JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF COMMUNICATION AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF MEDIA TECHNOLOGY AND APPLIED COMMUNICATION

BACHELOR OF JOURNALISM

TOPIC: IMPACT OF MEDIA REPRESENATION ON THE MARGINALIZED

COMMUNITIES IN KENYA, CASES OF PLWD.

Submitted by:

GROUP 1

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DECLERATION

Candidates Declaration

This research endeavor is wholly original work with no submission for academic at any other
university.

1. Name

Sign……………….. Date………………..

2. name

Sign……………….. Date………………….

3. name

Sign……………….. Date……………………

4 . name

Sign……………….. Date………………….

5. name

Sign……………….. Date………………….

Supervisors Declaration

This project has been presented for examination with my approval as the university supervisor

Mr. .John Wandaga Sign……………….. Date………………….

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iii
DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to almighty God, the creator, strong pillar, source of inspiration, wisdom,

knowledge and understanding. He has been the source of strength throughout this project. The

project is also dedicated to dear parents who showed their immense support. Their

encouragement have made this work a success. May the blessing of God be with them now and

always?

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Great appreciation to Mr. John Wandaga, lecturer and supervisor, for his continued support. This

research could not have been successful without his input and guidance. A hand of appreciation

also parents and guardians for their moral and financial support. Their understanding throughout

the hectic process is something not worth overlooking. Finally is the contribution from

classmates and lecturers. The completion of this research could not have been realized without

their sacrifice. Our heartfelt thanks.

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vi
ABSTRACT

This research project critically examines the media representation of people living with

disabilities in Kenya. The aim of the study is to analyze how individuals with disabilities are

portrayed in various forms of media and the potential impact of these representation on society.

By exploring the current state of media portrayal, this research contributes to the ongoing

discussions on inclusive media practices and their impact on social attitudes and policies.To

achieve the objectives, a comprehensive literature review was conducted to understand the

theoretical frameworks and existing research related to media representation of people living

with disabilities. Additionally qualitative data was collected through interviews and focus groups

discussions involving individuals with disabilities, media professionals and disability advocacy

groups. The findings of these study highlight several key themes. Firstly, media representation of

people living with disabilities in Kenya is often characterized by stereotypes, inaccuracies and

limited visibility. Individuals with disabilities are frequently portrayed as objects of pity,

inspiration or as helpless individuals dependent on others.Moreover the study reveals the

underrepresentation of people with disabilities in the media, with limited opportunities for them

to tell their own stories or participate in decision making processes. This lack of authentic

representation perpetuates a cycle of exclusion and further marginalizes individuals with

disabilities, hindering their full participation and integration into society.The research project

recommends several strategies to improve media representation of people living with disabilities

in Kenya.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLERATION............................................................................................................................ii

DEDICATION..............................................................................................................................iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...........................................................................................................iv

ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................v

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION................................................................................................1

1.1 Background information.........................................................................................................1

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM......................................................................................4

1.3 OBJECTIVES..........................................................................................................................5

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS.....................................................................................................5

1.5 JUSTIFICATION....................................................................................................................6

1.5.1 Academic justification;.........................................................................................................6

1.5.2 Policy making justification...................................................................................................6

1.5.3 Theory justification...............................................................................................................6

1.5.4 Methodological justification................................................................................................6

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1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY........................................................................................................7

1.6.1 Context Scope........................................................................................................................7

1.6.2physical Scope........................................................................................................................7

1.6.3theoretical Scope....................................................................................................................8

1.6.4methodological Scope............................................................................................................8

CHAPTER 2...................................................................................................................................9

2.1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................9

2.2 THEORETICAL REVIEW....................................................................................................9

2.2.1 The Agenda Setting Theory.................................................................................................9

2.3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK.........................................................................................11

2.4 REVIEW OF VARIABLES...................................................................................................11

2.4.1 Television Programmes.......................................................................................................11

2.4.2 Radio Programmes.............................................................................................................13

2.4.3 Online Programmes............................................................................................................15

2.4.4 Underrepresentation...........................................................................................................16

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2.4.5 Stereotypes...........................................................................................................................18

2.4.6 Discrimination.....................................................................................................................20

2.5 EMPIRICAL REVIEW.........................................................................................................21

