What is soil structure?

When soil particles group together, they form structural units or aggregates. Soil particles within the
aggregates are held together by electrostatic forces.

Soil structural units or aggregates are formed by swelling and shrinking of clay and also by the
binding action of humus colloids. Humus colloids are humus (organic matter) that is spread
throughout the soil.

Clay swells when it becomes wet and shrinks as it dries out. Cracks then form. The cracks become
filled with organic material and fine soil particles. When the clay becomes wet again, it swells, the
cracks close and the material which moved into the cracks become compressed. Lines of weakness
develop where the cracks were. The soil will tend to break along these lines of weakness, giving
different shapes. Soil is classified into different classes of soil structure using these shapes.

Classification of soil structures

The classification of soil structure is based on three criteria:

 the shape of the structural units

 the size of the structural units
 the degree of development of these structural units.

Shape of the structural units

We base the five primary types of soil structures on the shape of the structural units. Table 1 on
page 60 shows the types of soil structures, based on the shape of the structural units.

Size of the structural units

The structural units are classified into the following classes: very fine, thin or fine, medium, coarse or
thick, and very coarse.

Factors influencing the development and stability of soil structure:

 Soil structure and the colloidal matter in the soil

 Types of clay mineral
 Climate
 Alternating moisture and drought
 Plant roots

Factors or malpractices that destroys soil structure.

 Flood irrigation: this leads to the breaking up of aggregates because of the rapid absorption
of water by the soil.
 Raindrops: This can also break up aggregates. Soil particles are formed from the breaking up
of aggregates which are then carried into the soil pores.
 Ploughing: this weakens the structure, because of the smearing action of the mouldboard or
the spade
 `Cultivation: this increases the rate of decay of organic matter or humus. Low humus content
breaks down the structure of the soil.
 Tilting the soil when dry: this will lead to the powdering of the aggregates.
Methods to improve poor soil structure.

Improving the soil structure will enrich it with oxygen. This is good for the development of
plant roots.

Soil structure can be improved by:

 Adding organic matter to the soil. Organic matter helps water to be retained in the
soil.
 Digging the soil: this will reduce soil compaction and allows free movement of air
(aeration) and soil drainage of water making it easier for plant roots to penetrate
the soil.
 Avoid rapid wetting or drying of the soil
 Avoiding flood and furrow irrigation which causes soil compaction

The advantages of good soil structure

Good soil structure combats soil deterioration and loss.

Good soil structure prevents soil compaction:

Soil compaction pushes all the air and water from the soil. This leads to lower crop yields, because
the root growth is limited. Water cannot penetrate the soil, so fewer nutrients are available to plant
roots. Soil with a good structure is physically "looser" and more difficult to compact than soil with a
poor structure. Once soil is compacted, it is quite difficult to correct. It is much better to maintain a
good soil structure.

Good soil structure prevents crusting:

Crusting happens when there is a layer of hard, non-aggregated soil on top of the next soil layer.
Water cannot penetrate the soil, and seedlings that are germinating cannot emerge. Crusting often
happens when rain falls on unstable, poor soil; or when poor soil is irrigated. Good soil structure is
stable, so crusting will not occur that easily.

Good soil structure prevents soil erosion:

Soil erosion happens when water or wind carries away the soil. A good structure allows water to
penetrate the soil easily. It therefore does not collect on the surface and run off, carrying soil with it.

Good soil structure prevents salt imbalances:

In soil with a good structure, water penetrates the soil easily. If there is too much salt in the soil, the
excess salt will leach out of the soil.

Good soil structure limits effects of drought or excessive wetness and anaerobiosis

A good structure is well drained, so that excess water can be removed and the soil does not become
waterlogged. In dry conditions, the organic matter retains the water so that the soil stays moist for a
longer time. Soil anaerobiosis occurs when the oxygen content in the soil is too low. This causes a
drop in crop yields. Good soil structure means that the soil is adequately drained and contains
enough oxygen.
SOIL PORES

What is meant by the total pore space in a soil?

The soil pores are filled mainly with water and air. The movement of water and air takes place
through these pores. The pore space provides enough water and oxygen to plant roots. The total
pore space of soil is the volume of soil that is filled by water and air.

Effect of various factors on the total pore space

Soil texture, structure, depth and cultivation influence the total pore space in a soil.

 Soil texture

The coarser the texture of the soil, the more the total pore space. In coarse sandy soil, the total pore
space is greater than that of fine clay soil.

