mycelium. They are stolons,
which grows horizontally on the substrate (food). The rhizoids, which are root-like hypae, arise from
where stolons make contact with the substrate, it absorbs food substance for hyphae. The
sporangiosphores are the hyphae which arise vertically from the point where stolons and rhizoids meet.
Their tips bears reproductive structures called sporangia. Sporangium produces spores.

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 NB: Rhizoids also provide anchorage.

Nutrition
Rhizopus feeds on dead organic matter and it is therefore a saprophyte (saprobiont). It obtain it food
saprophytically. The hyphae secrets digestive enzymes through the rhizoid’s into a food substrate such
as moist or stale bread to break down large food molecules (usually carbohydrates) into simpler and
soluble substances like glucose. The digested food is absorbed by the rhizoids into the cytoplasm.
Food in the cytoplasm is stored in the form of glycogen granules or oil droplets. Digestion by rhizopus
occurs outside the cell (extracellular) and brings about decay of the dead organic matter.

Respiration.
Oxygen from atmosphere diffuse through the hypha into the cytoplasm and the oxygen is used to break
food to release energy. Carbon dioxide also diffuse in a reverse direction.

Reproduction.
Rhizopus reproduces both asexually and sexually.

Asexual Reproduction
This method of reproduction occurs during favorable conditions by means of spores. First the tips of
the sporangiophore enlarges containing many nuclei in the cytoplasm. As the sporangium develops
the nuclei migrate to the apex (tip) of the sporangium. The sporangium are seen as the black dots on
the substrate (food). The central portion of the sporangium, containing vacuoles called columella cut
off from the rest of the hypha. The peripheral cytoplasm with the nuclei develops into the spores. At
maturity, the sporangia absorbs water from the atmosphere, swells and burst open releasing the spores.
Air aids the dispersal of the spores and when it falls on a suitable medium i.e. moist food like bread,
it grows into a new mycelium.
Sexual Reproduction
The process of sexual reproduction in rhizopus is called conjugation. Two hyphae in two different
mycelium unite. Structurally, the two hyphae are similar but functionally different and are referred to
as plus (+) and minus (-) strains. When hyphae of two strains meet, their ends swell with cytoplasm
forming the progametangia. Soon after the meeting a cross wall is formed to cut off the tip of each
gametangium. The cut off tips are called gametangia. These are joined to the main hyphae by
suspensor. The walls separating the content of the two gametangia breakdown and their content mix
and the nuclei pair up and fuse. The fused gametangia develop to zygospore with thick black resistant
wall. Zygospore can withstand dehydration and other unfavourable conditions such as heat. When
55
ripped the zygospore becomes disconnected from the hypha when the suspensor shrink. Zygospore is
then dispersed by wind and on falling on a suitable food substance, it germinates to produce hyphae
which grow rapidly into sporangium containing spores. Spores are dispersed on ripening and those
that fall on suitable substrate germinate into new mycelium with either plus or minus hyphae.

EXERCISE 8

1. Name three organisms that reproduce by conjugation.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………

2. State four reasons why Paramecium is considered more advanced than Amoeba in the
evolutionary trend.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………

3. State three structural difference between Spirogyra and Rhizopus.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………

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 MOSSES

Kingdom: Plantae
Division/Phylum: Bryophyta
Class: Musci

Habitat: They grows on damp or moist soil, on tree trunks, on branches of rainforest trees and on
rocks. Mosses are more tolerant of dessication and can survive in fairly dry place such as tree trunks.
Most Mosses grow in dense clumps or in large groups to form a thick carpet.
Mosses are found in moist habitat for two reasons. These are:
1. They lack vascular tissue (proper conducting system i.e Xylem and Phloem.)
2. Fertilization requires an outside source of moisture for the flagellated sperm to swim.

Structure
A typical tufted moss Brachymenium consist of a thin “stem-like” stalk supporting small leaf-like
structures. They do not have true roots, stem and leaves. At the base of the stalk are clusters of root-
like structures called rhizoids whose main function is anchorage. The stem also bears a whorl of leaf
– like structures, a short distance from the ground. The stem lacks conducting tissues. The leaves are
tiny and very thin structures usually one cell thick except at the center with only a mid-rib as their
distinctive feature. The rhizoids consist of a few simple cells. The stem, leaves and rhizoids constitute
the gametophyte. At a stage in the life cycle of moss, a slender stalk called seta, with a capsule having
a cap called calyptra at its tip grows up from gametophyte. This is the sporophyte.

Nutrition
Mosses feed holophytically through photosynthesis in the leaf and stem. Water, carbon dioxide and
mineral salts needed for photosynthesis are absorbed through all parts of the body surface as the
rhizoids are ineffective water absorbers. This is a functional adaptation because the moss has no special
transporting system.

Reproduction.
Moss plants reproduce both by sexual and asexual means and the two alternate. The moss, therefore
shows alternation of generations. The sexual phase involves the production of the male sex organ
called antheridium (plural; antheridia) and female sex organ called archegonium (plural;
archegonia). Both the male and female organs, the antheridium and archegonium, are produced
(borne) at the tips of the male and female shoots of the gametophyte or on separate gametophyte plants.
The male gametophyte has antheridia at the tip in which flagellated sperm are produced. The
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antheridium produces male gamete called antherizoid ie. (Sperms) and the archegonium produces
female gamete called ovum, egg or oosphere. After a rain or heavy dew, the antherizoid (sperm) swims
by flagella to the tip of the female gametophyte and enters the archegonium to fuse with the ovum to
form the zygote. The fertilized ovum in the female gametophyte develops into the sporophyte. These
consist of a long stalk, the seta, with a capsule at its tip. After fertilization, developing sporophyte is
retained within the archegonia. The sporophyte is dependent (parasitic) on the gametophyte. Meiosis
occur in sporangium and haploid spores are produced within the capsule. The capsule has a lid called
calyptra which drops off and the spores are released when the weather conditions are right. The spores
are dispersed by the wind. When the spores fall on a suitable surface it germinates into protonema, a
branching, green filamentous structure. Protonema give rise to a new gametophyte moss plant. This
type of life cycle is referred to as Alternation of Generation.

Alternation of generation: describes the life cycle of an organism in which there is two distinct
generations: the gametophyte i.e. the sexual gamete producing generation and sporophyte i.e. the
asexual spore producing generation.

Ferns
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Filicinophyta
Class: Pteropsida
Genus: Dryopteris
Habitat: Moist shady environments, trunks of trees or palm trees.

Structure
Ferns have underground stem called rhizome. Adventitious roots arise directly from the stem. With
these the fern is able to absorb water and mineral salts. The rhizome bears leaves called fronds. Each
frond is compound made up of several leaflets. The stem and the petiole are covered with numerous
brownish scales known as ramenta. Each frond has a main axis called the rachis from which pinna
arise. Pinna is divided into many green pinnules. Mature leaflets (pinnules) have sporangia on their
lower surface. Clusters of sporangia called sori (singular; sorus) are at the leaflet margins. A protective
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structure called an indusium (plural; indusia), covers each sorus. Sporangium produces spores which
are dispersed. The stem, leaves and roots have well developed vascular tissue.

Examples of ferns: Nephrolepsis (Common in West Africa), Platycerium, Phymatodes, Dryopteris,

Pityrogramena etc.

Reproduction
Ferns also exhibit alternation of generation. Spores develop in the sporangia, which are attached to
the leaf by a slightly thickened end called placenta. A complete sporangium is covered by a single
layer of thick-walled cells called an annulus. Matured sporangia burst on ripening releasing and
dispersing the spores. (This is caused by a weak line in the annulus along which the sporangium cracks
to release the spores when mature. The line of weakness is called Stomium). This is caused by the
shrinking of the indusia. Shrinking of the indusia allows the walls of the sporangia to dry out and
further drying out of the strip of cells called annulus. Annulus curls back violently, rupturing and
catapulting the spores out. Under favourable conditions of moisture and temperature, each spore
germinates into Prothallus. Prothallus bears antheridia and archegonia which are the male and female
sex organs or gonads on its undersurface and is therefore called the gametophyte. The antheridium
produces several multi-flagellate sperms and archegonium produces only an egg (oosphere).
Archegonium secretes chemical substance into a film of water on the surface of the prothallus to attract
the sperms released from an antheridium. If one reaches an archegonium, it fertilizes it to form the
zygote. The zygote (fertilized ovum) grows and eventually becomes a new fern plant, the sporophyte
which is dominant generation.