2.6 CRITIQUE OF THE EXISTING LITERATURE..............................................................24

2.7 RESEARCH GAP..................................................................................................................26

2.8 SUMMARY............................................................................................................................26

CHAPTER 3.................................................................................................................................27

3.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................27

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN...........................................................................................................27

3.3 POPULATION.......................................................................................................................28

3.4 SAMPLING FRAME............................................................................................................28

3.5 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND SAMPLE SIZE...........................................................30

3.5.1 Sampling Techniques..........................................................................................................30

3.5.2 Sample Size..........................................................................................................................31

3.6 INSTRUMENTS....................................................................................................................32

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3.7 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE................................................................................35

3.8 PILOT TEST..........................................................................................................................35

3.9 DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS..............................................................................36

CHAPTER 4.................................................................................................................................39

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS.......................................................................39

4.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................39

4.2 Respondents background information.................................................................................40

4.2.1 Gender Distribution of Respondents.................................................................................40

4.3 Distribution of respondents age brackets............................................................................41

4.4 Respondents level of education.............................................................................................42

4.5 Media representation of PLWD in Kenya is it of justice?..................................................43

4.10 Media representation of PLWD affects their empowerment in the society....................52

4.11 Increased media representation of PLWD can lead to more awareness and

understanding of their rights......................................................................................................54

4.12 Media has a responsibility to represent marginalized communities (PLWD) in a more

accurate and respectful way........................................................................................................56

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4.13 PLWDs and their organizations ensure their voices are represented accurately in the

media.............................................................................................................................................58

4.14 Discussion of the findings....................................................................................................59

CHAPTER 5.................................................................................................................................62

INTRODUCTION, SUMMARY CONCLUSION AND RECCOMENDATION..................62

5.1INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................62

5.2 SUMMARY............................................................................................................................63

5.3 CONCLUSION......................................................................................................................64

5.4 RECCOMEDATIONS...........................................................................................................65

REFERENCES............................................................................................................................67

QUESTIONNAIRE.....................................................................................................................72

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background information

The way the media depicts people, groups, or communities through various forms of

communication, such as news, entertainment, and advertising, is known as media representation.

According to Stuart Hall, a prominent cultural theorist, media representation involves "the

production of meaning through the use of language, signs and images which stand for or

represent things" (Hall, 1997, p. 16).This process entails the selection, framing, and

interpretation of events and issues, which can have significant ramifications for how society

perceives people and groups.

The term "marginalized communities" refers to groups in society that face systemic obstacles to

full involvement and inclusion in social, economic, and political life. These groups are frequently

marginalized or excluded because of their social identities, such as race, ethnicity, gender, sexual

orientation, disability, religion, or socioeconomic position. According to Kimberlé Crenshaw, a

critical race theory scholar, marginalized groups "face institutionalized forms of exclusion and

subordination" (Crenshaw, 1991, p. 1242). This can manifest as a lack of access to education,

work, healthcare, housing, and political representation, among other things.

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) held in 2006 performed a study on media

representation of people with disabilities, which revealed the negative effect of limited and

stereotypical representation on this marginalized community. The research discovered that media

representation of disability tends to concentrate on it as a medical condition rather than a social

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and political issue. This perpetuates stereotypes and discrimination against individuals with

disabilities. According to the research, people with disabilities are frequently portrayed as objects

of pity or inspiration, rather than as persons with agency and rights. This supports the notion that

people with disabilities are reliant on others and should be included in social, economic, and

political life. The research also discovered that media representation of people with disabilities is

frequently limited or absent, resulting in a lack of visibility and recognition of the issues

confronting this marginalized group. This lack of representation can lead to people with

disabilities being excluded from public discourse and decision-making processes Blair, H.

(2000).

The University of Cape Town also did a study on the media representation of black communities

in South Africa, which highlights the negative effect of negative and stereotypical representation

on this marginalized group. According to the findings, media portrayal tends to perpetuate racial

stereotypes and contributes to the persistence of systemic racism in South Africa. Black

communities are frequently portrayed negatively in South African media, with an emphasis on

crime, poverty, and social problems. This perpetuates negative stereotypes and discrimination

against black neighborhoods. The research also discovered that media representation of South

African black communities is frequently limited to certain kinds of stories and perspectives,

which can add to a lack of diversity and nuance in public discourse. This has the potential to

further marginalize black communities and restrict their ability to influence public policy and

decision-making processes. The research suggests that South African media producers and

journalists take a more diverse, accurate, and nuanced approach to representing black

communities. African black communities Bonilla, Y., & Rosa, J. (2015).

