THE GENERALISED EUKARYOTIC CELL

Eukaryotic cells are essentially made up animal cell and plant cell.

A typical plant cell

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A typical Animal cell

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Animal cells are eukaryotic. Animal cells are of various sizes and have
irregular shapes. Most of the cells size range between 1 and 100 micrometers and
are visible only with help of microscope Animal cells are have outer
boundary known as the plasma membrane. The nucleus and the organelles of the
cell are bound by a membrane. The genetic material (DNA) in animal cells is
within the nucleus that is bound by a double membrane. The cell organelles have a
vast range of functions to perform like hormone and enzyme production to
providing energy for the cells.

The components of animal cells are centrioles, cilia and flagella, endoplasmic
reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, microfilaments, microtubules,
mitochondria, nucleus, peroxisomes, plasma membrane and ribosomes.

Animal cell contains membrane bound nucleus, it also contains other membrane
bound cellular organelles. These cellular organelles carry out specific functions
that are necessary for the normal functioning of the cell. Animal cells lack cell
wall, a large vacuole and plastids. Due to the lack of the cell wall, the shape and
size of the animal cells are mostly irregular. The constituents of animal cells are
structures like centrioles, cilia and flagella and lysosomes.

A "typical" animal cell is illustrated above is composed of the followings:

a. Cell Membrane. As its outer boundary, the animal cell has a special structure
called the cell or plasma membrane. All of the substances that enter or leave the
cell must in some way pass through this membrane.
b. Protoplasm. The major substance of the cell is known as protoplasm. It is a
combination of water and a variety of materials dissolved in the water. Outside the
cell nucleus (see below), protoplasm is called cytoplasm. Inside the cell nucleus,
protoplasm is called nucleoplasm.
c. Organelles. Within the cytoplasm, certain structures are called organelles. These
organelles include structures such as the endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes,
various kinds of vacuoles, the Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and centrioles.
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.
d. Nucleus. Within the cell is the nucleus. This structure has a nuclear
membrane separating it from the cytoplasm. Within the nucleus is
the chromatin material, made up of the protein deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). At
the time of cell division, this chromatin material is aggregated into individual
structures known as chromosomes. Each chromosome has a set of specific genes,
which determine all of the physical and chemical characteristics of the body, which
represent its structure and function.

Parts of the animal cell and functions are as follows:

The organelles of the cell function as a unit and regulate the activities of the cell.
The different cell organelles and their functions are as follows:
Cell Nucleus - Cell nucleus is referred to as the control center of the cell. The
genetic material of the organism is present in the cell. The replication of DNA, and
synthesis of RNA occurs in the nucleus of the cell. It also regulates the activities of
the other cellular organelles.
Mitochondria - The mitochondria is referred to as the power house of the cell. Its
main function if to produce energy for cell by the process of cellular respiration.
The energy produced is ATP.
Endoplasmic Reticulum - It is a network for transportation of certain substances in
and out of the nucleus.
Golgi Apparatus - It is involved with processing and packaging of the molecules
that are synthesized by the cells. The crude proteins that are passed on by the ER to
the apparatus are developed by the golgi apparatus into primary, secondary, and
tertiary proteins.
Ribosomes - The function of ribosomes is protein synthesis.
Lysosomes - They are referred to as the suicide bags of the cell. They have
digestive enzymes and are involved in clearing the in wanted waste materials from
the cell. They also engulf damaged materials like the damaged cells,and invading
microorganisms and digest food particles.
Vacuole - They are large storage organelles. They store excess food or water.
Cell membrane - forms the outer covering of the cell, and is semi-permeable.

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Cytoplasm - is a gel-like matrix where all the other cell organelles are suspended
inside the cell..
Centrioles - organize the microtubules assembly during cell division.
Lysosomes - are enzyme sacs, that digest cellular wastes.
Microtubules - are hollow rods, function primarily as support and shape to the cell.
Nucleolus - is the structure within the nucleus and helps in synthesis of ribosomes.
Nucleopore - is the tiny hole in the nuclear membrane, allows the movement of
nucleic acids and proteins in/out of the cell.
Subcellular Structures

Cell membrane

 It is a semi-permeable barrier, allowing only a few molecules to move across

it.
 Electron microscopic studies of cell membrane shows the lipid bi-layer
model of the plasma membrane, it also known as the fluid mosaic model.
 The cell membrane is made up of phospholipids which has
polar(hydrophillic) heads and non-polar (hydrophobic) tails.

Cytoplasm

 The fluid matrix that fills the cell is the cytoplasm.

 The cellular organelles are suspended in this matrix of the cytoplasm.
 This matrix maintains the pressure of the cell, ensures the cell doesn't shrink
or burst.

Nucleus

 Nucleus is the house for most of the cells genetic material- the DNA and
RNA.
 The nucleus is surrounded by a porous membrane known as the nuclear
membrane.
 The RNA moves in/out of the nucleus through these pores.
 Proteins needed by the nucleus enter through the nuclear pores.
 The RNA helps in protein synthesis through transcription process.
 The nucleus controls the activity of the cell and is known as the control
center.
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  The nucleolus is the dark spot in the nucleus, and it is the location for
ribosome formation.