 Soil structure

In soil with a good structure, the total pore space is high, so that water and air can move freely. In a
poor structure, the total pore space is limited.

 Soil cultivation
Soil cultivation also has an influence on pore space. When soil has a permanent grass cover, it will
have a much larger pore space in the topsoil than in soil which is intensively cultivated. Cultivation
compacts the soil.

Macro-pores and micro-pores

Soil pores are divided in two classes: macro-pores and micro-pores. Macro-pores are large, while
micro-pores are small.

The differences between macro-pores and micro-pores

Macro-pores

 Diameter more than 0,1 mm

 Coarsely textured soil (sand)
 Good aeration and rapid drainage Water retention capacity is low
 Infiltration capacity is high

Micro-pores

 Diameter less than 0,03 mm

 Finely textured soil (clay)
 Capillary movement of water
 Water retention capacity will be enhanced
 Infiltration capacity will be reduced

Bulk density and porosity

Definition of bulk density

You now know that soil is made up of solid matter (for example minerals and organic material) as
well as spaces (the pore space). The bulk density of a soil is the relationship between the mass and
the volume of a soil sample. In other words, bulk density actually describes how much solid matter
and how much pore space a soil contains.

The formula for bulk density is:

Bulk density (kg/m3) = mass of soil samples (kg) / total volume of soil sample (m3)

In other words, if we know the mass of a certain volume of a soil, we can calculate how densely
packed the particles are. In fine soil with small particles, the particles lie close together, so the bulk
density is high. In soil with a crumbly or sandy structure, the pore space is high and therefore the
bulk density is low. In short, the more pore space in a soil, the lower the bulk density.

Definition of porosity
Porosity is the total volume occupied by pores per unit volume of soil and is calculated from bulk
density and particle density. Bulk density is inversely related to porosity. In other words, if the bulk
density increases, porosity decreases; and if the bulk density decreases, the porosity increases.

Determining and calculating the bulk density of soil

We determine the bulk density of soil by taking a core sample of soil. This means taking a cylindrical
sample with a hollow metal corer.

 The volume of the cylindrical corer is the volume of your sample.

 Dry the sample in an oven and weigh it (dry weight).
 Calculate the bulk density:

Bulk density = dry weight (grams)/ volume

Interpreting the bulk density of soil

Think of bulk density as the ratio of solid matter to pore space in a soil. The best soil has 50% solid
matter and 50% pore space. This soil would contain enough minerals and nutrients in the solid part.
The pore space would contain enough air and water so that the roots can easily penetrate the soil
and the plants receive enough moisture.

Low bulk density

A soil with a low bulk density is good for the growth of plants. Such a soil has a good water
infiltration rate. The plant roots can absorb enough moisture. The soil is conserved because the
amount of water run-off is minimal. Low bulk density also means that the plant roots can grow
undisturbed.

High bulk density

Soils with a bulk density of more than 1,6 g/cm3 are very difficult to cultivate. At a high bulk density,
the amount of pore space is low. This means that the water and air content of the soil is low. The
roots will struggle to penetrate the soil.

Factors that influence bulk density

The bulk density of soil is influenced by a number of factors.

The amount of organic material in the soil

Adding organic material to soil increases the aggregation in the soil. It creates a crumbly type of soil
with a lower bulk density.

The degree of cultivation

Before the planting season, farmers usually till the soil to aerate the soil and break up the big clods
in the soil. Aerating soil causes the decomposition of organic matter. Too much aerating can lead to
organic matter decomposing too quickly, which decreases aggregation. The structure of the soil
weakens and this increases bulk density.

Compaction of the soil

When farmlands are tilled in wet conditions, the heavy farm implements compact the soil, leading to
a higher bulk density.

Texture of the soil

Finely textured soils usually have a lower bulk density than sandy soils. At first this might seem
strange to you. However, this is because soils with finer structures, such as silt loam and clay loam,
also contain organic matter, and are organised into aggregates. These aggregates contain more pore
space. In sandy soils there is less organic matter and therefore less aggregates. So, sandy soil has
fewer micro-pores, which causes higher bulk densities.

Depth of the soil

Deeper soil layers usually contain less organic material. Therefore, less aggregation occurs, leading
to a higher bulk density. The weight of the layers on top can also cause compaction of the soil in the
deeper layers, causing a higher bulk density.

