University of Lagos

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Programmable Logic Control
Awareness Course
Chapter 1
Introduction to Industrial Automation and Control

Automation
The word ‘Automation’ is derived from Greek words “Auto”(self) and “Matos” (moving). Automation
therefore is the mechanism for systems that “move by itself”.

However, apart from this original sense of the word, automated systems also achieve significantly
superior performance than what is possible with manual systems, in terms of power, precision and
speed of operation.

Definition: Automation is a set of technologies that results in operation of machines and systems
without significant human intervention and achieves performance superior to manual operation.

The control of industrial machines and process with the help of computer by replacing human operators
is known as Industrial Automation.

Fig 1.1 Industrial Automation Components and Layout

Control
Definition: Control is a set of technologies that achieves desired patterns of variations of operational
parameters and sequences for machines and systems by providing the input signals necessary.

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Types of production systems
Major industrial processes can be categorized as follows based on their scale and scope of production.

A. Continuous flow process

Manufactured product is in continuous quantities i.e., the product is not a discrete object. Moreover, for
such processes, the volume of production is generally very high, while the product variation is relatively
low. Typical examples of such processes include Oil Refineries, Iron and Steel Plants, Cement and
Chemical Plants.

Fig 1.2 Example of Continous Process Flow Process

B. Mass Manufacturing of Discrete Products

Products are discrete objects and manufactured in large volumes. Product variation is very limited.
Typical examples are Appliances, Automobiles etc.

C. Batch Production
In a batch production process the product is either discrete or continuous. However, the variation in
product types is larger than in continuous-flow processes. The same set of equipment is used to
manufacture all the product types. However for each batch of a given product type a distinct set of
operating parameters must be established. This set is often referred to as the “recipe” for the batch.
Typical examples here would be Pharmaceuticals, Casting Foundries, Plastic molding, Printing etc.

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D. Job shop Production
Typically designed for manufacturing small quantities of discrete products, which are custom built,
generally according to drawings supplied by customers. Any variation in the product can be made.
Examples include Machine Shops, Prototyping facilities etc

The above types of production systems are shown in Figure 1.3 categorized according to volumes of
production and variability in product types. In general, if the quantity of product is more there is little
variation in the product and more varieties of product is manufactured if the quantity of product is
lesser.

Fig 1.3 Production Types against Production Volumes and Variety

Types of Automation Systems

Automation systems can be categorized based on the flexibility and level of integration in manufacturing
process operations. Various automation systems can be classified as follows

A. Fixed Automation
Fixed Automation is used in high volume production with dedicated equipment, which has a fixed set of
operation and designed to be efficient for this set. Continuous flow and Discrete Mass Production
systems use this automation. e.g. Distillation Process, Conveyors, Paint Shops, Transfer lines etc. A
process using mechanized machinery to perform fixed and repetitive operations in order to produce a
high volume of similar parts.

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 Fig 1.4 Example of Fixed Automation

B. Programmable Automation
Programmable Automation is used for a changeable sequence of operation and configuration of the
machines using electronic controls. However, non-trivial programming effort may be needed to
reprogram the machine or sequence of operations. Investment on programmable equipment is less, as
production process is not changed frequently. It is typically used in Batch process where job variety is
low and product volume is medium to high, and sometimes in mass production also. e.g. in Steel Rolling
Mills, Paper Mills etc.

Fig 1.5 Example of Programmable Automation

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C. Integrated Automation
Integrated Automation denotes complete automation of a manufacturing plant, with all processes
functioning under computer control and under coordination through digital information processing. It
includes technologies such as computer-aided design and manufacturing, computer-aided process
planning, computer numerical control machine tools, flexible machining systems, automated storage
and retrieval systems, automated material handling systems such as robots and automated cranes and
conveyors, computerized scheduling and production control. It may also integrate a business system
through a common database. In other words, it symbolizes full integration of process and management
operations using information and communication technologies. Typical examples of such technologies
are seen in Advanced Process Automation Systems and Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)

Fig 1.6 Example of Integrated Automation

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Chapter 2
Instrumentation and Control Systems Documentation

Introduction to Plant Design

Plant design refers to the automation technologies, work practices and business rules supporting the
design and engineering of process plants. Such plants can be built for chemical, petroleum, utility,
shipbuilding, and other facilities. Plant design may be used to designate a general market area by the
many vendors offering technologies to support plant design work.