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 The life cycle of a fern.

Features of Biological Importance

1. Fronds are large and green, for maximum absorption of light for photosynthesis.
2. The surface of the leaves are covered with waxy cuticles to reduce excessive loss of water.
3. The sori are at the undersurface of the frond to prevent it from been washed away by rains.
4. They have vascular tissue for effective transport of materials.

Difference between a mature gametophyte of a fern and a moss.

MOSS FERN
The gametophyte of a moss is The gametophyte of a fern is
upright dorso – ventrally flattened
Moss have multi –cellular Fern have unicellular rhizoids
rhizoids.
Gametangia are located on the Gametangia are located on the
tips of the main axis or lateral ventral surface.
branches in the moss

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 Exercise 9
1. What is alternation of generation.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

2. Mention two groups of organisms which exhibits alternation of generation.

……………………………………………………………………………………..

3. Why is it advantageous for the spores (sori) to be located on the bottom surface of the
fern fronds.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

4. Explain why fern plants cannot survive in dry arid lands.

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

5. State two reasons why mosses are restricted to moist habitats.

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

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 INSECTS
Insects are the numerous of all animals and the largest class of all arthropods.

General characteristics of insects.

✓ Possess hard exoskeleton or cuticle

✓ Body divided into three distinct regions i.e.head, thorax and abdomen.
✓ Head bears a pair of antennae and compound eyes
✓ Thorax is made up of 3 segments: prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax.
✓ Each segment bears a pair of jointed legs
✓ Abdomen has 9- 11 segments without appendages
✓ Body covered with waterproof cuticle
✓ Complete digestive tract
✓ Open circulatory system
✓ Separate sexes.
✓ Fertilization is internal with direct or indirect development.
✓ Breathe through spiracles which lead into trachea
✓ Parthenogenesis in some
Examples: cockroach, ants, weevil, termite, cotton stainer, bees etc.

Life Cycle of Insects

Metamorphosis refers to series of changes of forms or shapes by insects and amphibians from the
fertilized egg (immature stage) to adult (mature stage or adulthood).
There are two types of metamorphosis, i.e. Complete and incomplete metamorphosis.
Complete metamorphosis is a life cycle involving four stages: egg, larva, pupa and imago (adult). It
involves a complete change of form at the end of each stage.
Examples of insects which undergo complete metamorphosis are butterfly, mosquito, housefly, bees,
tsetse fly and weevils.
Incomplete metamorphosis is a life cycle in which there is a gradual change involving only three
stages: egg, larva (nymph) and adult. The nymph stage closely resembles the adult except that it is
wingless and sexually immature. Examples of insects which undergo incomplete metamorphosis are
grasshoppers, cockroach, locust, termite, dragonfly etc.

Features of the Stages of the Life Cycle of Insects

Egg: the egg contains the fertilized ovum which develops into the larva.
Nymph: the nymph closely resembles the adult in structure except that it is smaller in size, wingless
and sexually immature. It feeds and moults several times, gradually developing wings and becoming
an adult.

Larva: it is worm- like in appearance, wingless, no compound eyes, and no well-developed head and
sometimes has no legs. It is an active feeding and growing stage.

Pupa: the pupa is a resting, immobile, non-feeding stage in which the larval tissues are broken down
and with a lot of reorganization taking place internally, which leads to the formation of adults
structures inside.

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Adult or imago: the adults is sexually matured organism and dispersal stages distinctive in all aspects
such as morphology, physiology and in behaviors. It possess wings in winged insects and it feeds but
does not grow.

Differences between complete and incomplete metamorphosis

Complete metamorphosis Incomplete metamorphosis
Changes in development stages are fast Changes in development stages are gradual
The stages after hatcing are distinct The stages after hatching are similar except in
size.
The young individuals and adults have The diet is similar in young individuals and
different diets adults
Young and adult differ in habitat Habitat is the same in young and adult

THE COCKROACH
Classification
Kingdom ------- Animalia
Phylum ---------- Arthropoda
Class --- Insecta
Order ---- Dictyoptera
Family ---- Blattidae
Types of cockroaches
There are two known species of the cockroach.
1. Blatta orientalis: Originate from central Asia and are darker. Wings are present in males only.
2. Periplaneta americana: is the common species of cockroach found in the tropics. They are nocturnal
(active during the night) wings are present in both males and females.

Habitat: the cockroach lives in dark places or corners such as kitchen cupboards, drawers, old boxes,
toilets, stored books and in cracks and crevices in walls. The cockroach is a household pest.

Structure
The body is elongated and dorso-ventrally flattened and has three body divisions: the Head, Thorax
and abdomen. It is dark brown in colour. The body is covered by a hard, thick chitinous exoskeleton.
The body segments are covered by plates of exoskeleton called Sclerites. The dorsal sclerites are
called terga (Singular Tergum) the thoracic terga are called Nota. The lateral sclerites are called
pleura or pleurites. The ventral sclerites are also known as sterma or stermites(singular : sternum.).
The Outermost layer of the exoskeleton consist of soft grease or wax, which makes it water- proof.

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 The Head
The head is small and is flattened and oval or pear-shaped. It is joined to the thorax by a short, narrow
neck called cervicum. It is held at right angles to the long axis of the body. The head bears pair of
large compound eyes at its sides. The compound eyes of the cockroach are made up of about 18000
light perceiving unit called Oomatidia. Anterior to the eyes is a pair of long, slender and jointed
antennae. The antennae are sensitive to touch, smell and vibrations. The lower part of the head bears
the mouthparts modified for biting and chewing food.

Mouthparts of cockroach.
The mouthparts consist of an upper lip or labrum and three pairs of jaws namely: the mandibles, first
maxillae and second maxillae or labium. The mouth parts of the cockroach help in “biting and
chewing” its food.

Functions of the mouth parts

Mandibles: thick hard and triangular appendages beneath the labium. Each mandible has a sharp
toothed for crushing food substances into pieces.

First maxillae: located on each side of the mouth next to mandibles for cutting and chewing. They
consist of a bitting blade and a jointed maxillary palp which is sensory in function, used for tasting
food.

Labium: the labium also called second maxillae are fused together forming a single large structure
which covers the mouth from ventral side. It bears a pair of jointed labial palps used for tasting food.

Thorax
The thorax consists of three segments: the prothorax, the mesothorax and metathorax. Each segments
bears a pair of jointed legs in its ventral surface which ends with a pair of sharp claws. The claws have
soft hairy pad called arolium(plural: arolia) between them to prevent slipping and helps gripping onto
surfaces. The tergum of the prothorax is larger than those of the mesothorax and metathorax paired
wings are attached to the dorsal surface of the mesothorax and metathorax. The fore wings (anterior)
are narrow, brown, leathery and stiff and are called the elytra. (Sing. Elytron) or tegmina (sing.
Tegmen). Elytra are not used in flying but cover and protect membranous hind wings (posterior
wings), which are the flight wings. Both pairs of wings have a network of veins running through them.

Leg of Cockroach
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A cockroach’s thorax attaches three pairs of legs. Each thoracic segment bears a pair of brown, jointed
walking legs attached to the ventral surface. All three pairs of legs are roughly of the same size. Each
leg consist of five segments joined end to end. The coxa is broad and attached the leg of the thorax.
Next to the coxa is the trochanter which is short and followed by a large femur and tibia. The last
segment of the leg is the tarsus. It consist of many small segments. The last or distal tarsal segment
ends in a pair of claws. There is a fleshy pad situated between the claws called arolium, the claw and
arolium enables the cockroach to grip onto surfaces on which it moves. The legs are used for walking
and running.

ABDOMEN: It is broader and more flattened. It is made up of ten segments but only the first seven
are visible. This is because the tergum of segment seven almost completely covers segment eight and
nine. There are ten pairs of spiracles on the sides of the body. Two pairs are located on the thorax and
eight pairs on the abdomen. The last segment in both male and female cockroach, bears a pair of short,
slender and jointed anal cerci. The anal cerci are sensory in function and are used for detecting Sound
vibrations. In the male the ninth abdominal segment bears a pair of short, slender and jointed anal
styles. The ventral surface of the males is also flattened. In the female, the more posterior abdominal
segments are modified into a boat- shaped genital pouch used for carrying the egg case or ootheca.