SOIL AIR

Factors that influence soil air

Soil is made up of fixed particles, water and air. For many organisms a lack of oxygen causes death
within minutes. A farmer must therefore make sure that the soil contains enough air.

Soil aeration is the process of exchanging gases between the atmosphere and the soil. A soil is well
aerated when this exchange is fast enough to prevent a shortage of oxygen or an excess of carbon
dioxide. Soil air contains oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. The amount and composition of soil
air is determined by texture and structure, depth, temperature, and respiration.

Soil texture and structure

The pore space of soil influences the texture and structure of soil. Sandy soils with large particles
have more macro-pores than clay soils. Air exchange is therefore easier in sandy soils than in clay
soils. The soil air in sandy soils will have more oxygen that the soil air in clay soils.

Soils with a better structure development have better air exchange than poorly structured soils.
Therefore, the soil air in soils with a better structure will contain more oxygen than the soil air in
poorly structured soils.

Soil depth

Soil depth influences the total pore space. The deeper subsoil layers have less pore space than the
topsoil layers. Therefore, air exchange is better in the topsoil layer than in the deeper subsoil layers.
The carbon dioxide content of the deeper subsoil layers will be higher than in the topsoil layers.

Soil temperature

When the temperature increases, the activity of gas molecules will increase. At higher temperatures
the exchange between soil and atmospheric air is faster. Therefore, the soil air in soil that is at a
higher temperature will contain more oxygen than in a soil that is at a lower temperature.

Respiration
All living organisms in the soil breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide. This holds for
micro-organisms and the roots of plants. As organic matter in the soil decomposes, it also gives off
carbon dioxide.

The carbon dioxide in the soil must be exchanged for oxygen from the atmosphere to prevent the
depletion of oxygen and the accumulation of carbon dioxide. But gas movement in soil is restricted;
therefore soil air tends to have a higher carbon dioxide and a lower oxygen content than
atmospheric air. The difference in carbon dioxide content can influence plant growth.

A comparison between atmospheric and soil air

 Soil air contains approximately ten times as much carbon dioxide as atmospheric air,
because carbon dioxide is a respiratory product of plant roots, micro-organisms and other
soil inhabitants. An increase in microbe activity in the soil, increases in the percentage of
carbon dioxide.
 Respiration takes place in soil, because of the plant roots, micro-organisms and other soil
inhabitants.
 Soil air contains a lower percentage of oxygen in comparison to the atmospheric air.Soil air is
usually more or less saturated with moisture, while water vapour in the atmosphere varies
in saturation. On a dry day the soil air contains much more moisture.
 The nitrogen content of soil air and atmospheric air is more or less equal.

The importance of soil gasses

The three main gases in soil air (oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen) each make a specific
contribution to the properties of the soil. The activity of microbes in the soil affects the
concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide in soil air. When the farmer adds manure or similar
organic matter, it may therefore temporarily cause poor aeration of the soil.

Oxygen

•Necessary for respiration of plant roots and micro-organisms. Important for the oxidation of
minerals which contain iron. Plays an important role in the decay of plant remains or organic matter.

Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide combines with soil water to form weak acid, carbonic acid. Carbonic acid dissolves
rocks and minerals to form soil.

• Plant nutrients are released in a soluble form when rocks erode.

•Reacts with compounds to make them accessible to plant roots. Encourages ectomycorrhizal fungi.
Such fungi live symbiotically with plant roots: the fungi get nutrition from the roots, but provide
essential minerals to the plants.

Nitrogen

• Plants cannot use nitrogen in its pure form. Some micro-organisms can utilise this nitrogen to form
nitrogen compounds, which eventually become available to the higher plants.

•Dilutes oxygen in the soil and slows down oxidation to a reasonable rate. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
utilise nitrogen in the soil air to synthesise microbe proteins. This acts as a source of nitrogen for the
higher plants.
Activity 1

What do you know about soil air?1

List the factors that influence soil air.2

Explain why soil air has less oxygen than atmospheric air.

SOIL COLOUR

The differences between homogenous and non-homogenous soil colour

When a single colour dominates the soil, we call it a homogenous soil colour. Any particular soil
mineral which occurs in large enough quantities gives the soil a specific colour. For example, when
the soil is red, it means that the soil has large quantities of minerals rich in iron oxide. Common
homogeneous soil colours are red, yellow, grey, light and dark soil colours.

Non-homogeneous soil colour occurs when a soil horison is very wet for part of the year. It shows a
mixture of colours. It is then described as being mottled.