Process diagrams
The ‘process’ is an idea or concept that is developed to a certain level in order to determine the
feasibility of the project. Feasibility studies may be conducted to determine the scope and cost of
implementing the project from concept to operation.

For example, consider the design of simple bottle filling plant to fill bottles with a certain fluid before
packaging for sales. Start by creating a basic flow diagram that illustrates the objective for the proposed
plant; this diagram is called a “Process Block Diagram”.

Process block diagram

The block diagram shown in Figure 2.1 is where it all starts. It is here that the basic components are
looked at and the basic requirements determined. This is a diagram of the concept, giving a very broad
view of the process.

The example below has all the components for the process displayed. With this philosophy diagram
complete, there is a need to determine the technical requirements. This is done by simultaneously
developing two documents; the ‘Process Flow Diagram’ and the ‘Process Description Manual’.

Fig 2.1 Basic flow diagram of a bottling plant

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Process flow diagram or piping flow diagram (PFD)
The PFD is where we start to define the process by adding equipment and the piping that joins the
various items of equipment together. The idea behind the PFD is to show the entire process (the big
picture) on as few drawing sheets as possible, as this document is used to develop the process plant and
therefore the process engineer wants to see as much of the process as possible. This document is used
to determine details like the tank sizes and pipe sizes.

Process description
The process description details the function / purpose of each item of equipment in the plant. This
description should contain the following information:

Class Exercise 2.1:

Give a brief description of the Bottling plant, consider the following:

• Installation operation – The installation fills bottles with a certain fluid

• Operating principles – Each part of the process is described

• Fluid supply – Fluid at ambient temperature is stored in the holding tank, the capacity of the tank
should be sufficient

• Circuit draining/make-up and How to start-up or shut down the facility,

• Specific operating conditions linked to the process

• Specific maintenance conditions linked to the process

• Specific safety conditions linked to the process

• Performance requirements

PFD now starts to look something like the Figure 2.2 shown below.

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 Fig 2.2 Process flow diagram

Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID)

The Piping & Instrumentation Diagram, which may also be referred to as the Process & Instrumentation
Diagram, gives a graphical representation of the process including hardware (Piping, Equipment) and
software (Control systems); this information is used for the design construction and operation of the
facility.

The PFD defines “The flow of the process” The PFD covers batching, quantities, output, and
composition.

The P&ID also provides important information needed by the constructor and manufacturer to develop
the other construction input documents (the isometric drawings, or orthographic physical layout
drawings, etc.). The P&ID provides direct input to the field for the physical design and installation of
field-run piping. For clarity, it is usual to use the same general layout of flow paths on the P&ID as used
in the flow diagram.

The P&ID ties together the system description, the flow diagram, the electrical control schematic, and
the control logic diagram. It accomplishes this by showing all of the piping, equipment, principal

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instruments, instrument loops, and control interlocks. The P&ID contains a minimum of text in the form
of notes (the system description minimizes the need for text on the P&ID).

The typical plant operation’s environment uses the P&ID as the principal document to locate
information about the facility, whether this is physical data about an object, or information, such as
financial, regulatory compliance, safety, HAZOP information, etc.

The P&ID defines “The control of the flow of the process” where the PFD is the main circuit; the P&ID is
the control circuit. Once thoroughly conversant with the PFD & Process description, the engineers from
the relevant disciplines (piping, electrical & control systems) attend a number of HAZOP sessions to
develop the P&ID.

P&ID standards
Before development of the P&ID can begin, a thorough set of standards is

required. These standards must define the format of each component of the P&ID.

The following should be shown on the P&ID:

• Mechanical Equipment

• Equipment Numbering

• Presentation on the P&ID

• Valves

• Hand valves

• Control valves

• Piping

• Pipe numbering

• Nozzles & Flanges

• Equipment & instrument numbering systems

A completed P&ID may therefore appear as shown in Fig 2.3.

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 Fig 2.3 Completed P&ID

Instrumentation documentation
Instrumentation documentation consists of drawings, diagrams and schedules. The documentation is
used by various people for different purposes. Of all the disciplines in a project, instrumentation is the
most interlinked and therefore the most difficult to control.

The best way to understand the purpose and function of each document is to look at the complete
project flow from design through to commissioning.

• Design

• Design criteria, standards, specifications, vendor lists

• Construction

• Quantity surveying, disputes, installation contractor, price per meter, per installation

• Operations

• Maintenance commissioning

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Instrument lndex
This is a list of all the instruments on the plant, in the ‘List’ format. All the instruments of the same type
(tag) are listed together; for example, all the pressure transmitters ‘PT’ are grouped together.