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The University of Nairobi study looked at how women are portrayed in the media in Kenya and

discovered that it is stereotypical and supports traditional gender roles in 2012. Discrimination,

gender-based violence, and limited chances for women to engage in social, economic, and

political life can result from this type of representation. Women are frequently stereotyped in the

media as passive and submissive, reinforcing traditional gender roles such as caring for children

and the household. Such portrayals have the potential to create an atmosphere in which women

are viewed as inferior as and less capable than men. This can lead to discrimination and

harassment, both in the workplace and in the broader community.

Furthermore, the research discovered that media representation of women in Kenya frequently

sexualizes them, which can contribute to gender-based violence. This type of representation has

the potential to produce an environment in which women are objectified and viewed as sexual

objects, leading to an increase in harassment, assault, and rape. The also research found that the

media in Kenya focuses on women's physical appearance rather than their achievements, skills,

and abilities. Because women are not recognized for their contributions beyond their physical

appearance, this can limit their chances to engage in social, economic, and political life Berry,

M. E., Bouka, Y., & Kamuru, M. M. (2021).

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1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The underrepresentation of people living with disabilities in Kenyan media is the problem

addressed in this research paper. This include the amputees, the blind, the deaf etc. The

underrepresentation exists in the form of stereotypes which in turn reinforce prejudices, and

limiting these populations; access to public discourse. This has resulted in stigma and prejudice,

which can have a significant impact on the mental and physical health of these groups. The

stereotypes have been far-reaching to an extent of restricting possibilities for these people to be

acknowledged for their strengths and achievements. Example: Out of the news covered on TV

and Radio concerning the PLWDs, only a small percentage focus on the strengths of this groups.

This despite the fact that a good number of this people are great sports personalities while others

have ventured into science and innovations as a way of sustaining themselves. Why does the

media focus on the negatives; the disabled receiving donations, and begging for help?

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1.3 OBJECTIVES

General objective

To determine the impact of media representation on the marginalized communities in Kenya a

case of PLWD.

Specific objectives

I. To assess the impact of radio programmers representation on the marginalized

communities in Kenya a case of PLWD.

II. To determine the impact of online programmes representation on the marginalized

communities in Kenya a case of PLWD.

III. To find out the impact of TV programmes on the marginalized communities in Kenya a

case of PLWD.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. What are the impacts of radio programmes in representation of the marginalized communities

in Kenya In a case of PLWD?

2. What are the impacts of online representation of the marginalized community in Kenya in a

case of PLWD?

3. What is the impacts of TV programmes in representation of the marginalized communities in

Kenya in a case of PLWD?

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1.5 JUSTIFICATION

1.5.1 Academic justification;

The findings of this study will be of help to scholars and other future researchers on the study of

Marginalized communities.

1.5.2 Policy making justification

The findings of this study will help government agencies like the ministry of Public service,

Affirmative action and gender, and National gender and equality commission to come up with

policies to guard the marginalized groups especially on how they are represented by the media.

1.5.3 Theory justification

The study was informed by the following theory; Agenda setting theory which describes that

media is the main entity that selects what news stories to report and prioritize based on what they

think people might care about. According to the agenda setting theory, the media's impact goes

beyond what they report and includes what they do not report. Stories that are not covered by the

media tend to receive less public attention, which can diminish their significance and effect.

1.5.4 Methodological justification

The researchers of this study used questioners and interviews as the methods of data collection.

Questionnaires is a suitable method because it offers fast, efficient and inexpensive means of

gathering large amounts of information from sizeable sample volumes. It is efficient in

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measuring subject behavior, preferences, intentions, attitudes and opinions. Interviews will also

be an effective data collection because they allow for high quality and in depth data collection.

They are also cost effective.

