EEE 439 Communication Systems II

(January 2021 Semester)

Dr. Md. Farhad Hossain

Professor
Department of EEE, BUET

Email: [email protected]
 Digital
Modulations
2
 A Digital Communication System
Transmitter

Receiver

3
 Introduction
 Digital modulation consists of mapping a bit stream of finite length into an analog signal for
transmission over the channel.

 Detection consists of determining the original bit sequence based on the signal received over the
channel.

 The main considerations in choosing a particular digital modulation technique are

 high data rate

 high spectral efficiency (minimum bandwidth occupancy)

 high power efficiency (minimum required transmit power)

 robustness to channel impairments (minimum probability of bit error)

 low power/cost implementation

 Often these are conflicting requirements, and the choice of modulation is based on finding the
technique that achieves the best tradeoff between these requirements.

 Once the modulation technique is determined, the constellation size must be chosen. Modulations with
large constellations have higher data rates for a given signal bandwidth, but are more susceptible to noise,
fading, and hardware imperfections. 4
 Signal Space Analysis
 Digital modulation encodes a bit stream of finite length into one of several possible
transmitted signals.

 The receiver minimizes the probability of detection error by decoding the received signal
as the signal in the set of possible transmitted signals that is “closest” to the one received.

 Determining the distance between the transmitted and received signals requires a metric
for the distance between signals.

 By representing signals as a vector in a vector space, we can have the metric for the
distance between signals.

QPSK Signal set/Alphabet set: S = {s1(t), s2(t), s3(t), s4(t)}

𝜋
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓 𝑡 , for 00
4
3𝜋
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓 𝑡 , for 01
𝑠 𝑡 4
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓 𝑡 5𝜋/4 , for 10
7𝜋
𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓 𝑡 , for 11
4
5
 Signal Space Analysis

 Let the source has M={m1, . . .,mM} set of all possible messages, where ith message
sequence mi = {b1, . . . , bK} ∈ M is a bit sequence of length K. There are M = 2K
possible sequences of K bits and thus K = log2M.
 The message mi has a probability pi of being selected for transmission, where sum of
all pi is equal to 1. In this lecture, we will consider all pi are equal.
 Every T seconds, the system sends K = log2M bits of information through the channel
and thus, data rate R = K/T bps.
 Suppose message mi is to be transmitted over the channel during the time interval [0,
T). Since the channel is analog, the message must be embedded into an analog signal
for channel transmission. Thus, each message mi ∈ M is mapped to a unique analog
signal si(t) ∈ S = {s1(t), . . . , sM(t)}, where si(t) is defined on the time interval [0, T) and
has energy
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 Signal Space Analysis
 Since each message represents a bit sequence, each signal si(t) ∈ S also represents
a bit sequence, and detection of the transmitted signal si(t) at the receiver is
equivalent to the detection of the transmitted bit sequence.
 When messages are sent sequentially, the transmitted signal becomes a sequence
of the corresponding analog signals and s(t) thus becomes

where si(t) is the analog signal corresponding to the message mi designated for the
transmission interval [kT, (k+1)T).
 An example of the transmitted signal s(t) = s1(t) + s2(t − T) + s1(t − 2T) + s1(t − 3T)
corresponding to the string of messages m1, m2, m1, m1 with message mi mapped to
signal si(t) is shown below.

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 Signal Space Analysis
 In the AWGN model, transmitted signal is sent through an AWGN channel, where a
white Gaussian noise process n(t) of power spectral density N0/2 is added to form the
received signal r(t) = s(t) + n(t).
 Given r(t), the receiver must determine the best estimate of which si(t) ∈ S was
transmitted during each transmission interval [kT, (k + 1)T).
 This best estimate for si(t) is mapped to a best estimate of the message mi(t)∈ M and
the receiver then outputs this best estimate of the transmitted
bit sequence.
 The goal of the receiver design in estimating the transmitted message is to minimize
the average probability of message error:

over each time interval [kT, (k + 1)T).