Instrument List Associated documentation such as loop drawing number,

datasheets, installation details and P&ID.

Loop List The same information as the instrument list but ordered by loop
number instead of tag number. This sort of order will group all
elements of the same loop number together.

Function Gives a list of all the instrumentation on the plant and may include
‘virtual’ instruments such as controllers in a DCS or PLC.

Tag No The instrument tag number as defined by the specification.

Description Description of the instrument as denoted by the tag number.

Service Description A description of the process related parameter.

Functional Description The role of the device.

Manufacturer Details of the manufacturer of the device.

Table 2.1 Instrument list

Fig 2.4 Sample Instrument Index

Class Exercise 2.2:

Develop the Instrument Index for the sample Bottling Plant using the P&ID in Fig 2.3 using the
components mentioned in Table 2.1 above as a guide. Use MS Excel to develop your index.

Instrument Loop Diagrams

These diagrams are a set of key drawings showing the various stages of connection of each Instrument
in a plant from its termination in the field to the Control Room. These drawings are key because they are
used to install the instruments and design the control system of the plant, they are also used for
maintenance of the plant and carrying out repairs when necessary.

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 Fig 2.5 Sample Instrument Loop Diagram

Instrument location Diagram

The instrument location drawing is used to indicate an approximate location of the instruments and
junction boxes. This drawing is then used to determine the cable lengths from the instrument to the
junction box or control room. This drawing is also used to give the installation contractor an idea as to
where the instrument should be installed.

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 Instrument line symbols
ALL LINES TO BE FINE IN RELATION TO PROCESS PIPING LINES.
6.3 General instrument or function symbols
6.3 General instrument or function symbols (contd.)
6.5 Actuator symbols
6.5 Actuator symbols (contd.)
6.7 Symbols for actuator action in event of actuator power failure (shown typically
for diaphragm-actuated control valve).
6.10 Examples — miscellaneous combinations (contd.)
Class Exercise 2.3:
You will be given three pages of sample P&IDs, study these carefully and compare with the Instrument
Line and function symbols provided above.

Generate the Instrument Index for these P&IDs, again use MS Excel to develop your index.

Also generate the Loop Drawings for all the I/Os in your index.

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Chapter 3
Control Equipment: Types of I/O devices

Input/Output (I/O)
The first step in control is to convert the sensed measurement into a reading that can be evaluated by
the control algorithms. There are many types of equipment that have to be connected to a modern
control system, with different specific electronic and physical requirements for each interface. Each
input/output type below requires its own specialized I/O interface card that will convert the signal to the
digital value used in the control system.

Application servers are

used to host additional
software applications that
The system workstation supports the are computationally
following functionality intensitive, complicated,
• System and control configuration or transaction-oriented,
such as batch execution
• Database generation, edit and backup
and management,
• System access management
production management,
• Diagnostics access operator training, online
• Area/plant/equipment group definition process/energy
and assignment optimization, etc.

Fig 3.1 Modern Control System

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Control Network
A Process Control Network (PCN) is a communications network that is used to transmit instructions and
data between control and measurement units and human machine interface (Operator graphics).In a
control network you have the following.

Standard Electronic Analog I/O – 4-20 mA

When electronic instrumentation was first introduced, there were also many different standards for the
electronic I/O signals. Eventually the 4-20 milliampere (mA) analog direct current (DC) signal was
adopted as standard and is still the most widely used input/output format. Analog devices and I/O use
this signal format. Each signal used for control in this case has its own wire connection, which is brought
back to the marshalling panel and then connected to the controller.

Fig 3.2 Transmitter, Control Valve: Examples of devices that use 4-20 mA signal format

Discrete I/O
There are a number of devices, such as limit switches and motors, whose state is binary, i.e., off or on.
These require separate I/O processing than the analog I/O and, most commonly, separate I/O cards.

Fig 3.3 Limit Switches, Push Button: Examples of Discrete devices

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Industrial data communication

A. HART
With continuing computer miniaturization, it became possible to add enhanced calculation capability to
field devices (“smart” instrumentation). This created a need for a communication protocol that could
support transmitting more information without adding more wires. The Highway Addressable Remote
Transducer (HART) protocol was developed initially by Rosemount in the 1980s and turned over to an
independent body, the HART Communication Foundation, in 1993. The HART protocol retains the 4-20
mA signal for measurement and transmits other diagnostic information on the same physical line via a
digital protocol. A specialized HART I/O card is required that will read both the analog signal and
diagnostic information from the same wire.