Differences between male and female cockroach.

MALE FEMALE
Presence of anal style borne on the ninth absence of anal style
segments
Narrow abdomen Broad abdomen resulting from enlargement of
seventh sternum to form genital ( pouch)

NUTRITION: the cockroach is omnivorous and therefore feeds on all types of food substances or
organic materials such as dead insects including fellow cockroach, books and clothing. They
particularly like sweet and starchy things. The food is seized, cut and chewed using the mandibles,
assisted by the maxillae.
During chewing saliva from salivary glands are secreted and moisten, soften and lubricate the food
thus making swallowing easier. The saliva contains an enzyme called amylase, which changes the
starch to maltose.
The chewed food passes down the oesophagus (gullet) into the crop where further digestion occurs by
means of enzymes from the midgut. The midgut secrets three enzymes namely amylases which
convert maltose to glucose, proteolytic enzymes (peptidases) which convert protein to amino acid
and lipolytic enzymes( lipases) which convert fats and oils into fatty acids and glycerol.

65
From the crop the food moves into the gizzard where it undergoes further grinding. The end products
of digestion, namely glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed by the midgut and
digestive caeca. The undigested food called faeces passes down the hindgut where water is absorbed.
The faeces are egested periodically through the anus, a hole in the tergum of the tenth segment.

The alimentary canal is distinguished into foregut, midgut and hindgut. The fore gut consists of the
buccal cavity, gullet, crop and gizzard. At the junction of the foregut and midgut are the mesenteric
caeca and between the midgut and hindgut are the malpighian tubules, which are excretory in function.
The midgut consists of the mesenterion and ileum where the hindgut consist of the colon, rectum and
terminates with the anus.

RESPIRATION: In cockroaches, and insects in general, gaseous exchange occurs in the fluid-filled
tracheal cells of the tracheal system. The tracheal system is an extensive network of internal air-filled
tubes called tracheae (sing. Trachea). The tracheae have walls made up of cuticle which are lined with
spirals of chitin to keep them open during gaseous exchange. They branch many times into minute
tubes called tracheoles. Tracheoles have thin walls. Air enter the tracheal system by means of spiracles
and their movement aided by contraction and relaxation of the abdomen. The cells use the oxygen to
breakdown food to release energy. Carbon dioxide is removed through the tracheal system and the
body surfaces.

EXCRETION: The excretory system in insects consists of tubules known as malpighian tubules. The
main nitrogenous waste is removed by the malpighian tubules. It absorbs uric acid which is passed
into the ileum (midgut). The uric acid mixes with the faeces and discharge through the anus.

IRRITABILITY: The antennae is sensitive to touch, smell and vibration. The touch receptors are
located in the antennae. The large compound eyes are sensitive to light and consist of numerous small
eyes called oommatidia. In addition some cells in the anal cerci are sensitive to vibrations.

MOVEMENT: cockroach can walk, run fast and fly, but only for a short distance. During walking or
running, the claws and arolium assist in gripping the surface.

GROWTH: growth occurs by the process known as ecdysis or moulting.

Ecdysis: is the periodic shedding of the exoskeleton of an arthropod to enable growth to take place.
Instar: is the nymph formed after each ecdysis or moulting. Or the nymph at each stage between two
ecdysis. Ecdysis occurs seven times in the cockroach, in the nymphal stages. The adult does not moult
and therefore does not grow.

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 Reproduction
Cockroaches undergo incomplete metamorphosis. During mating, male cockroaches use their anal
styles to introduce sperms into an opening at the posterior end (genital pouch) of the female to fertilize
the eggs internally. The fertilized eggs are stored in a purse-shaped egg-case called otheca which
contains about sixteen eggs arranged in two rows. The hard horny and chitinous ootheca is carried in
the boat-shaped genital pouch, of the female for a number of days and eventually deposits it in warm,
humid, dark and obscure places such as kitchen cupboards, drawers etc. Two to three months later the
eggs hatch into nymphs. The nymphs have the same features as the adult except they are smaller and
have no wings. They moult about thirteen times within 15 months before they finally become adults.

Economic importance

1. They are household pests that destroy books, shoes, food clothes and many household items.
2. They make food and water unwholesome by contaminating them with their faeces.

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3. They are vectors that transmit disease - causing organisms that causes diseases such as cholera,
leprosy and typhoid fever.

CITRUS SWALLOWTAIL BUTTERFLY

(Papilio demodocus)

The citrus swallowtail butterfly also called the lime butterfly, lives on citrus trees especially lime and
feed on their nectar and leaves.

Classification;
Kingdom: Animalia
Phyllum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera

Structure
The body of the butterfly is small and elongated. It consist of three divisions, the head, thorax and
abdomen.

The Head
The head bears a pair of large, bulging and globular compound eyes which occupy a greater portion
of the head. Anterior to the compound eyes on the head is a pair of long, jointed and club shaped
antennae. The antennae is sensitive to touch and smell. There are also three ocelli hidden among tiny
hairs on the head. On the ventral surface of the head are the mouthparts modified into a long, hollow
and flexible tube called proboscis. It is specially adapted for sucking nectar in flowers. The proboscis
is formed from the pair of maxillae and is coiled under the head when not in use. Other mouthparts
are the mandibles, the labium and the labrum. All of these are poorly developed in the imago and are
hardly used.

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THE THORAX: The thorax consist of three segments: prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax. These
segments are covered with hair and the divisions are not clearly seen. The prothorax is much reduced
in size and possess lateral scales called petagia. Each thoracic segment bears a pair of jointed, walking
legs. The mesothorax and metathorax bear a pair of large, membranous wings. The forewings overlaps
the hind wings and both are covered with scales. The wings are coloured, veined and covered with
scales. The hind wings have two eyespots each with the large spots at the anterior end and small spots
at the posterior end.
NB: The scales of the wings are believed to perform excretory function as they are brushed off because
the scales contain excretory compound uric acid.

ABDOMEN: the abdomen has ten segments which are covered with tiny hairs. The abdomen is black
with yellow markings to form part of the genitalia. There are pairs of segmentally arranged spiracles
on the sides of the abdominal segments used for gaseous exchange.

Life Cycle of Butterfly

Butterfly undergoes complete metamorphosis. The male deposits sperms into the female genital
opening. Fertilization is therefore internal. Fertilized eggs are laid single or in batches on under surface
of young citrus leave. The eggs are laid on under surface to protect it from direct rays of the sun and
to prevent it from being washed away by rain. The eggs hatches into larvae called caterpillars.
The caterpillars have powerful mandibles to feed on young leaves. Young caterpillar has a horn like
body divided into head, thorax and abdomen with three pairs of walking legs with claws. They feed
rapidly, moulting several times (about 3-4) times in three weeks to become fully grown caterpillar.
The fully matured caterpillar is about 4cm long, green with dark brown and orange spots.
The head bears fully developed mouthparts (mandible) for chewing. There is also the presence of six
simple eyes called ocelli. The thorax bears three pairs of true legs for walking which ends with a claw.
The 3rd to 6th abdominal segment bears cushion legs called prolegs. Prolegs have hooks to enable
caterpillar to hold onto surface (food). The 10th abdominal segment ends in a pair of claspers.
Claspers are used to hold caterpillar firmly onto stem and leaves. The dorsal surface of the first thoracic
segment has an orange – forked structure called Osmeterium, which emits foul smell toward off
predators and act as defensive mechanism. The 1st to 3rd segment bears spiracles for gaseous exchange.
The fully matured caterpillar stops feeding and find suitable place to pupate (resting stage). It secrets
a silk pad called cremaster on a twig and attaches its claspers to it. It then spins silk girdle around its
69
thorax to suspend the head upwards from the twig. The larva moults for the last time and changes to
pupa (chrysalis). During pupation, the pupa does not feed nor move. Tissue reorganization occurs into
adult organs such as antennae, eyes, wings, sex organs etc,
The pupal stage last for 11days after which the pupa split longitudinally and young adults (imago)
comes out and flies away.
Life cycle
Egg ------ Larva ------pupa --------adult (imago)

Economic Importance of Butterflies or Moth

1. Adult butterfly act as agent of pollination
2. The larval and adult stages damage leaves and fruits as they feed on them.
3. The common silk worm caterpillar produce high quality silk which is used for making clothes.
4. Some caterpillar are used in biological control of insect pest.