 By representing the signals {si(t), i = 1, . . ., M} geometrically, we can solve for the
optimal receiver design in AWGN based on a minimum distance criterion. 8
 Geometric Representation of Signals
Any set of M real energy signals S = {s1(t), . . . , sM(t)} defined on [0, T) can be represented as a
linear combination of N ≤ M real orthonormal basis functions {φ1(t), . . . , φN(t)}.
Thus, we can write each si(t) ∈S in terms of its basis function representation as

Vector si = (si1, . . . , siN ) ∈ RN is called the

signal constellation point

If all the signals {si(t)} are linearly independent, then N = M, otherwise N <M.
Example

Using Gram–Schmidt
orthogonalization process 9
Gram-Schimdt Orthogonalization Procedure
Any set of M real energy signals S = {s1(t), . . . , sM(t)} defined on [0, T) can be represented as a
linear combination of N ≤ M real orthonormal basis functions {φ1(t), . . . , φN(t)}.

Start with s1(t), chosen from the set arbitrarily:

Then,

We can show that,

In general,

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Gram-Schimdt Orthogonalization Procedure

ϕ2
ϕ3

Solution: ?
ϕ1

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 Geometric Representation of Signals
 We denote the coefficients {sij} as a vector si = (si1, . . . , siN ) ∈ RN which is
called the signal constellation point corresponding to the signal si(t). The
signal constellation consists of all constellation points {s1, . . . , sM}.
 si(t) can be obtained from si and si can be obtained from si(t). Thus, it is
equivalent to characterize the transmitted signal by si(t) or si.
 The representation of si(t) in terms of its constellation point si ∈ R N is called
its signal space representation and the vector space containing the
constellation is called the signal space.

One-dimensional signal space A two-dimensional signal space

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 Geometric Representation of Signals
 The length of a vector in R N:

 The distance between two signal constellation points si and sk:

 Inner product of two signals:

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 Q function

Some useful bounds for the Q function for x > 0:

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 Performance of
Digital Modulations in
AWGN Channel

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 Performance in Wireless Channel

 We now consider the performance of the digital modulation techniques when used
over AWGN channel.

 In an AWGN channel, the modulated signal s(t) has noise n(t) added to it prior to
reception.

 The noise n(t) is a white Gaussian random process with mean zero and power
spectral density N0/2.

 The received signal is thus, r(t) = s(t) + n(t).

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 Performance in AWGN Channel
 Received signal-to-noise power ratio (SNR): Ratio of the received signal power
Pr to the power of the noise within the bandwidth of the transmitted signal s(t).

 The received power Pr is determined by the transmitted power, and the path-loss,
shadowing, and multipath fading. AWGN channel models ignore the last three factors.

 The noise power is determined by the bandwidth of the transmitted signal and the
spectral properties of n(t). Specifically, if the bandwidth of the of s(t) is B, then the
bandwidth of the transmitted signal s(t) is 2B. Since the noise n(t) has uniform power
spectral density N0/2, the total noise power within the bandwidth 2B is PN = N0/2 × 2B
= N0B.

 So the received SNR is given by

Eb: Signal energy per bit
Es: Energy per symbol
Ts: Symbol time
Tb: Bit duration/period
(Binary modulation:
Ts = Tb and Es = Eb)
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 Performance in AWGN Channel
 The quantities γs = Es/N0 and γb = Eb/N0 are sometimes called the SNR per
symbol and the SNR per bit, respectively.
 For performance specification, we are interested in the bit error probability Pb as a
function of γb.
 However, for M-ary signaling (e.g., MPAM and MPSK), the bit error probability Pb
depends on both the symbol error probability and the mapping of bits to symbols. Thus,
we typically compute the symbol error probability Ps as a function of γs based on
the signal space concepts and then obtain Pb as a function of γb using an exact or
approximate conversion.
 The approximate conversion typically assumes that the symbol energy is divided
equally among all bits, and that Gray encoding is used so that at reasonable SNRs, one
symbol error corresponds to exactly one bit error. These assumptions for M-ary
signaling lead to the approximations:

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Binary Modulation

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BPSK

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BPSK Transmitter

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BPSK Receiver (Coherent)

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 Error Probability: BPSK
We first consider BPSK modulation with coherent detection and perfect recovery of the
carrier frequency and phase.
With binary modulation, each symbol corresponds to one bit, so the symbol and bit
error rates are the same.
The transmitted signal s(t):
s1(t) = Ag(t) cos(2πfct) = Aφ1(t) to sent a 1 bit &
s2(t) = - Ag(t) cos(2πfct) = - Aφ1(t) to send a 0 bit. Only one basis function:
φ1(t) = g(t) cos(2πfct)

dmin: Minimum distance in among constellation points

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Error Probability: BPSK

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 Error Probability: BPSK
Received signal Gaussian distributed:

or

Probability of error if s1 is transmitted:

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 Error Probability: BPSK

Due to symmetry:

Average symbol probability of error:

(Symbols are considered equiprobable)

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BFSK

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BFSK

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BFSK Transmitter

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Signal Space Representation of BFSK

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BFSK Receiver (Coherent)

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Decision Region of BFSK

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Pe for BFSK (1)

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Pe for BFSK (2)

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BASK

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BASK (On-Off Keying)

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Pe for BASK

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Pe: Coherent Detection (1)

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Pe: Coherent Detection (2)

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 M-ary
Modulation
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M-ary Modulation

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QPSK

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 Error Probability: QPSK
QPSK modulation consists of BPSK modulation on both the in-phase and
quadrature components of the signal. With perfect phase and carrier recovery, the
received signal components corresponding to each of these branches are orthogonal.
Therefore, the bit error probability on each branch is the same as for BPSK.

S1 = (A/√2, A/√2)
= (√Es/√2, √Es/√2)
Symbol Energy
S2 = (- A/√2, A/√2)
= E1 = E2 = E3 = E4 = Es = A2
S3 = (- A/√2, - A/√2)
S4 = (A/√2, - A/√2)
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 Error Probability: QPSK

Decision regions

Exact symbol error probability equals the probability that either branch has a bit error:

Since symbol energy is split between the in-phase and quadrature branches, we have,
γs = 2γb = Es/N0 = A2/N0.

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 Error Probability: QPSK
Derivation of error probability:
Pr(e|S1) = 1 – Pr(c|S1)

Probability of correct detection:

Pr(c|S1) = Pr(n1 > -√Es/√2, n2 > -√Es/√2)
= Pr(n1 > -√Es/√2) Pr(n2 > -√Es/√2)
={1-Pr(n1 ≤ -√Es/√2)} {1-Pr(n2 ≤ - √Es/√2)}
={1-Pr(n1 > √Es/√2)} {1- Pr(n2 > √Es/√2)}
={1-Pr(n1 > √Es/√2)}2
=[1-Pr{n1/(√No/√2)>(√Es/√2)/(√No/√2)}]2 Due to symmetry,
= {1-Q(√Es/√No)}2= {1-Q(√γs)}2 Pr(e|S1) = Pr(e|S2) = Pr(e|S3) = Pr(e|S4)

Average symbol error probability: Pr(e) = Ps

Pr(e|S1) = 1 – {1-Q(√γs )}2
= 2Q(√γs) – Q2(√γs) (Exact)
= 2Q(√γs) – Q2(√γs)
≈ 2Q(√γs) = 2Q(√2γb) (Approximate) 45
 Error Probability: QPSK
Example 6.1:
Find the bit error probability Pb and symbol error probability Ps of QPSK
assuming γb = 7dB. Compare the exact Pb with the approximation Pb = Ps/2 based
on the assumption of Gray coding. Finally, compute Ps based on the nearest-
neighbor bound using γs = 2γb, and compare with the exact Ps.

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MPSK

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 Error Probability: MPSK
For MPSK all of the information is encoded in the phase of the
transmitted signal.
Thus, the transmitted signal over one symbol time is given by

Comparing above si(t) with the generalized below form, we can get constellation points.

