SOURCES

The historic period of Tamil Nadu starts with the Sangam Age. The Sangam
Age is comprised of the period from the third century B.C to the third century A.D.
The Sangam Age was followed by an alien rule i.e. the Kalabhra age (third centuary
A.D. to sixth century A.D.) The Pallavas and Pandyas defeated the Kalabhras and put
an end to their rule. They simultaneously ruled Tamil Nadu from sixth century A.D.
to nineth centuryA.D. various types of sources are available to know about these
periods. They are classified into two groups – archaeological and literary.

Archaeological Sources

Archaeological sources, which are more authentic than the literary ones, throw light on
those areas in which literary evidences are silent, besides attesting the information of
literary sources. Various archaeological sources help us to understand the history of
Tamil Nadu.
Archaeological Excavations

Archaeological excavations provide information about the material aspect and

culture of the early people. Archaeological excavations conducted at several
historical sites in Tamil Nadu and Kerala provide valuable information. The
excavations carried out at Arikamedu, Alagankulam, Korkai, Karur,
Kaveripumpattinam, Kodumanal, Man-gudi, Mangulam and Porunthal add
additional information on the literary evidences of the Sangam age. The findings of
the off-shore submarine excavation carried out in 1995 in Kaveripumpattinam
corroborate the accounts of the Manimekalai and other Sangam literary works. The
urn burials found south of the Vaigai river–valley and the potsherds with Tamil-
Brahmi script at the Kodumanal megalithic site denote the continuity of the custom
of erecting megalithic monuments in the early historic period. The Roman pottery
and gold coins unearthed in the Arikkamedu excavation confirm the trade contacts
of the Tamils with the Roman Empire.

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 Due to the archaeological excavations carried out at Pumpuhar, interesting
information got unearthed. The excavation at Kilaiyur near Pumpuhar brought to
light a brick platform with remnants of wooden posts in its corners. A Buddhist
vihara was also unearthed. It attests the Sangam literary information that
Kaveripumpattinam was a Buddhist centre.

Excavations at Tirukampuliyur throw light on the material culture of that site in

the early centuries of the Christian era. A large number of roulette ware unearthed
at Uraiyur reveals the commercial and cultural contacts of Romans with Tamilians.
The excavations conducted at Saluvan Kuppam near Madras have unearthed a
Muruga temple built of burnt bricks during the later Sangam. Archaeological
excavations conducted in Pattanam, a small village, Kodungallur (Ernakulam
District, Kerala) have unearthed signs of early Ro trade and commerce in beads and
ornaments. The excavation proved Pattanam was a part of Muziris, the port city of
the Sangam Cheras.

Archaeological excavation in Kodumanal (Erode district) unearthed industrial

complex that existed around fourth century B.C.The industries in complex made iron
and steel, textiles, bangles out of conch-shells, and be from semi-precious stones such as
sapphire,beryl quartz,agate,onyx,carne and ivory. One hundred and thirty potsherds
with Tamil-Brahmi inscripti including thirty Tamil-Brahmi words were unearthed.
K.Rajan is of the v that “nowhere else do we come across such an industrial complex.
uniqueness of Kodumanal is that it was entirely an industrial site. Tho several Sangam
age sites have been excavated so far, none has yielded so m of Tamil-Brahmi inscribed
potsherds as Kodumanal”.

Removal of sand near the Shore Temple in Mamallapuram brought to l the

early Pallava stepped structure (approximately 200 m long), the Bhuvar image, and
the miniature shrine. Excavation at the site of the Pancha Pand Rathas revealed a
sculptured adhistana. Excavation at Pallavamedu, on outskirts of Kanchipuram,
attested the Pallavas rule in that area.

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Monuments

Usually monuments - temples, forts, palaces and dwelling places - provide

information about the people of the past. Sangam literature contains vivid
explanations of fortified cities, palaces with paintings and decorations, multi- story
buildings, dwelling places, etc. But until now, archaeological excavations have not
unearthed the monuments of the Sangam age. Since they were built with perishable
materials, their traces are not found. The excavations conducted at Maligaimedu in
Gangaikonda Cholapuram unearthed a part of the Imperial Chola’s palace.The
Pallavas started the tradition of constucting structural temples with stone. The
Pandyas, the Cholas, and the Vijayanagar rulers also constructed temples following
the tradition of the Pallavas. These stone temples have withstood the ravages of time
and bear a silent testimony to the artistic tradition of the Tamils of the bygone days.

Epigraphy

Epigraphy, the study of inscriptions, is the most copious and important source
of information about the history and culture of the people in the past. It is a trust-
worthy source too. Inscriptions found on rocks, boulders, caves, stone-slabs and
terracotta potteries throw light on the contemporary political, social, economic and
religious conditions. They provide information about the borders of various
kingdoms, the personalities of kings, and the contemporary art. To know about the
Sangam age, non-Tamil inscriptions and contemporary Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions
are available.