Difference Between Butterfly And Moth

BUTTERFLY MOTH
They are brightly coloured They are dull in colour
Antennae have knob at the tip Antennae are pointed at the tip
Smaller and less hairy Fatter and more hairy
They are diurnal insects They are nocturnal insects.

70
 THE GRASSHOPPER
(Valanga nigricornis)
Classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phyllum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Orthoptera
Family: Acrididae

There are short horned and long horned grasshoppers, depending on the length of their antennae. Some
are green and others are sandy-brown.
HABITAT: it lives among vegetation, open grassland, parks, farms and gardens.

STRUCTURE
The body comprises of three divisions i.e. head, thorax and abdomen. The head is triangular with a
pair of short antennae. Also on the head are two sets of eyes which include three simple eyes and a
pair of ovoid compound eyes. They have mouthparts well developed for biting and chewing. The
thorax consist of prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax but prothorax is large and extend to cover
part of the mesothorax and metathorax. The hind legs are longer and stronger than the fore and middle
legs. The fore and middle legs are used for walking and climbing.
The hind legs are enlarged and elongated for jumping. The fore wings are hardened, narrow and stiff
protecting the membranous hind wings which are used for flight. The inner surface of the hind legs
bears some hook like structures with which the insect uses to rub against the forewings producing a
characteristic sound. The abdomen bears eleven segments and on each side of first abdominal segment
is the tympanum (ear drum) which is sensitive to vibration (sound waves).
The last segment bears anal cerci. The ninth length and eleventh segments in the males are modified
to form claspers and aedeagus (Penis). The claspers are used to hold the female firmly during mating
while aedeagus or penis is used to introduce sperm into the female. In females the eighth segment of
the abdomen is modified to form Ovipositor (egg laying apparatus) for digging hole in the soil into
which eggs are laid.

Mode of Life
They are diurnal insects i.e. they are active during the day and are found in open grassland and farms.
They feed on grass, leaves and sometimes young stems of plants. They move by walking and leaping
but they can also fly short distances. Gaseous exchange is by means of spiracles and aided by the
abdomen. The color of grasshoppers gives it a camouflage to enable it to escape from enemies.

71
Grasshoppers are solitary; this means they move about singly, unlike locusts that can co-exist in
swarms. They undergo incomplete metamorphosis

Structural difference between adult grasshopper and nymph.

ADULT GRASSHOPPER NYMPH

They have wings They lack wings
Cerci is present Cerci is absent

Economic importance
1. They feed on leaves, stems of crops and cause extensive damage.
2. Destruction leads to low yield of crops which affects the farmer’s income.
3. The cost of control and prevention of grasshoppers is highly expensive.
4. Grasshoppers are also a source of animal protein for some human communities.

Exercise 10
1. Explain the following terms:
(i) Ecdysis;
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………

(ii) Instar;
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………

(iii) Metamorphosis.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
2. State two disadvantages of moulting in insects.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
3. Give two examples each of insects that undergo:
(i) Complete metamorphosis;
…………………………………………………………………………………..
(ii) Incomplete metamorphosis.
…………………………………………………………………………………..

4. Explain why the cockroach is considered to be a household pet.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

72
 WEEVILS
Kingdom---- Animalia
Phylum ---- Arthropoda
Class ----- Insecta
Order ----- Coleoptera
Family ------ Curculionidae

Weevils are the largest among all groups of beetle. Examples are grain weevil (Sitophilus oryzae),
bean stem weevil and cotton boll weevil.
HABITAT: adult and larva (grub) lives in grains such as beans, rice, maize and other in storage.

Structure
It is dark brown and about 2.5 mm long with hard exoskeleton. Like all insects the body is divided
into head, thorax and abdomen. The head is small, and is prolonged into a snout called the rostrum
which is about one quarter of the whole body. The rostrum has a set of biting and chewing mouthparts
at its end. A pair of bent, jointed antennae arise from the middle of the rostrum. Each antenna ends in
a broadened spoon – shaped segment called a scape. The thorax has three divisions namely prothorax,
mesothorax and metathorax with prothrax being the largest segment.
Forewings, which arise from mesothorax , have been modified to form wing- cover called elytra,
elytra are hard and tough and protect the flight wings which are the membranous hind wings. Each
thoracic segment bears a pair of jointed spiny legs. The abdomen has a small number of segments and
extends a little beyond the elytra.

Mode of Life
The life cycle of weevil is complete metamorphosis. The adult female grain weevil bore a hole in the
grain using the rostrum and deposits eggs both on field and on storage. She lays about 400 eggs. The
eggs hatch into white legless larvae called grubs and later develop into pupa in the grain. The adult
and grub eat into the interior of the grains reducing them into powder. The adult moves with its legs
and flies with its hind wings. Grubs are legless and move inside the grain be wriggling. They at times
behave dead as a way of defending itself from enemies.

Economic importance
1. The grubs and adult destroy large quantities of grains by rendering them useless either as food or
seed.
2. Money is spent on pesticides and provisions of adequate storage facilities.

73
 Control of Weevils

1. Fumigating stored grains with insecticide such as ethylene di-bromide.

2. Crops should be harvested early to prevent attacks by weevils
3. Harvested grains should be thoroughly dried before storage.

SOCIAL INSECTS

Social insects are specialized groups of insects which live in organized communities and show division
of labour eg. are termites, bees, wasps and ants.

TERMITES
Classification:
Kingdom --- Animalia
Phylum ---- Arthropoda
Class ----- Insecta
Order ------ Isoptera

Termites are white-yellowish, soft-bodied insects that live in organized communities where there is
division of labour. i.e. They are social insects. They are sometimes called “white ants” because they
resemble ants in appearance and colony life but differ from ants in the following ways.
1. By not having a narrow waist between the thorax and abdomen
2. Ants undergo complete metamorphosis while termites’ exhibit incomplete metamorphosis.

HABITAT: They live in ant hills or termitarium, old logs of trees, the timber of old wooden building.

STRUCTURE: there are three main castes system in termite’s colony and these are the workers, the
soldiers and reproductive.
A CASTE: consist of individuals which have become specially adapted for performing a particular
function.

EXTERNAL FEATURES OF THE CASTES

THE WORKERS: the workers exist as males and females and are the smallest (about 6mm in length)
and the most numerous members of the colony. They have no sex organs, no eyes, no wings, blind
and are not pigmented. They have well developed chewing and biting mouthparts and a pair of
antennae. The head is hard and brown. The thorax bears three pairs of walking legs and merges with
the abdomen. Workers function by building, repairing and cleaning the nest, feed the other members
of the caste and care for the nymph.

74
THE SOLDIERS: The soldiers, the mandibulate soldier and the nasute soldier. Soldiers are wingless,
blind and sterile.

MANDIBULATE SOLDIERS: they have a large hardened brown head with a pair of huge
mandibles or powerful jaws for attack and defense. The mandibulate soldiers have no sex organs, no
eyes and no wings but are pigmented. They use the large head to block tunnels to prevent entry of
intruders (enemies).

NASUTE SOLDIERS: The nasute soldiers have round head and lack powerful jaws. The head tapers
to a sharp point that bears a poisonous gland through which it squirts poisonous liquid against enemies.

THE REPRODUCTIVES: these include males and females with two of them becoming the king
and the queen. The head bears a pair of compound eyes and short antennae. This group also include
winged termites. The thorax bears two pairs of wings that are membranous. Three pairs of walking
legs are present with a dark brown abdomen which bears a pair of anal cerci.

THE QUEEN: The queen is the largest member of the colony with a white big abdomen swollen with
eggs. They have sex organs, eyes is pigmented but with only two pairs of wing stubs in place of the
original wings. The function of the queen is to lay eggs.

75
THE KING: is the second largest of the colony with a normal size abdomen. The king is dark brown
and lives in the royal chamber with the queen. They have two pairs of wing stubs. The sole function
of the king is to fertilize the eggs of the queen.

WINGED REPRODUCTIVES: They have reproductive organs, eyes and wings and are pigmented.
The two pairs of wings are of the same size and type.