B. Digital Buses
Since modern control systems are digital and new field instrumentation supports digital communication,
there was a natural demand for a fully digital bus to connect them. Such a communication protocol
reduces wiring requirements, since several devices can be connected to each bus segment; it is not
necessary to have individual wires for each signal. There are several digital buses in use with some of the
more popular ones described below. It is common to connect the bus wiring directly to the controller,
bypassing the marshalling panel and further reducing installation costs.

C. Fieldbus
FOUNDATION fieldbus is a digital communication protocol supporting interconnection between sensors,
actuators, and controllers. It provides power to the field devices, supports distribution of computational
functions, and acts as a local network. For example, it is possible, with FOUNDATION fieldbus, to digitally
connect a smart transmitter and a smart valve and execute the PID controller algorithm connecting
them locally in the valve electronics. The FOUNDATION fieldbus standard is administered by an
independent body, the Fieldbus Foundation.

D. Profibus
Profibus, or PROcess FieldBUS, was originally a German standard and is now a European standard.
There are several variations. Profibus DP or Decentralized Peripherals is focused on factory automation,
while Profibus PA targets the process industries. It is administered by the Profibus International
organization.

E. AS-i
AS-i, or Actuator Sensor interface, provides a low-cost digital network that transmits information that
can be encoded in a few digital bits. It is popular for discrete devices supporting on/off indicators such
as motor starters, level switches, on/off valves, and solenoids.

F. DeviceNet
DeviceNet is a digital communication protocol that can support bi-directional messages up to eight

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bytes. It is commonly used for variable speed drives, solenoid valve manifolds, discrete valve controls,
and some motor starters.

G. Ethernet
Some field devices, such as sophisticated on-line analyzers, are now supporting direct Ethernet
connectivity using standard TCP/IP protocols.

Human Machine Interface (HMI)

Operator Station
There are usually two different user interfaces for the control system—one for the operator running the
process (i.e Operator Workstation) ,and a second one for system support used for configuration, system
diagnostics, and maintenance (Engineering Workstation) . In a small application these two interfaces
may be physically resident in the same workstation hardware. For systems of moderate or larger size,
they will be physically separate. The number of consoles (operator workstation) required is set by the
size of the system and the complexity of the control application. A typical operator station is shown
below.

Fig 3.4 Sample HMI Screen shot and Operator Station

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Chapter 4
Concept of Process Control
Control System Basics
An industrial plant exists for one purpose: to convert raw material into something useful. Processing
facilities today are, for the most part, computer controlled. Computer systems that are used in control
applications can be broken into several basic components as shown in Figure below.

The central processor is the heart of the control system. The central processing unit (CPU) contains the
operating instructions for the control system. These instructions define how the control system will
react to various stimuli such as a change in process temperature or flow or a change in operational
mode. New information is gathered by the CPU using various translators called interfaces. These
interfaces convert information from various sources into a common language that can be understood by
the CPU.
• The operator interface is typically a desktop computer running a software package that converts
commands from the operator into digital values, and transmits them to the CPU in the right format.
• The communications interface translates communication protocols and allows a path for
communication to other supervisory computers or process control computers.
• The I/O interface converts electrical input signals to data and then converts data to electrical signals to
be fed to output devices.

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Control Systems

A. Emergency Shutdown Systems (ESD)

Emergency shutdown systems are specialized control systems installed in plants with the objective to
automatically shut down a plant and bring it to a safe state in the event of a major emergency. Typically
they will have separate valves and transmitters to those used for normal control. In place of a control
module is a logic solver that is programmed to detect specified unsafe conditions. If these conditions
occur, the ESD is activated to shutdown the equipment in question or an entire plant.

B. Programmable Logic Controllers

Comparing PLCs with DCSs, PLCs typically cost less initially per I/O point but have, in general, less
functionality and less redundancy. PLCs are the common choice for systems that are predominately
discrete I/O with relatively fixed logic, and also for machine control and motion control where very high
speed scanning is required. DCSs are most often chosen for continuous, semi-continuous and process
batch applications and applications where the analog I/O count is high. Other differences include
separate databases for the I/O, the control, and the human-machine interface (HMI) for PLCs, while
DCSs have a common database for all of these functions. Configuration of PLCs is predominately done
with ladder logic, while DCSs have automated fill-in-the-blanks configuration editing and high level
language support. Many PLCs require the system be taken offline for control logic modifications while
most DCSs can be updated online. Advanced automation applications’ support, like batch and advanced
control, is typically greater in a DCS, as compared with a PLC.