1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

1.6.1 Context Scope

Media representation; the way the media depicts people, groups, or communities through various

forms of communication, such as news, entertainment, and advertising, is known as Media

representation. According to Stuart Hall, a prominent cultural theorist, media representation

involves "the production of meaning through the use of language, signs and images which stand

for or represent things" (Hall, 1997, p. 16).This process entails the selection, framing, and

interpretation of events and issues, which can have significant ramifications for how society

perceives people and groups.

1.6.2physical Scope

This study was conducted in Kiambu county Juja constituency. Data was collected from persons

living with disabilities and other residents of juja. The study aimed at establishing which

challenges people living with disabilities face and what solutions they would wish to be put in

place. The other residents of juja provided information on the experience they had interacting

with people living with disabilities.

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1.6.3theoretical Scope

The study was informed by the following theory; Agenda setting theory which describes tha

media is the main entity that selects what news stories to report and prioritize based on what they

think people might care about.

1.6.4methodological Scope

The researchers of this study used questioners and interviews as the methods of data

collection .Questionnaires is suitable method because it offers fast, efficient and inexpensive

means of gathering large amounts of information from sizeable sample volumes. It is also

efficient in measuring subject behavior, preferences, intentions, attitudes and opinions.

Interviews is also an effective data collection because they allow for high quality and in depth

data collection. They are also cost effective.

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CHAPTER 2

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The chapter began by presenting the theoretical review ,followed by the conceptual framework

which guided the study ,then a review of variables ,then the empirical review ,the critique of the

existing literature related to the study and finally the research gaps. The purpose of this chapter

was to review relevant literature on the topic impact of media representation of the marginalized

communities in Kenya in the case of people living with disabilities.

2.2 THEORETICAL REVIEW

2.2.1 The Agenda Setting Theory

Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw proposed the agenda setting hypothesis in 1972. They

conducted a study on the 1968 presidential campaign in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, and

discovered that the issues that received the most media attention were also the issues that the

public regarded as most essential. The agenda setting theory was developed by McCombs and

Shaw as a result of their research, which indicates that the media has the power to shape the

public's perception of reality by choosing which issues to cover and how to present them. Their

theory gained widespread acceptance in the fields of communication and media studies, as well

as political science, and has been applied in a variety of settings. McCombs, M. E., Shaw, D. L.,

& Weaver, D. H. (2014).

The theory that was utilized in this research work is the Agenda Setting Theory. Agenda setting

theory is a communication theory that contends the media has the ability to influence what issues

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and subjects the public considers and debates. This theory holds that the media does not tell

people what to believe, but rather what to think about. According to agenda setting theory, the

media has a significant impact on shaping public opinion by determining which issues are

essential and which are not. This is done by selecting, framing, and presenting news and

information McCombs, M. E., Shaw, D. L., & Weaver, D. H. (2014).

Agenda setting theory was extremely relevant to study on the effects of media representation on

marginalized communities. According to the theory, the media has the ability to influence what

issues and topics the public thinks about and discusses, which can have serious repercussions for

marginalized groups. This study concentrated on the ways in which media representation shapes

public perceptions of marginalized communities. For example, if the media depicts certain

communities in a negative way on a consistent basis, this may lead to increased stigma and

discrimination against those communities. In contrast, highlighting positive aspects of

marginalized groups in the media may help to challenge negative stereotypes and improve public

views. Another point of emphasis could be the degree to which the media includes voices from

marginalized communities in their reporting. If the media only covers certain points of view or

sources, it may add to a lack of diversity in public discourse and limit chances for marginalized

communities to be heard Wu, H. D., & Coleman, R. (2009).

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2.3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Independent Variables Dependent variables

TV programmes
Under representation
Radio programmes
Discrimination
Online programmes
Stereotypes

Figure 2.1 conceptual framework

2.4 REVIEW OF VARIABLES

2.4.1 Television Programmes

According to law insider 2013-2023 Television programmes are audio-visual productions made

for broadcast on television networks or other platforms. These programmes can take many

forms, including news bulletins, documentaries, dramas, comedies, reality shows, and others.

Television programmes are frequently studied as a form of mass media by academics, who

investigate how they are created, distributed, and consumed by audiences. This can include

looking at the substance of television shows as well as the larger social, cultural, and political

contexts in which they are created and consumed Bar-on, M. E. (2000).