Non-Tamil Inscriptions

The earliest inscriptions describing Sangam Tamilaham are the Asokan

inscriptions. Asoka’s rock edict No.II mentions five independent and neighbouring
states of Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras (Adigaimans) Keralaputras and
Tambappanni (Ceylon). Rock Edict No. XIII mentions the Cholas, the Pandyas and
Tambapanni. This shows that the Tamil States existed independently during the
Mauryan Emperor Asoka’s period in the third century B.C.

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 The Hathigumpa inscription of Kharavela mentions a league of Tamil
States and its destruction by him. According to him, it was formed 113 years before
the inscription.The Sangam poet Mamulanar refers to the Vamba Moriyar invasion.
K.A.N. Sastri identifies the invaders as Mauryas. The Kosars helped the Mauryas to
subdue Mohur which was situated in the south – east of the land of the Kosars. A
Tamil confederacy formed to arrest the Maurya invasion successfully defeated the
Maurya Bindusara, (father of Asoka). N.Subrahmanian says that Bindusara’s
invasion occurred in c.228 B.C. These inscriptions throw light on the political
conditions of the Tamils in the early centuries of the Christian era and help us fix the
date of the Sangam Age.

The inscriptions of the Western Chalukyas, the Rastrakudas, the

Eastern Chalukyas, and the Kadambas – the contemporary neighbouring rulers of
the Pallavas, the Pandyas, and the Cholas – throw light on their political relations
with the Tamil rulers.

Tamil – Brahmi Inscriptions

In Tamil Nadu, the early records were written in Brahmi script. All these records
are found in natural caverns high up on summits or the slopes of hills made suitable
for human occupation. They are incised either on the beds in the caverns or on the
brows of the overhanging boulders or walls. They are mostly of single or double
lines consisting of a few letters. They are either dedicatory or donative. The Brahmi
inscriptions mention the dedication of these caverns and beds for the use of religious
monks and their penance. In most of these inscriptions, personal names are found.
The names may be those of either the donors or the donees.About ninety-four
Brahmi inscriptions are found. Some of them are found in Arittapatti (Mangulam),
Kilavalava, Kongarpuliyankulam, Alagarmalai, Sittanavasal, Tiru- parankunram,
Anaimalai, Kunrakkudi and Pugalur. Archaeological excavations have unearthed a
large number of potsherds with Brahmi inscriptions belonging to the period
between third century B.C. and third century A.D. The earliest one was found in

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 Arikamedu. Such inscribed potsherds were found in Alagarai, Alagankulam,
Uraiyur, Mangulam and Kodumanal. They attest the fact that ordinary people were
also familiar with the Brahmi script in the Sangam Age. Iravatham Mahadevan says:
“It is significant that inscribed pottery is much more abundant in Tamil Nadu than
elsewhere in India. The main reasons for such widespread and early literacy in
Tamil Nadu are political independence and the use of Tamil in administration and
other spheres of public life.” The Mangulam (Arittapatti) inscriptions mention
Pandyan Nedunjeliyan. The Pugalur inscriptions give a list of three Chera rulers.
The Jambai inscription confirms the fact that Adigaiman of Tadadur was
Sathiyaputra mentioned in the Asokan edicts. .A stone with Tamil-Brahmi
inscription has been located in Khuan Luk Pat museum in southern Thailand. Based
on the inscription, the object has been identified as a touchstone (uraikal) used for
testing the fitness of gold. The inscription is dated to 3rd or 4th century A.D. The
Tamil script properly emerged from the Tamil Brahmi and assumed its present form
in the seventeenth century.

The Later Tamil Inscriptions

The inscriptions issued after the Sangam Age also refer to the Sangam Age.

1.The Velvikkudi grant of Parantaka Nedunjeliyan (a ruler of the First Pandyan

Empire) mentions a Sangam Pandya ruler Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvaluthi.
The Larger Sinnamanur plates refer to Talayalanganattu Cheruvenra Nedunjeliyan.

2.The Kudumiyanmalai musical inscription of Mahendravarman Pallava I

points to the continuous musical tradition of the Silappadikaram period.

3.The Tirukkovalur inscription refers to the self-immolation of Kapilar, the

famous Sangam poet.

4.The hero- stones with Tamil letters belonging to the later Pallava period and
afterwards attest the accounts given in the Sangam works about nadukal. These
references of the later inscriptions confirm the facts given by the Sangam literature.

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 Numismatics

Numismatics illuminates the contemporary political, religious and

economic conditions and art. In the Sangam age, coins were used only for foreign
trade. The Pandya and Chola copper coins of the Sangam age have been found.They
are the punch-marked silver, copper and lead coins dated 200 B.C.–200 A.D. Among
the most notable discoveries are the copper coins of the Pandya ruler Peruvaluthi
and the Chera ruler Cheral Irumporai. Though they contain no date or legend, they
are useful for study.