NB: The winged termites comes out in the rainy season to begin the nuptial or marriage flight, which
is followed by the formation of new colony. After nuptial flight the winged reproductive become queen
and king of the new colony.

MODE OF LIFE
Macrotermes lives in a tall mounds (nest) called Termitarium or anthill. Termitarium is constructed
from sand and clay particles cemented together with the workers saliva. The outside of the mound is
dry and hard and the inside is warm and moist. At the center of the mound (Nest) is the royal chamber
where the king and the queen live.
It is made of hard clay. Interconnecting tunnels and passages surrounds the chamber. Termite’s moves
through these tunnels to find food and air pass through to ventilate the nest. The temperature inside
the nest is constant as well as the humidity therefore climatic changes outside the nest do not affect
the termites.
Termites feed on wood that contain cellulose, but it cannot digest the cellulose that forms bulk of its
food because it lacks cellulose –digesting enzymes. Cellulose digestion is aided by a protozoan called
Trichonympha which lives in the alimentary canal (intestine) of the termite, provides enzyme
cellulose to break cellulose down for the termite to utilize. The food is regurgitate to feed other
members of the caste system. The association between the protozoan and the termite is mutualistic
association.
Termites also construct fungus garden in their mound (nest), which is made up of wood and faeces in
which fungus grow. The fungus feed saprophytically and break the food down and the end products
of digestion utilized the termites.
Termites undergo incomplete metamorphosis.
76
Egg ------Nymph ------Adult (imago)

Economic Importance
1. They cause enormous damage to wooden materials eg. Stored timber, wooden building,
furniture, electricity poles etc.
2. They aerate the soil by their burrowing activities
3. They help in the process of decay and help in improving soil fertility by fixing humus to
the soil.
4. They destroy agriculture crops.
5. Their mounds (anthills / termitaria) are used in the construction of tennis courts and
cricket pitch.
6. Some people feed on the winged reproductive.

Control
1. Mud and wooden buildings should have concrete foundations to prevent termites from
gaining easy access to the wood.
2. Run away covers should be destroyed.
3. The soil around the building should be treated with insecticide such as BHC (benzene
hexachloride) to keep termites away.
4. Buildings should be checked regularly for termites.

HONEY BEE’S
(Apis meliifera)
Classification:
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : insect
Order : Hymenoptera

Honey bees are social insects and live in a hive made up of small hexagonal compartments called cells.
Some cells store honey and pollen while others serves as brood cells for eggs, larvae and pupae. The
cells made up of wax are cemented together to form a thick mass called honey comb.

77
 Structure
The colony consist of three castes namely; the queen, the drones and the workers.

The Queen
The queen is a fertile female. It has a relatively longer abdomen and shorter wings with mouthparts
poorly developed. Her legs are not specialized for any particular purpose unlike those of the workers.
The ovipositor is modified to form sting. The sting when used in defence penetrate deep into the victim
tissue, therefore it is left in the victim and the queen become deprived of its ovipositor and can no
longer perform its function of egg laying because of this reason it hardly uses its ovipositor in defence.
The sole function of the queen is to lay eggs. Her body is very hairy

The Drone
The drones are fertile males with mouthparts incompletely developed and have his tings. Their legs
are not specialized for any particular purpose. They have hairy body with blunt abdomen. Drones
spend much of their time sleeping and are driven out of the hive by the worker to die during adverse
conditions. They die of cold and starvation. The sole function of the drone is to fertilize the eggs of
queen during the nuptial flight. The drones die soon after mating with the queen because their
reproductive organ is pulled out of their body.

The Worker
They are small sterile females. The head bears well-developed mouthparts consisting of mandibles
which are used in moulding wax and proboscis for sucking nectar of flowers. Their heads also bear a
pair of compound eyes and a pair of antennae which are very sensitive. The thorax consists of three
segments, the first abdominal segment having been fuse with the third thoracic segment. There are
three pairs of legs which are highly specialized for collecting pollen and nectar.
The forelegs of each worker bears a tooth-like device called Comb at the anterior end of the tarsus,
with this the bee is able to clean pollen off its head, antennae and proboscis. On the middle leg is a
thickened hair- like structure called the prong on the tibia. Prong is used for picking up wax and for
digging pollen out the pollen basket. Tibia of the third leg bears a pollen basket and a brush. The basket
carries pollen as its collected by the bee and the brush sweeps the pollen from the hairs of the body
into the basket.

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Functions of Worker
1. They clean the nest
2. The collect honey and pollen from food storage cells to feed larvae
3. They produce royal jelly to feed the queen.
4. They ventilate the hive by fanning their wings
5. They protect the hive by chasing enemies away

Mode of Life
Bees are social insects, live in hive where there is division of labour among the caste system. The
queen mate only once with the drone when she goes on a nuptial flight (marriage flight) to start a new
colony elsewhere in a place already selected and prepared by workers. Several swarms may occur
within a year. The queen flies back into the hive with enough sperms in her sperm pouch to fertilize
the eggs she laid in her lifetime. The reproductive organ of the drone is pulled during mating and dies
soon afterwards. A fertilize egg hatches into a larva, which undergoes complete metamorphosis to
become either a queen or worker. An unfertilized egg develops to drone. The queen lives in a special
compartment in the cells and is fed on a special food called royal jelly secreted from a gland of the

79
head of worker bee. The larvae on hatching also feeds on royal jelly for few days after which their diet
is switched to pollen and honey.

Communication in Honey Bee’s (Bee Dance)

Honey bee on detecting a food source communicate to one another by returning to the hive and
announces the location of the food source by touch, smell and special movement known as a bee dance.
If the food source is close, they perform a round dance. She dances round and in circle going clockwise
and anticlockwise. Other workers gather round her and message is imparted and they fly off in search
of the food.
On the other hand if the food is further away the bee perform tail –waggling dance. She dances in a
figure- of – eight pattern followed by the other bees nearby. She wags her abdomen as she moves up
the middle of the figure. The tail- waggling dance give information about the distance of the source of
food as well as direction from the hive.

Economic Importance
1. They produce honey which is consumed by human beings.
2. The bee wax produced by bees is used in making candles, shoe polish.
3. Bee wax is used in making special wine called mead.
4. Bee act as agents of pollination.

THE COTTON STAINER

(Dysdercus fasciatus)
Classification:
Kingdom--- Animalia
Phylum ---Arthropoda
Class ---- Insecta
Order ----- Hemiptera

HABITAT
Inside the cotton bowl, under trees of cotton or silk cotton or cotton plantation.

Structure
The adult is about 12mm in length. Generally the males are smaller than the females. The mouthparts
are modified into a long proboscis for piercing and sucking. The head and prothorax are red whIle the
rest of the body is dark brown. The forewings have a hardened base portion and a more membranous
apical portion.

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 Mode of Life
The female cotton stainer lays about 100 eggs in the soil. The first instar nymph do not feed. The
second and third instar nymphs feed on dropped rope of decaying seeds on the ground. The fully grown
nymph feeds like the adult. The adult Dysdercus feed on cotton plants by pushing its proboscis into
the seeds of the developing fruit (boll). It then pumps saliva through the proboscis into the seeds. The
seed contents are partly digested and sucked up into the insect gut.

Economic Importance
1. They damage cotton plants by sucking the plant sap.
2. They transmit viral and fungal (diseases to the plant)
3. When they feed on the seeds of half opened cotton bolls, their excreta stains the cotton lint Yellow
thus damaging the lint.

Control
1. The developing bolls should be sprayed with insecticides such as carbaryl.
2. The young bolls can also be dusted with a mixture of BHC and DDT to kill the buds.
3. Small plantations can be fenced in and chickens allowed to run freely among the plants and feed on
the bugs.

MOSQUITO.

NB: Male mosquito do not take blood. They feed on nectar and plant juices.
Female mosquito feed on blood of animals. The female bites to sack blood to nourish its eggs.
Species of plasmodium.

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Plasmodium falciparum
Plasmodium vivax
Female mosquito inject saliva into the wound of its victim, to prevent blood from clotting. The
pathogen is contained in the saliva.
Pathogen is a disease causing organisms. In the process the parasite is introduced into the blood
streams of the victim.