Ribosomes

 Ribosomes is the site for protein synthesis where the translation of the RNA
takes place.
 As protein synthesis is very important to the cell, ribosomes are found in
large number in all cells.
 Ribosomes are found freely suspended in the cytoplasm and also are
attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

Endoplasmic reticulum

 ER is the transport system of the cell. It transports molecules that need

certain changes and also molecules to their destination.
 ER is of two types, rough and smooth.
 ER bound to the ribosomes appear rough and is the rough endoplasmic
reticulum; while the smooth ER do not have the ribosomes.

Lysosomes

 It is the digestive system of the cell.

 They have digestive enzymes helps in breakdown the waste moelcules and
also help in detoxification of the cell.
 If the lysosomes were not membrane bound the cell could not have used the
destructive enzymes.

Centrosomes

 It is located near the nucleus of the cell and is known as the 'microtubule
organizing center' of the cell.
 Microtubules are made in the centrosome.
 During mitosis the centrosome aids in dividing of the cell and moving of the
chromosome to the opposite sides of the cell.

Vacuoles

 They are bound by single membrane and small organelles.

 In many organisms vacuoles are storage organelles.

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Vesicles are smaller vacuoles which function for transport in/out of the cell.

Golgi bodies

 Golgi bodies are the packaging center of the cell.

 The Golgi bodies modify the molecules from the rough ER by dividing them
into smaller units with membrane known as vesicles.
 They are flattened stacks of membrane-bound sacs.

Mitochondria

 Mitochondria is the main energy source of the cell.

 They are called the power house of the cell because energy(ATP) is created
here.
 Mitochondria consists of inner and outer membrane.
 It is spherical or rod shaped organelle.
 It is an organelle which is independent as it has its own hereditary material.

Peroxisomes

 Peroxisomes are single membrane bound organelle that contain oxidative

enzymes that are digestive in function.
 They help in digesting long chains of fatty acids and amino acids and help in
synthesis of cholesterol.

Cytoskeleton

 It is the network of microtubules and microfilament fibres.

 They give structural support and maintain the shape of the cell.

Cilia and Flagella

 Cilia and flagella are structurally identical structures.

 They are different based on the function they perform and their length.
 Cilia are short and are in large number per cell while flagella are longer and
are fewer in number.
 They are organelles of movement.
 The flagella motion is undulating and wave-like whereas the ciliary
movement is power stroke and recovery stroke.

Differences between animal cell and plant cell

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All living organisms are made up of cells. Cells are differentiated into plant cells and animal
cells. Structurally there are a few differences in plant and animal cells though their functionality
is almost the same.

All the cells are enclosed in a protective membrane called the cell membrane however plant
cells have an extra addition the cell wall. The cells have certain organelles that are membrane
bound within them, these structures are called cellular organelles. These organelles are
specified to perform certain activities that are important for the survival of the cell. All the cells
function together in coordination with each other and help the organism to survive. The
functions of animal cell is carried out by the different cell organelles.

FUNCTIONS OF GENERALISED CELL ORGANNELS

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 Centrosome - an associated pair of cylindrical shaped protein structures
(centrioles) that organize microtubules and aid in forming the mitotic spindle
during cell division in eukaryotes
 Cell membrane (plasma membrane) - the part of the cell which separates the
cells from the outside environment and protects the cell, as well as
regulating what goes in and out of the cell
 Cell wall - extra layer of protection and gives structural support (only found
in plant cells)
 Chloroplast - key organelle for photosynthesis (only found in plant cells)
 Cilium - motile structure of eukaryotes having a cytoskeleton, the axoneme.
 Cytoplasm - contents of the main fluid-filled space inside cells, chemical
reactions also happen in this jelly-like substance.
 Cytoskeleton - protein filaments inside cells (microfilaments, microtubules,
and intermediate filaments)
 Endoplasmic reticulum (rough) - major site of membrane protein synthesis
 Endoplasmic reticulum (smooth) - major site of lipid synthesis
 Endosomes - vesicles that traffic membrane and intra and extra cellular
contents for recycling or degradation by lysosomes
 Flagellum - motile structure of bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes
 Golgi apparatus - site of protein glycosylation in the endomembrane system
 Lipid bilayer - fundamental organizational structure of cell membranes
 Lysosome - acidic organelle that breaks down cellular waste products and
debris into simple compounds (only found in animal cells)
 Microvilli - increases surface area for absorption of nutrients from
surrounding medium
 Mitochondrion - major energy-producing organelle by releasing energy in
the form of ATP
 Nucleus - contains chromosomes composed of DNA, the building block of
life. Nuclear Architecture is important for dictating nuclear function.
 Organelle - term used for major subcellular structures
 Peroxisomes - a very small organelle that uses oxygen to breakdown and
detoxify long fatty acids and other molecules
 Pili - also called fimbria is used for conjugation and sometimes movement
 Ribosome - RNA and protein complex required for protein synthesis in cells
 Starch grain - found in the cytoplasm of a typical plant cell, it stores
chemical energy of the plant.
 Vacuole - contain cell sap or other storage material.
 Vesicle - small membrane-bounded spheres inside cells which transport
substances.

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