C. HMI-SCADA Systems
The development of cheaper personal computers (PCs) led to development of lower-cost systems, based
on these PCs that could be used to monitor equipment conditions; concentrate data, perhaps from
geographically distinct areas and display it to operators and managers. These systems are often called
HMI-SCADA systems, where SCADA stands for supervisory control and data acquisition. Typically control
functionality is limited in these systems.

Future DCS Evolution

New functionality is continually added to DCSs with the ongoing evolution of computation and
communication capabilities. Several trends are evident. One is that central control rooms are being
installed physically remote from the actual plant, in some cases hundreds of miles distant, with
responsibility for many plants simultaneously. This increases the demand for diagnostic information on
both the instrumentation and other process equipment to better diagnose and predict process
problems so that corrective action can be taken before they occur. A second related trend is the
increased requirement for “sensor to boardroom” integration that imposes ever increasing
communication bandwidth demands. Good, real-time corporate decisions depend on good, real-time
information

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Chapter 5
Programming Basics:

Digital logic functions

We can construct simply logic functions for our hypothetical lamp circuit, using multiple
contacts, and document these circuits quite easily and understandably with additional rungs to
our original "ladder." If we use standard binary notation for the status of the switches and lamp
(0 for unactuated or de-energized; 1 for actuated or energized), a truth table can be made to
show how the logic works:

Now, the lamp will come on if either contact A or contact B is actuated, because all it takes for
the lamp to be energized is to have at least one path for current from wire L 1 to wire 1. What
we have is a simple OR logic function, implemented with nothing more than contacts and a
lamp.

We can mimic the AND logic function by wiring the two contacts in series instead of parallel:

Now, the lamp energizes only if contact A and contact B are simultaneously actuated. A path
exists for current from wire L1 to the lamp (wire 2) if and only if both switch contacts are closed.

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The logical inversion, or NOT, function can be performed on a contact input simply by using a
normally-closed contact instead of a normally-open contact:

Now, the lamp energizes if the contact is not actuated, and de-energizes when the
contact is actuated.

If we take our OR function and invert each "input" through the use of normally-closed contacts,
we will end up with a NAND function. In a special branch of mathematics known asBoolean
algebra, this effect of gate function identity changing with the inversion of input signals is
described by DeMorgan's Theorem, a subject to be explored in more detail in a later chapter.

The lamp will be energized if either contact is unactuated. It will go out only if both contacts are
actuated simultaneously.

Likewise, if we take our AND function and invert each "input" through the use of normally-
closed contacts, we will end up with a NOR function:

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A pattern quickly reveals itself when ladder circuits are compared with their logic gate
counterparts:

 Parallel contacts are equivalent to an OR gate.

 Series contacts are equivalent to an AND gate.
 Normally-closed contacts are equivalent to a NOT gate (inverter).

We can build combinational logic functions by grouping contacts in series-parallel

arrangements, as well. In the following example, we have an Exclusive-OR function built from a
combination of AND, OR, and inverter (NOT) gates:

The top rung (NC contact A in series with NO contact B) is the equivalent of the top NOT/AND
gate combination. The bottom rung (NO contact A in series with NC contact B) is the equivalent
of the bottom NOT/AND gate combination. The parallel connection between the two rungs at
wire number 2 forms the equivalent of the OR gate, in allowing either rung 1 orrung 2 to
energize the lamp.
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To make the Exclusive-OR function, we had to use two contacts per input: one for direct input
and the other for "inverted" input. The two "A" contacts are physically actuated by the same
mechanism, as are the two "B" contacts. The common association between contacts is denoted
by the label of the contact. There is no limit to how many contacts per switch can be
represented in a ladder diagram, as each new contact on any switch or relay (either normally-
open or normally-closed) used in the diagram is simply marked with the same label.

Sometimes, multiple contacts on a single switch (or relay) are designated by a compound labels,
such as "A-1" and "A-2" instead of two "A" labels. This may be especially useful if you want to
specifically designate which set of contacts on each switch or relay is being used for which part
of a circuit. For simplicity's sake, I'll refrain from such elaborate labeling in this lesson. If you see
a common label for multiple contacts, you know those contacts are all actuated by the same
mechanism.