Life cycle of the anopheles mosquito

Mosquitos undergoes complete metamorphosis.
i.e. Egg Larva Pupa Adult mosquito.

1. The egg. : The anopheles mosquitoes eggs that floats above the surface of water i.e. ditches,
bottles, tins and coconut shell. The egg flows single in anopheles or in cluster forming boat- like
structures called raft, in culex. The culex has a siphon for breathing. After one or two day the egg
hatches into larvae, which just lie beneath the surface of the water. They are kept in that position by
surface tension of water.

2. Larva: the larva is legless and moves by actively twisting the body. The larva has three body
division i.e. head, thorax and abdomen.

How does the larva obtain oxygen.

A tube called the siphon project from the eight (8th) segment of the culex. The siphon breaks through
the surface film and opens to the atmosphere. The siphon and the gills serve as respiratory organs.
There is no siphon in the anopheles larva. The larvae have a pair of spiracle found on the 8th segment
of the abdomen for gaseous exchange. The spiracle leads into a breathing system called tracheal
system.
At the anterior end is a mouth brush which sink in water and filters the water for microscopic
organisms for food i.e. filter feeding/ fluid feeding. The larva stage last for two weeks. It undergoes
four moults before changing into pupa.

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PUPA: The body is divided into the head, thorax and abdomen. The pupa is a comma-shape when
viewed from the lateral side. The head and thorax are merged into a cephalothorax with the abdomen
curving around underneath. As with the larvae pupa must come to the surface frequently to breathe,
which they do through a pair of respiratory trumpet on the cephalothorax. The pupa is able to move
vigorously by actively flicking its abdomen. It breaths through two breathing trumpet which are attach
to the hind region of the thorax.

Adult mosquito: The adult anopheles mosquito have slender bodies with three sections since the
mosquito is an insect. The ear is specialized for acquiring sensory information and for feeding. The
head contains the eyes and a pair of long many segmented antenna. The antenna are important for
detecting post odors such as well as odors of bleed site where female lay eggs. The head also has an
elongated, forward-projecting proboscis use for feeding and two maxillary pulps. The thorax with a
pair of wings are attach to the thorax. The abdomen is specialized for food digestion and egg
development. This segmented body parts expand considerably when a female takes a blood meal. The
blood is digested overtime serving as of protein for the production of eggs, which gradually fill the
abdomen.

Exercise 11
1. What is a caste?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….

2. Mention the castes found in:

(i) termites nest;
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

(ii) bee hive.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. State two differences between the king and the queen termites
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….

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 TILAPIA
Classification
Kingdom ---- Animalia
Phylum ------ Chordata
Class ---- Osteichythes

HABITAT: Tilapia is a freshwater bony fish that lives in ponds, rivers, streams, lakes, lagoons and
brackish water.

Structure
The body is streamlined and laterally flattened, with a head and trunk which tapers to the tail.
Streamlined body enable fish to move quickly and smoothly through the water with little or no
resistance. The skin is covered with bony scales which overlap each other like tiles and point
backwards. He scales protect the fish and prevent water from passing through the skin (water proof)
without hindering its movement. The skin also has pigment cells, which can change the color of the
fish from time to time. The ventral surface of the fish is often lighter than the dorsal surface. This helps
to conceal the fish when light shines on it from above. Also have darker stripes on sides serving as
camouflage against predators and blend in with the seaweeds among which they lie. The wide terminal
mouth has small sharp teeth on the upper and lower jaws.
Above the mouth is a pair of nostrils which enable the fish to smell food and also play no role in
breathing. On each side of the head is a flap of skin stiffened by bones called operculum. This protects
the gills and also water leaves the gills through the operculum.
The head bears one large, round and bulging simple eye on either side. The eyes lack eyelids but are
protected by a layer of transparent membrane. The head joins the trunk directly without a neck. On
each side of the body is a lateral line just below the skin. The lateral lines are sensitive to pressure
variations or changes, vibrations and movements in water, enabling the fish to escape from enemies.
Projecting from the body are extensions of the skin called fins.
The fins are supported by bony rods called fin rays. There are both paired and unpaired fins. Paired
fins help keep the body stable during movement. i.e. pectoral and pelvic fins. Unpaired fins usually
stand upright in water. ie. Dorsal, caudal and anal fin. Dorsal fin is found along the dorsal midline
and an anus is located on the ventral side. Behind the anus is the ventral fin. The pelvic fins are found
near the anus and the tail bears the caudal fin. The pectoral fins are found just behind the operculum.

84
 Movement
The fins are well adapted for movement. They move by swimming in water. The caudal fin beats from
side to side to propel the fish forward. The slimy body surface together with the backwardly pointing
scales allows easy movement in water. The swim bladder, a gas - filled sac whose pressure can be
altered enables the fish to move up and down in the water without swimming. This is called buoyancy.
Yawning: is the tendency of the body to zigzag from side to side. That is the lateral movement of
fish. This is controlled by the dorsal fin, ventral (anal fin and tail or caudal) fin.
Rolling: is the rotation of the body around its longitudinal axis. i.e. rocking from side to side. This is
controlled by dorsal and anal fins.
Pitching: is the tendency of the head to rise and fall. It is controlled by the pectoral and pelvic fin.

Nutrition
Tilapia feeds mainly on plankton (i.e. algae and some protozoan) but also on worms and crabs. The
wide gape of the mouth allows a lot of water into the buccal cavity and through the gill rakers (slits)
into the gill chambered to the outside. As the water flows through the gill rakers filter food particles
in the water and direct them into the pharynx behind the buccal cavity and is then swallowed. The
water then escapes through operculum into the external environment. This method of feeding is
described as filter feeding.
Gaseous Exchange
The gills of the fish are well developed for gaseous exchange. During breathing the fish opens its
mouth to take in water containing dissolved oxygen while the operculum is pressed to the head (closed)
the water enters and flows over the gill filament. The gill filaments are thin walled and highly
vascularized. Providing a large surface area for absorption of oxygen. As water enters the gill chamber,
the mouth closes, the floor of the mouth is raised, building up pressure in the mouth. The pressure
forces the water to flow over the gills filaments pushing the operculum open. As water passes over the
filaments, oxygen in the water diffuses into blood capillaries of the filaments. At the same time,
Carbon dioxide in the capillaries diffuses into the water. The oxygen in the blood stream is carried to
various parts of the body for tissue respiration.

Excretion
Tilapia have kidneys which they use to eliminate waste products from their bodies. The nitrogenous
waste substance excreted is mainly ammonia and it is removed by the kidney in urine. Carbon dioxide
is excreted by diffusion out of the body through the gills.

Reproduction
Tilapia breed throughout the year in the tropic. The breeding process begins with colours on the fish
becoming more distinct, especially in the males. Breeding takes place at the spawning grounds. Laying
of eggs in fish is called spawning. When eggs of the female are mature, they are laid. Immediately
eggs are spawned, the males shed sperms on them to fertilize the eggs, therefore fertilization is eternal.
85
Some species of tilapia spawn into nests made in the sand on the floor of the water in which they hatch
and are matured enough to live independent life.
The species that use the nests are called bottom or substrate spawners. In other species of tilapia,
the fertilized eggs are carried in the mouth of the male fish for about two weeks until they hatch. This
group of fish use their mouths as a nest for incubation and are called mouth brooders. The male fish
do not feed when they carry the eggs in their mouths, they live on food stored in the body.
In bottom spawners, both male and female fish protect the eggs in the nest from intruders. In mouth
brooders, the mouth brooding and protection may be by both male and female. It may also be by the
female alone. The eggs hatch into very tiny fish called fry. The fry are protected in the same way as
the eggs till they can live on their own. Tilapia therefore show parental care.

Advantages of Mouth Breeding

1. Mouth breeding protect the eggs and ensures its safety.
2. The parents can relocate and avoid enemies, while carrying the eggs with them.

Disadvantages
1. Parents may accidentally swallow some egg when frightened.
2. Feeding ceases in the male fish.
3. Metabolic activities such as respiration slows down leading to production of less energy
and hence become less active.
4. When the fish is caught and swallowed by a carnivorous fish, a whole family is
destroyed.

THE COMMON AFRICAN TOAD

(Buffo regularis)
Classification
Kindom ------ Animalia
Phylum ----- Chordata
Class ----- Amphibia

HABITAT: lives in moist shady places, often hiding under stones, within crevices and holes in the
ground, tree trunks, stagnant water, pool of water, freshwater pond and in ditches containing water.