The factors that determine the colour of soil:

There are a number of factors that determine the colour of the soil.

 The amount and state of organic matter: dark soils contain more organic matter than soils
with a lighter colour.
 The amount of water in the soil: wet soil is darker than dry soil. The moisture content of the
soil can also affect the oxidation of soil elements. In well-drained soil there is more oxygen,
so the elements in the soil (for example iron), will be more oxidised. This will give a reddish
or brownish colour to the soil. If the soil is less well drained, the oxygen content of the soil
will be lower. Therefore the elements in the soil will not be oxidised, causing a grey soil
colour.
 The mineral content of the soil: the presence of certain materials can influence the colour of
the soil. For example, soil that contains manganese oxide is black, and calcite gives a white
colour to the soil in dry regions.

limonite: brown, black or yellow secondary mineral that consists of hydrated ferric oxides

The interpretation of soil colours

Soil colour reveals a lot about the condition and properties of the soil. We use the Munsell colour
cards to describe the colour of soil according to a given standard.
The farmer uses the colour of the soil to determine the condition and properties of the soil. You can
only do this correctly if you understand the causes of the different colours in the soil. Then you can
interpret the colours in terms of soil properties and soil conditions.

Table 1. Interpreting soil colour, this shows how we can use the colour of the soil to find out more
about the condition and properties of the soil

Homogenous colour:

Dark colour

• Dark soil indicates a high percentage of organic matter in the soil.

• The darker the soil, the higher its percentage of organic matter.

• Dark soils are very fertile and suitable for any crop cultivation.

Red colour:

• Iron compounds in the soil forming rocks have undergone certain chemical changes. • These
changes may have taken place in the presence of enough air and low moisture conditions.

• Red colour also indicates a good air-to-moisture ratio in the soil, which means that the subsoil is
well drained and well aerated.

• Production potential of such a soil is high.

Light colour:

• Soil was formed out of sandstone formations with very little iron. • It also indicates that the soil
has never been saturated with water.

• Light soil is therefore suitable for crops that need a light, deep soil. •No drainage will be necessary.

Yellow colour:

• This indicates that iron in the soil has undergone chemical changes.

• The iron has changed in the presence of much moisture and a shortage of oxygen. Ferrous
compounds are formed.

• Limonite may be present. This is an iron ore that is composed of a mixture of iron oxides. • Yellow
indicates a degree of water saturation in the soil which occurs only during the wet season. Such a
soil has a low production potential.

Grey colour:

• Iron has been changed chemically in the absence of oxygen and in the presence of too much
water. It therefore indicates a badly waterlogged condition in the soil and has to be drained before
any plants can be planted in it.

Non-homogenous colour: Mottled

• The colour intensity and the number of flecks can be used to predict the air and moisture
conditions in the soil. If there are many flecks that are clearly visible in the subsoil and the soil is
grey, this will indicate a varying water table.

• Mottled soil can negatively affect root development of plants.

• Mottled soil should be drained properly before any perennial; deep-rooted crops are planted.

Soil water

Types of soil water

There are three basic types or forms of soil water. All these forms start as free water that is added to
the soil by precipitation or irrigation. Each type is controlled by a different force and behaves
differently in the soil.

Gravitational water

Gravitational water is free water that moves through the soil due to the force of gravity. It is found in
the macro-pores. It moves rapidly out of well-drained soil and is not considered to be available to
plants. Gravitational water can cause land plants to wilt and die. This is because gravitational water
occupies air space, which is necessary to supply oxygen to the roots. Gravitational water drains out
of the soil in two to three days.

Capillary water

Capillary water is water in the micro-pores. This water is also called the soil solution. Most of this
water is available for plant growth. Capillary water is held in the soil against the pull of forces of
gravity which act on the water. Micro- pores exert more force on water than do macro-pores.
Capillary water is held by cohesion and adhesion. The quantity of water held is a function of the pore
size and space. This means that the tension increases as the soil dries out.

Hygroscopic water

This water forms very thin films around soil particles and is not available to the plant. The water is
held so tightly by the soil that it cannot be taken up by roots. Hygroscopic water is not held in the
pores, but on the surface of the particles. This means clay will contain much more of this type of
water than sand because of surface area differences. Hygroscopic water is held very tightly by forces
of adhesion.

Water retention

Plants get most of the water they require by absorbing it from the soil. Therefore, soil water is a vital
component of successful agriculture.