If we wish to invert the output of any switch-generated logic function, we must use a relay with
a normally-closed contact. For instance, if we want to energize a load based on the inverse, or
NOT, of a normally-open contact, we could do this:

We will call the relay, "control relay 1," or CR1. When the coil of CR1 (symbolized with the pair of
parentheses on the first rung) is energized, the contact on the second rung opens, thus de-
energizing the lamp. From switch A to the coil of CR1, the logic function is noninverted. The
normally-closed contact actuated by relay coil CR1 provides a logical inverter function to drive
the lamp opposite that of the switch's actuation status.

Applying this inversion strategy to one of our inverted-input functions created earlier, such as
the OR-to-NAND, we can invert the output with a relay to create a noninverted function:

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From the switches to the coil of CR1, the logical function is that of a NAND gate. CR1's normally-
closed contact provides one final inversion to turn the NAND function into an AND function.

 REVIEW:
 Parallel contacts are logically equivalent to an OR gate.
 Series contacts are logically equivalent to an AND gate.
 Normally closed (N.C.) contacts are logically equivalent to a NOT gate.
 A relay must be used to invert the output of a logic gate function, while simple normally-
closed switch contacts are sufficient to represent inverted gate inputs.

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Chapter 6
Introduction to Control Logix 5000

Step 1: Open RSlinx software, click on communication >Configure Drivers

Step 2: Click on Available driver types drop down menu and select Ethernet devices (provided
Serial Communication link has been established). Click the ‘Add New’ button. Name the Driver
and click OK. Enter an IP address in the windows that pops up, click OK and close the configure
drivers window.

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35
Step3: In RSlinx, click Communications>RSWho. In the window that opens, browse to the
available controller and IO modules as shown below.

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37
Step 4: Open RSLogix 5000. Click on File>New. Select appropriate Controller type and Revision.
Name the Controller, Select correct chassis type and slot number.

Click Ok.

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To determine the controller type, Revision and Slot number go to RSlinx and right click on Slot 0
and choose Device Propertise as shown below.

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40
Step 5: In RSlogix 5000 create all the available I/O modules. To create I/O modules in
RSLogix5000 right click on I/O Configuration > New Module in Project explorer. Select
appropriate I/O module from the list provided. To determine the appropriate module go to
RSLinx, right click on the corresponding module, select device properties and note the
individual module properties. Repeat this step for each I/O module. All added I/O module shall
be displayed in the project tree as shown below.

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Step 6: To develop project program. In RSLogix 5000 project tree click Tasks > Main Task >
MainProgram > MainRoutine

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Step 7: Create controller tags for the project. Right click controller Tags > NewTag. Assign Tag
Name, Type and Data Type. Click OK. To assign the Tag to a physical address go to Alias For
column in the program view pane and click on the drop down arrow on the newly created tag
row to select the physical address and the data type as shown below. Repeat this text for the
remaining tags.

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Step 8: Go to Main Routine to develop the project program. Add normally open contact and a
coil to rung 0 by clicking on the respective instructions on the instruction toolbar. Double click
the ? on the normally open contact instruction to add already created tag. Repeat the same for
the coil.

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45
Step 9: Set the communication path by clicking on the Who Active button in the Path toolbar
and clicking already created Ethernet communication path. Browse down to the controller to
download to. Click on Set Project Path. Close the Who Active window.

Step 10: Click on Communication > Download. Click on Download button on the window that
pops up to download the project into the controller.

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Step 11: To test the program, turn the key switch on the controller from REM to RUN and back
to REM position. Press the DI 0 push button and confirm the push button is lit and the program
also responding as required.

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Self Test 1A: Write a program such that when you press a push button, a lamp lights up and
remains on.

Self Test B: Write a program to use another push button to off lamp in Self test 1A program.

Self Test 2: Write a program such that you must press two push buttons to turn on one lamp
and only one of the two buttons to turn on another lamp. Include two separate push buttons to
turn off individual lamps.

Self Test 3A: Write a program to turn on a lamp for 15 seconds each time a push button is
pressed.

Self Test 3B: Write a program to turn on a lamp for 15 seconds each time a push button is
pressed and remain on for 10 seconds before going off.

Self Test 4A: Write a program to turn on a lamp after the button is pressed 5 times. Use a
second to turn off the lamp.

Self Test 4B: Write a program to flash a lamp when a button is pressed 5 times.

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Self Test 5A: Write a program to blink a lamp by a period of one second after a push button is
pressed.

Self Test 5B: Add a button to stop the blinking in 5A.

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50