They are adapted to both terrestrial and aquatic life (amphibians)

Amphibians: These are cold – blooded animals which live partly in water and partly on land.
Examples include toads, frogs, salamanders, newts etc.

Structure
The body is streamlined with a wedge- shaped head and trunk. There is no neck or tail, the absence of
neck enables water to flow over the body more easily and also allows the toad or frog to hop more
efficiently. The body is covered with dry, loose warty skin which is greyish brown. They are
poikilothermic (cold blooded) and hence often changes colour to match with its surroundings
providing camouflage against predators. The mouth is extremely wide with long sticky tongue
attached to the front of the lower jaw. These features enable toad to catch insets and other invertebrates.
Above the mouth is a pair of nostrils and behind it is the eyes situated high on the head to give wide
field vision. Each eye has eyelids. The upper eyelid is not movable but the lower eyelid is moveable.
The lower eyelid has the nictating membrane to protect the eyes from the glave of the sun, cleans
and moisten the eye. An ear drum (tympanum) that can detect vibrations in air or water is situated
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behind and below each eye. Behind the eye is the poison gland which secretes thick, milky, foul tasting
substance when the animal is attacked by a predator.
The forelimbs are short and thick with four unwebbed digits. The hind limbs are very long and
powerful with five webbed digits. The hind limbs are used to lift the toad off the ground when hopping
while the fore limbs absorb the shock of landing after hopping. The web digits of the hind limbs
provides large surface area to push against water when swimming. Cloaca is located at the posterior
end combining anal and reproductive opening ( urino- genital organ) for the discharge of faeces, urine
and sperms.

Nutrition
The toad feeds on insects and worms using their tongue to capture them. It suddenly flicks out the
tongue rapidly toward the insects which is captured on the sticky mucus on its tongue. The tongue is
then drawn back into the mouth and the insects is swallowed whole. Swallowing is aided by the eyes
sinking into the head and pressing on the food. NB: small teeth in the mouth prevent the prey from
escaping.

Movement
Toads move by hopping, leaping and crawling on land and in water it moves by swimming. Movement
in water is aided by webbed digits. It pushes backwards against the water to move the body forward.
Change in direction during swimming is achieved by the webbed muscular hind limbs. When at rest,
the fore limbs are extended and the long, muscular and powerful hind limbs are folded in the shape of
the letter ‘Z’. In order to hop, the ling, muscular and powerful hind limbs are suddenly extended or
stretched. This produces a thrust which lifts the toad from the ground and pushes it forward and
upwards at an angle. Before landing, the fore limbs are stretched forward and take the shock of landing.
At the same time the hind limbs are withdrawn.

Gaseous Exchange
The adult toad and frog has three different methods of respiration, namely, cutaneous respiration
(skin), buccal respiration (mouth) and pulmonary respiration (lungs).

CUTANEOUS RESPIRATON: the skin of the toad is thin – walled, moist and highly vascularized.
When in water, dissolved oxygen diffuses through the skin into the blood. The absorbed oxygen is
then used to oxidize food to release energy. Carbon (IV) oxide evolved, diffuses out through the skin
in the surrounding water.
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BUCCAL RESPIRATION: it occurs when the toad is on land resting. When on land in a resting
position, the toad uses capillaries in the lining of the buccal cavity to exchange carbon dioxide in its
blood for oxygen from air. To achieve this, the toad gulps air into the mouth and uses the floor of the
buccal cavity as a pump to press the air to the lining of the mouth and then out. By pressing air against
the mucus lining of the mouth, blood capillaries in the mouth exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen in
the air.

PULMONARY RESPIRATION: lung breathing occurs only when the toad or frog is active on land
and needs a lot of oxygen. To obtain the oxygen, it gulps air into the mouth, closes it and by raising
the floor of the mouth forces the air into its lungs. In the lungs, blood capillaries exchange carbon
dioxide for oxygen in the air. Oxygen is then used by the cells to break down complex food substance
to release energy.
NB: cutaneous respiration is effective in frogs than toads because the skin of frog is thin while toads
have thicker, dry skin.

EXCRETION: the kidney excretes urea which is the main nitrogenous waste, water and salts. These
are removed in urine through the cloaca. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood in the lining of the
buccal cavity, lungs and skin.

REPRODUCTION: Reproduction in toad is sexual and takes place in water, usually during the rainy
season. During the breeding season toads gather at the edge of standing water. The males croak loudly
to attract the females for mating. The female toad is larger than the male because her trunk region is
swollen with eggs. During mating, the male mount on the female holding her firmly with its nuptial
pads found on the underside of the fore limbs. The male remains there for about 2 – 3 days until the
female lays eggs. As the eggs are laid, the male sheds sperm on them immediately to fertilize the eggs.
Thus fertilization is external. Eggs are surrounded by a layer of jelly as they are laid. Jelly is a protein
called albumen.

Functions of the jelly substance that surrounds the eggs of a toad or frog.
1. Protect the eggs from infection by bacteria
2. Enable the eggs to float on the water surface.
3. It prevent the eggs from drying up.
4. It is distasteful and slippery for predators.
5. It protects the eggs from mechanical injury.
6. Prevent overcrowding of the eggs to promote development and better circulation of air.
The strings of jelly in which eggs are laid is called toad spawn. The eggs hatch after each day to
tadpole (larva) and wriggle out of the jelly. The tadpole develops to adult toad through metamorphosis.
Note that there are no parental care in toads.

Stages involved in development of tadpole

The development of the egg and the changes or metamorphosis consist of three main stages.
1. Tadpole from egg
2. Aquatic tadpole changes into air breathing amphibian
3. Toad sexually matures.

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NB: Tadpoles have tails for swimming and gills for respiration. As they grow to air breathing
amphibians, they develop hind and forelimbs, tail disappear and the gills change to lungs.

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 EXERCISE 12
1. Name the fin(s) that prevent the following movements of Tilapia during swimming:
(i) Pitching;
………………………………………………………………………….

(ii) Rolling;
…………………………………………………………………………

(iii) Yawing.
…………………………………………………………………………..

2. Tabulate three(3) structural differences between tilapia and tadpole.

………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. Why does a male toad croak?
………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….

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 AGAMA LIZARD
(Agama agama)
Classification:
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptillia
The rainbow lizard (Agama agama) is a common example of reptiles in West Africa. It is active during
the day and thus said to be diurnal. Other examples of reptiles are snake, turtle, tortoise, crocodiles
etc.
HABITAT: They are found in open grassland, on walls ceilings of buildings, people’s homes etc.

STRUCTURE
The body is divided into head, neck and trunk. It also has a long tapering tail. The head is wedge –like
with terminal mouth containing teeth of the same size (homodont dentition) and sticky tongue. Just
above the mouth is a pair of nostrils and bulging eyes providing wide sideways field of view. Eyelids
protect the eyes and nictitating membrane.
Slightly below the eye is the tympanum for detection of sound vibration. Below the chin is the gular
fold which is lowered during courtship or when frightened.
Head is separated from trunk by short neck. Arising from the mid dorsal line of the male is a spiny
backwardly pointed single row of scales called nuchal crest. Nuchal crest is raised during fighting.
The trunk bears a pair pentadactyl fore and hind limbs. Pentadactyl limbs have five digits which end
in a claw. Beneath the base of the tails is the cloaca opening called vent. Dry, horny overlapping scales
cover the whole body of lizard.

Nutrition
Agama lizard feed on insects especially grasshoppers and ants, with which it picks with the sticky tip
of the tongue. Sharp teeth and powerful jaw is used to seize and crush insects before swallowing.

Gaseous Exchange
Respiration is by lungs. Air enters the nostrils and to the lungs. Breathing can be observed by rapid
expansion and contraction of the anterior trunk. In the lungs oxygen diffuse into the blood capillaries
and to the cells where it is used to break food to release energy. Carbon dioxide is removed through
the nostrils.
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 Movement
Lizards run in short rapid bursts along the ground and up tree trunks and vertical walls. Climbing is
made possible by the claws, which grip the surface firmly.