The properties of the soil determine how much water remains in the soil and how much water is lost
through surface run-off and drainage. We use the term "water retention" to describe how the soil
retains the water.
FACTOR CAUSING WATER LOSS IN THE SOIL

 Water run-offs: this occurs most especially on sloping soils, where water loss is very large
and causes evaporation
 Evaporation: this occurs in two ways: through transpiration and soil surface evopration.
Transpiration occurs when water is lost through the leaf surfaces of plants into the
atmosphere. Soil surface evaporation occurs when the moisture content of the soil is greater
than the moisture content of the atmosphere. As a result more water is lost to the
atmosphere.
 Seepage (percolation): it occurs when water sinks deeps by seeping through tiny soil pores
under the influence of gravity

The availability of soil water to plants

Soil water availability refers to the capacity of a soil to retain (hold or keep) water that is available to
the plants.

 Saturation point: it is the point at which all soil pores are filled with water that is held by the
adhesion forces to the soil particles.
 Field water capacity: it is the ability of a soil to retain a given quantity of water after the soil
had been drain completely saturated with water.
 Temporary wilting point: it is the point at which the soil provide enough water to the plant
to enable it to retain it turgidity.
 Permanent wilting point: it is the point at which there isn’t enough water in the soil to
support normal plant growth.

Effective water management methods:

 Through proper irrigation

 By mulching the soils to reduce excessive evaporation
 By adding enough organic matter
 By ploughing the soil
Soil temperature

Factors that influence soil temperature

Net radiation

Soil temperature or heat comes mainly from the sun. The quantity of the radiation energy of the sun
which reaches the earth depends on:

position of the sun in the southern hemisphere. The land on south-facing slopes is usually cooler
than land on north-facing slopes.

slope of the soil. The more vertical the angle at which the rays from the sun hits the ground, the
more energy the ground will absorb.

degree of cloud cover. More cloud cover means lower soil temperatures. soil colour. Darker soils
absorb more energy from the sun.

degree of vegetation cover. Vegetation cover cuts out the rays from the sun.

dry atmosphere

Water has a high thermal capacity. This means that it takes a lot of energy to increase the
temperature of water. Soil water therefore will increase the specific warmth of a soil. A wet soil will
therefore heat up more slowly than a dry soil. A wet soil is also cooler than a dry soil. Clay soil is
much cooler than sandy soil because of the water retention capacity of clay soil.

Evaporation of water

Water that evaporates from soil uses up a lot of energy. The water takes that energy from the
temperature of the soil and cools the soil.

Soil depth

 With an increase in soil depth, the daily variation in soil temperature decreases.
 Mineral soil particles have about a hundred times the heat conductivity of soil air.
 The more densely the soil particles are packed, the less soil air there is, so the more easily
heat is conducted to the deeper layers of soil.
 Moist soil will be heated to a greater depth than dry soil, because water has approximately
25 times more thermal conductivity than soil air.

How to measure variation in soil temperature

The scientific approach demands that we measure the effect of a variable on two comparable pieces
of soil. For example, if we need to know what the effect of ground cover is on soil temperature we
will have to measure the temperature of covered soil and bare soil at the same time on the same
day in two patches of soil next to one another.

The effects of temperature on processes in soil

Soil temperature affects many processes which take place in the soil, such as chemical reactions and
biological interactions. Extreme temperatures will inhibit biological processes such as the decay of
organic matter. If the soil temperature remains constant for long periods, it will delay the physical
processes of soil formation which depend on temperature variation.
Soil temperatures vary in response to exchange processes that take place primarily through the soil
surface. These effects are propagated into the soil profile by transport processes and are influenced
by such things as the specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity and diffusion that depend on a
thermal gradient. Very few plants can tolerate really extreme soil temperatures. Generally, when
cold soils get warmer plants in that soil grow more quickly and deliver higher yields.

Methods to manipulate soil temperature for better production

Some species, of plants such as mangos prefer higher temperatures, while other species, such as
asparagus prefer cooler soils. Different cultivars within a species also have different temperature
needs.

The farmer can manage the soil temperature by the following methods:

 add mulch on top of the soil; mulch will insulate the soil
 keep soil covered with vegetation
 add organic matter to the soil itself
 prevent compaction of the soil
 put down weed matting in orchards
 use minimal or no tilling to keep the soil covered
 use greenhouses or shade netting to control the environment.

weed matting: man-made fabric that is placed on the soil to suppress weeds by blocking out
sunlight