The Arikkamedu excavation conducted by Alexander Cunningham

unearthed hoards of Roman gold coins belonging to Augustus and Tiberius. Gold
and silver coins of the Roman Empire were widely found. They confirm the
information given by the Sangam literature regarding overseas trade and attest the
brisk trade between the Roman Empire and the Sangam Tamilaham.

Punch-marked coins of the Mauryan Empire and the Satavahanas were

found. They too confirm the trade relations of the Tamils with the North Indian
Kingdoms.

Roman coin –Augustus Ceasar

The symbols and motifs on coins issued by the Tamil rulers wer confined to
dynastic crests such as the bull (Pallava), tiger (Chola), fis (Pandya), bow and arrow
(Cheras) etc. The Pallavas issued coins in lead an copper. They mainly used the lion
and bull symbols along with other symbol like svastika, the sacred lamp, kumbha,
trisula, and horse. Coins with legend occur only from the period of Mahendravarman
I. The Kamakshiamma Temple excavations at Kanchipuram unearthed a Pallava coin
with the legen "Danti".

The Pandyas issued copper coins. A gold coin issued by Varagun Pandya has
two fish on one side and the legend Sri Varaguna in Granth characters on the other.
Another important coin of the early Pandyas is mad of copper and has the symbol of

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two fish on the obverse and on the reverse th legend ‘Sri Avanipasekbaran
Kolaka’.The Pandyas of the Second Pandya Empire issued several varieties of coins
bearing the legend ‘Sundara Pandya in various shapes and sizes.

The Cholas of Thanjavur issued coins in gold, silver and copper. Al the coins
are circular in shape. The coins depict symbols like the tiger alon with the fish and
bow. A silver coin of Uttama Chola has the symbol of tige with two fishes.The copper
coins of Rajaraja I have seated or standing huma figures and with the King’s name in
Devanagari script.

The Madurai Nayaks issued many coins featuring the fish - the emblem of the
Pandyas. Some of the earliest Madurai Nayak coins portray the figur of the king. The
bull is also frequently seen on their coins.

THE USES OF COINS

Coins throw light on the economic and religious conditions of thei

times, and help in the forumulation of chronology and the appreciation of art
Moreover they are of much use in the exposure of facts and the study of th Empires.
Knowledge of international relations and the personal tastes of ruler can be obtained
through coins.

LITERATURE

There is plenty of written material to know about the Sangam Ag which is

known as the golden age of literature in Tamilaham. The majo works are as follows

Tolkappiym
Ettutogai
Pattupattu
Padinenkilkannakku
Irattai Kappiyangal

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 The Sangam literature is the most important source for the history of th
Sangam age. According to N.Subrahmanian, “The Sangam literature is largel free
from misleading exaggeration, and is a very dependable body o literature”. It helps
us to fix the Sangam chronology, the political history an the conditions of the age.
(For details refer the Sangam literature.

The Kalabhra period witnessed stagnation in the literary activities

Prabably some of the Padinenkilkkanakkunul were written during thi period. The
Tamil Navalar Charitai narrates the overlordship of the Kalabhr ruler over the three
crowned rulers. Buddhadatta, a Bhuddhist scholar wrot the Vinaya Vinicham, a
Buddhist literature during the reign of Kalabhr Achuta Vikranta. Nilakandan of
Musiri updated the Irayanar Ahapporul in the eighth century A.D. The Pandikkovai
was written by an anonymous author during the reig of Ninrasir Nedumaran, the
first Pandyan ruler.

The Bhakti literature- the Tevaram, Tiruvasagam and Nalayira Divy

Prabandam –were composed during the Pallava period. Th Nandikkalambagam
narrates the exploits of Naandivarman III. Perundevana wrote the Bharata Venba in
the reign of Nandivarman III. Only a smal portion of the work remains.The Sanskrit
works like th Mattavilasaprahasanamm of Mahendravarman I, the Nyaya Pravesa
and th Avantisundari Kathasara of Dandin, and the Kiratarjuniyam of Bharav
throw light on the political activities of the rulers.