Excretion:
The main nitrogenous waste is uric acid. This is the white substance which comes out along with the
faeces and excreted by the kidney. It is excreted through the vent (cloaca). Excretion of solid uric acids
is an adaptation to conserve water. Carbon dioxide is excreted by the lungs.

Reproduction
The adult male lizard called cock mates with the adult female in their colony. Mating is preceded by
courtship. During courtship, the female postures before the males by curving her back and lifting her
tail in front of the male. The male responds by chasing and mounting on the female in such a way that
their vents are aligned. The pre- anal pads of the male help to achieve this. Sperms are passed into the
vent of the female and internal fertilization occurs in the oviduct.
The fertilized eggs are large, containing a large quantity of yolk and covered by tough, leathery
calcareous shell. Eggs are laid 5 – 7 in a hole dug by the female and covered by soil. The eggs absorb
water and swell. The eggs hatch after 7 weeks. Newly hatch lizard is about 11 cm long and feeds on
insects to grow. Males may not mate until after two years when they become cock lizards and females
become sexually mature after 14 months.
NB: A cock lizard is polygamous i.e. he mates with all the mature females within their territory. They
show sexual dimorphism i.e. Males and females are distinctly different in appearance.

Mode of Life of Lizards

Agama lizard live together in small groups or colonies called territory. A colony may comprise of six
to twelve individuals. A colony may consist of one brightly coloured adult male, adult females and
young ones. Agama lizards are diurnal (active during the day). The cock lizard defend their territory
against intruders by changes of colour and tail lashing. Lizards bask in the sun to raise their body
temperature and when their body temperature becomes high during the middle of the day, they take
shelter under stones and vegetation’s.

Difference between male and female lizard

Male Female
Prominent nuchal crest Reduced nuchal crest
Bigger and more brightly coloured Small and dull in colour
Prominent gular fold Reduced gular – fold
Cloaca opening is surrounded by pre –anal pad Absence of pre –anal pads around cloaca
Head is orange or red Head is brown with green spots.

Structural Difference Between Lizard And Toad

LIZARD TOAD
Skin is dry skin is moist
Scales present Scales absent
Tail present in adults Tail absent in adults
Absence of webbed digits Presence of webbed digits
Gular fold present Gular fold absent

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 Digits ends with sharp claw Digits with no claw
Presence of nuchal crest Absence of nuchal crest
Forelimbs have five digits Fore
Neck present Neck absent

DOMESTIC FOWL
(Gallus domesticus)
Classification:
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves.

Habitat
Birds live on trees (aboreal) and few live in land. The body is covered with feathers and these give
smooth and streamlined surface. Feathers are made of the protein, keratin. The body is divided into
head, neck, trunk and tail.

STRUCTURE
THE HEAD: the head bears the beak, eyes, ear openings and nostrils. Eye is protected by eyelids and
a membrane. On top of the head is a thick fleshy skin called the comb. Below the beak is a pair of red
folds of skin, the wattle. Wattle and comb are larger in males (cockerel) than in females.

THE NECK: the neck is covered by feathers and join the head to the trunk.

THE TRUNK: fore and hind limbs arise from trunk. Fore limbs are modified to form wings. The
hind legs and toes are covered by overlapping scales with digits which ends in a sharp claw. Three
digits are directed forward and fourth one points backwards.

THE TAIL: It is short covered with quill feathers and has an oil gland under it. The oil from this
gland keeps the feathers waterproof. On the ventral side of the tail is the cloaca.

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 Nutrition
Domestic fowl feed on insects, worms, vegetables, grains and animal food. They are omnivorous. It
uses its sharp claw to scratch the surface of the ground in search of food pick the food with the beak.
The food is then swallowed. Swallowed food first enters the crop where it is stored and softened. From
the crop the food enters the gizzard, grinding of the food takes place here. From the gizzard the food
enters the small intestine where additional intestinal secretions completes digestion.

Gaseous Exchange
Respiration is by lungs connected to the air sacs in the chest and abdomen. Movement is brought by
movement of the ribs and the abdominal muscle. In the lungs, oxygen is removed air and carbon
dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the air.

Excretion
The main nitrogenous waste is in a form of uric acid but this is watery and not solid as in Agama
lizards. It mixes with faeces and it is discharged through the cloaca. Water is absorbed by the urodaeum
which is an organ at the base of the ureters, carbon dioxide is removed by the lungs.

Movement
Domestic fowl move by walking, running and can fly for shorter distance.

Types of Feathers

1. The quill 2. The contour 3. The down 4. The filoplume

The Quill Feathers (Flight Feathers)

They are found on the wings and tail. The quilt feathers consist of a rachis (shaft) and a quill vane
made of barbs. Barbs are held together by barbules, which bear hocks that interlock to form a rigid
surface. Quill feathers are for flight and steering.

Contour Feathers (Convert)

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They are smaller than quill feathers but similar to quill feathers. They cover the body thus helping to
keep the body warm providing much of the streamlining of the bird and preventing heat lost. Part of
the shaft has loose barbs.

Down Feathers
They are found under the contour feathers. They are small, soft feathers with a short shaft. Barbs have
no barbules (do not interlock). They provide warmth.

Filoplumes
They are hair-like feathers that can be seen after a fowl has been plucks. They have loose barbs. They
are found all over the body.

General Functions of Feathers

1. Feathers provide insulation
2. They are for flight
3. They are for protection.
4. For sexual display
5. For decoration
6. For making pillow

Adaptation of a Bird for Flight

1. The body is streamlined in shape and this reduced air resistance during flight.
2. The large and powerful flight or pectoral (chest) muscles enable the bird to flap it wings.
3. The bones are light, hollow and marrow less to reduce the weight.
4. The fore limbs are modified into wings which are used for flight.
5. The hollow bones and the system of air sacs make the bird relatively light.
6. The body is covered with feathers for insulation against excessive cold.
7. The tail feathers are used for steering, balancing and breaking.
8. The air sacs aid gaseous exchange.
9. The sternum is modified into kneel bone for muscle attachment to operate the wings.

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 Reproduction
Courtship precedes mating. The adult male (cockerel) attracts the female (hen) by dancing and
displaying his brightly coloured feathers to attract the female. The male then mounts, pushes his tail
against hers. Sperms are introduced into the female to fertilize the eggs in the oviduct. Fertilization
therefore is internal as a fertilized egg passes down the oviduct, it is enclosed in a layer of albumen
and a calcareous shell. The eggs are laid in a clutch (group) usually one per day.

Incubation
The female (hen) sit or covers the eggs with her body, pressing them against her brooding patches i.e.
Areas devoid of feathers which allow direct contact between the skin and the egg. This keeps the eggs
at a temperature close to that of the hen’s body and also reduced water loss by evaporation from the
shell. The egg hatch after about three weeks i.e. incubation last for 21 days. Using the beak the chick
breaks through the shell and comes out. It is covered with down feathers and can feed. The female
provides parental care by protecting the young ones against attack, cover them with her body to
provide warmth and forage for food for them.
Two membranes in addition to the shell protect a fertilized egg. The shell and membranes are
permeable and allow oxygen to diffuse in and carbon dioxide out. The yolk is provides food to the
chick and albumen surrounding the yolk supplies water and protein to the embryo. The yolk is
connected to the shell membrane by chalaza. Chalaza is a double – twisted strand.
NB: Allantois stores embryo’s excretory waste products amnions are fluid –filled and therefore
suspend embryo for equal development of tissues.

Adaptive Features of Domestic Fowl to Land Habitat

1. Body covered with feathers to provide insulation.
2. Fore –limbs are modified into wings for flight
3. The toes are opposable for gripping and perching
4. On land, the toes spread out to ensure stability.
5. Mouth modified to form a long beak for picking food from the ground
6. Digits of hind limbs ends in a claw for scratching ground to find food
7. Lay calcareous shell to prevent breakage
8. Bones have no bone narrow and are hollow making the bird light for flight.

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 EXERCISE 13
1. State one function each of the following feathers found on the domestic fowl:
(i) Contour feathers
………………………………………………………………………………..

(ii) Down feathers

……………………………………………………………………………….

(iii) Quill feathers

……………………………………………………………………………….

(iv) Filoplumes.
……………………………………………………………………………….

2. State three differences between a male and female Agama lizard.

………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….

3. Mention two adaptations of domestic fowl to its environment.

………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….

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