Here, g(t) is pulse shaping filter, which can be rectangular or any suitable pulse. Also, φ1(t) = g(t)
cos(2πfct) and φ2(t) = g(t) sin(2πfct) are the orthonormal basis functions with unit energy.
Constellation points or symbols (si1, si2):

Energy Es = A2 & γs = A2/N0 48

 Error Probability: MPSK

Decision regions

An error occurs if the ith signal constellation point is transmitted and

By symmetry, the probability of error is the same for each constellation point.
Thus, we can obtain Ps from the probability of error assuming the constellation point s1
= (A, 0) is transmitted.

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Error Probability: MPSK

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Error Probability: MPSK

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 Error Probability: MPSK
Example 6.2
Compare the probability of bit error for 8PSK and 16PSK assuming γb = 15 dB
and using the approximated Ps.

Note that Pb is much larger for 16PSK than for 8PSK for the same γb. This result is
expected, since 16PSK packs more bits per symbol into a given constellation, so for a fixed
energy-per-bit, the minimum distance between constellation points will be smaller. 52
MPAM

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Error Probability: MPAM
4-PAM

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 Error Probability: MPAM
Constellation points are:

Decision regions
for 8-PAM

Demodulations of MPAM:

Only a single basis function as MPAM is one-dimensional:

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 Error Probability: MPAM
As MPAM is one-dimensional, it has no quadrature component (si2 = 0).
For MPAM all of the information is encoded into the signal amplitude Ai = (2i-1-M)d
Transmitted signal over one symbol time is given by

The amplitude of the transmitted signal takes on M different values, which implies
that each pulse conveys log2M = K bits per symbol time Ts.
Each of the (M-2) inner constellation points have two nearest neighbors at distance
2d. The outermost 2 points have only one neighbor at a distance 2d.
Minimum distance between the constellation points: dmin = mini,j |Ai − Aj | = 2d
Energy of ith symbol:

Average energy per symbol:

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 Error Probability: MPAM
For inner constellation points:

For outermost constellation points:

Probability of symbol error Ps:

Probability of symbol error:

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MQAM

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 Error Probability: MQAM

Decision Regions for 16-QAM

For MQAM, the information bits are encoded in both the amplitude and phase of
the transmitted signal.
Thus, both MPAM and MPSK have one degree of freedom in which to encode the
information bits (amplitude or phase), MQAM has two degrees of freedom.
As a result, MQAM is more spectrally-efficient than MPAM and MPSK, in that it can
encode the most number of bits per symbol for a given average energy. 59
 Error Probability: MQAM
Transmitted signal:

Energy of transmitted signal:

For square signal constellations, si1 and si2 take values:

Ai = (2i − 1 − L)d, i = 1, 2, . . ., L = 2l
l is the bit per dimension and bits/symbol = 2l.
MQAM Constellations size: M = L2
Minimum distance between signal points dmin = 2d, the same as for MPAM.
In fact, MQAM with square constellations of size M = L2 is equivalent to MPAM
modulation with constellations of size L on each of the in-phase and quadrature
signal components, each with half the energy of the original MQAM system.
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 Error Probability: MQAM
The symbol error probability for each branch of the MQAM system is same as that
of MPAM) with M replaced by L: and equal to the average
energy per symbol in the MQAM constellation.

(for each branch)

Exact probability of symbol error for the MQAM system:

The nearest neighbor approximation to probability of symbol error depends on

whether the constellation point is an inner or outer point. If we average the nearest
neighbor approximation over all inner and outer points, we obtain the MQAM
probability of error:

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 Error Probability: MQAM
For nonrectangular constellations, it is relatively straightforward to show that the
probability of symbol error is upper bounded as

The nearest neighbor approximation for nonrectangular constellations:

Mdmin: Largest number of nearest neighbors for any constellation point in the
constellation
dmin: Minimum distance in the constellation

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 Approximate Error Probability: Coherent Detections
General form (approximated):

αM : Number of nearest neighbors to a constellation at the minimum distance

βM : A constant that relates minimum distance to average symbol energy

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