Kambar’s the Ramayana is the greatest epic in Tamil literature Among

the five epics, the last three –the Valaiyapati, Kundalakesi an Jivakasintamani-
belonged to the Chola period. The Periyapuranam o Sekkilar written in the reign of
Kulottunga II is an epic dealing with Saiv hagiology. It is the life story of the sixty
three Nayanmars. Th Tiruvilaiyadalpuranam written during this period, deals with
the sports o Siva performed at Madurai. The Kulottunga Kovai deals with
Kulottunga III

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 It contains passing allusions to some of his achievements in war Jeyankondar’s
the Kalingattupparani is in praise of the heroic deeds of th Chola king Kulottunga I and
his general Karunakara Tondaiman.Ottakkutta was a great poet who lived in the times
of three Chola rulers---Vikrama Chola Kulottunga II and Rajaraja II. He wrote the Ula
Prabandham on each o them. It is collectively known as the Muvarula. He wrote the
Pillai-Tamil o Kulottunga II and also the Dakkyagap-parani on Rajaraja II. All his poem
are of great historical value. He also composed the Itti-yelupadu Eluppelupadu,
Sarasvatiyandadi, and Arumbait-tollayiram. Buddhamitr wrote the grammar work
the Virasoliyam titled after the then ruling monarc Virarajendra. The Pingalandai and
the Sudamani are two lexicons of th Chola period. The most prominent achievement
was the codification of bot Saivite and Vaishnavite cannons. Poyyamoli, a general of
Maravarman Sundara Pandya I, composed the Tanjaivanan Kovai on a Bana chieftain of
Tanjakkur.

Kumara Kampana’s wife Gangadevi wrote a Sanskrit epic. It explain the

circumstances prevailing in the South and the exploits of Kumar Kampana in the form
of a poem entitled the Madura Vijayam, also know as the Veera Kamparaya
Charitram. Though an exaggerated version, it give valuable information about the
Vijayanagar expedition in the Tamil Countr and the end of the Madurai Sultanate.The
Saluvabhyudayam, written b Rajanatha Dindima, describes Kumara Kampana’s
exploits.

Non-Tamil Literature

North Indian literature throws some light on the early history of the
Tamils. The epics - the Ramayana and the Mahabharata- make some stray
references to Tamil Nadu. The Ramayana mentions Kapadapuram, the capital in the
second Sangam age. The Mahabharata mentions the marriage of Vijaya with a
Pandya princess. N.Subrahmanian considers this information as an interpolation.

The early authentic information is obtained from Megasthanese’s

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Indica. The notices of the Greek ambassador to Chandra Gupta Maurya’s court were
based on hearsay accounts. He mentions that the Pandya Kingdom was ruled by
Pandaia, a daughter of Herakles. This information is not corroborated by any other
source. His account that the girls in the Pandya country became mothers at the age
of six can also be dismissed. His information about the paying of tributes by the
citizens in appointed turns is attested by the Silappadikaram. Megasthanese is the
earliest non-Indian who mentions Tamilaham. Kautilya in his the Arthasastra
mentions pandya kavadam (pearl) as one of the imported articles of the Mauryan
Empire.

Foreign Literature

The contemporary Greek, Roman, and Ceylonese historians have

written about the trade relations of these countries with Tamilaham, and the Tamil
cities and market place. Pliny the Elder, (39-73AD) in his The Natural History,
mentions ports of Tamilaham such as Musiri and Kaveripumpattinam Ptolemy (119-
161 AD) in his the Map of the World mentions South India. The Periplus of the
Erythrean Sea (50-80 A..D.) by an anonymous author gives elaborate information
about Damirike (Tamilaham). He describes the imported and exported articles.

The Peutingerian Tables of 222 A.D. mentions a temple of Augustus

Ceasar on the west coast of Tamilaham. Strabo, the Roman historian, refers to the
visit of Pandyan embassies to Augustus Ceasar’s court. He describes the political
and commercial relations between the Roman Empire and the Tamil Kingdoms. He
also mentions the change of the Pandya capital from Korkai to Madurai. These
classical writers’ informations about the commercial contact of the West with the
East are attested by stray references in the Sangam literature.

The Chinese writer Pan Kou, who lived in the first century A.D.,
mentions Houangtche (Kanchi) in his work the Ts’ien Han Chou.The Chinese
Annals provide information about the political and commercial relatioms of Tamil
rulers with China.Huang Tsang, in his book, refers to the condition of Buddhism in

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the Pallava kingdom.

The Ceylonese chronicles - the Mahavamsa and the Depavamsa - refer

to the invasion of Sri Lanka by Tamil rulers and the Ceylones rulers’ political and
trade contacts with the Tamils. They provide clues to the fixing of the date of the
Sangam age.The Pandya and Chola rulers’ relations with Ceylon rulers also vividly
mention.

The account of Marco Polo, the Venetian traveler, portrays the condition of
Tamilaham in the thirteenth century.Ibn Battuta’s account on the Madurai Sultanate
is a valuable source of information on the period. These foreigners’ accounts
coroborate the information given by the Tamil epigraphic and literary sources.

There are sufficient sources for understanding the ancient history of Tamil
Nadu. Various archaeological and literary sources illuminate the conditions of Tamil
Nadu in various periods.

B.Arunraj
Faculty
Department of History and Tourism
Bharathiar University, Coimbatore.

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