Television programmes are frequently regarded as an essential part of popular culture, with the

ability to shape public discourse and influence social norms and values. They can also have

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economic and political consequences, as television networks and production companies compete

for viewers and advertising revenue, and governments may attempt to regulate or control

television programming for a variety of reasons Cardwell, S. (2006).Television shows have long

served as a valuable source of information and entertainment for audiences all over the world.

However, the effect of these initiatives on the representation of marginalized communities is a

point of contention among academics and activists. We examined the existing study on the

impact of television programmes on media representation of marginalized communities, with a

specific focus on the African context, in this literature review.

Another significant area of study is television programme production. Scholars have investigated

the methods used to make television shows, including the roles of writers, producers, directors,

and other industry professionals. Economic and political variables influencing television

production, such as funding models, government regulations, and market competition, have also

been studied Cardwell, S. (2006).Finally, Television programme reception, including how

audiences engage with and respond to different programme types. This study included

demographics, viewing habits, and attitudes towards television programming studies. Television

programming's social and cultural implications, such as its effect on public discourse, social

norms, and political attitudes, have also been studied. Many academics have suggested that

television shows can have a significant impact on public perceptions of marginalized

communities Fiske, J., & Hartley, J. (2004).

According to Oyero and Oyero (2011), based on how television programmes represent

marginalized groups, the media can either reinforce or challenge existing stereotypes and

prejudices. This is especially important in Africa, where media depiction of marginalized groups

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has frequently been chastised for perpetuating negative stereotypes and exclusion (Mjwara,

2016).Other scholars, however, have noted that the effect of television programmes on the

representation of marginalized groups is not always clear. For example, Chuma and

Maunganidze (2015) discovered that while some Zimbabwean television programmes included

positive representations of marginalized groups, these were frequently outweighed by negative

stereotypes and exclusionary practices Fiske, J., & Hartley, J. (2004).

2.4.2 Radio Programmes

Radio is an audio device of passing messages to a large audience. Radio involves the process by

which messages are sent through electrical waves. (Sambe, 2008). According to Idebi(2008)

radio is defined as process of sending and receiving messages through air, using electromagnetic

waves. He also defined radio as the activity of broadcasting programmes for the public to listen.

According to Uyo(1987), Radio as word has it’s origin in Latin ‘radius’ meaning radius rays.

This shows that radio is an instrument through which signals are beamed out via electromagnetic

process land distributed via transmitter to a scattered audience who receive it via antenna on a

receiving set. In addition, Sambe (2008) says that radio involves the process by which messages

are sent using electromagnetic waves. The BBC English dictionary (1992), defined radio as the

system of sending sound over a distance by transmitting electrical signals

(Eekah, Adeniran, & Shogo, 2022).

According Apuke (2014), radio is among the most important channels of communication.

Through, radio people are able to send messages, spoken words, music and other communication

signals to other parts of the world. Radio broadcasting feature music, interviews, news,

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discussions, description of sports events and advertising. People drive to their place of work

while listening to car radio and spend their free time listening to their favorite programs on radio.

Apuke also went ahead giving the characteristics of radio, according to him radio has eleven

characteristics as follows; portability, mass medium, transient messages, audio medium, cheap,
(Apuke, 2017).
requires talent, competitive, requires technology, mobile and impersonal nature

Programme in radio production simply means various meaning sounds produced by human

beings or recorded sounds used to fill the airtime to be heard but not seen. Documentary

programmes. According to Apuke (2014) a documentary last around 15 to 60minutes under

normal circumstances. Documentary are made up of historical, biographical, scientific, mythical,

religious and docu-drama. Feature Programmes. Okoye(1998) sees the feature as an in depth and

factual write-up on a topical issue which seeks to give comprehensive information in a more
(Aspinall & ERIC, 1971).
captivating and relaxed style than straight news

News programmes. If there is no events, there will be no news and therefore no history will be

made. This is clearly shown that news is normally associated with events. Sambe (2008) states

that news is an account of event meant for the audience and it affects a reasonable member of

people vicariously. Other programs include interview programmes, discussion panel

programmes, magazine programmes, drama programmes, the monologue talk show,

entertainment programmes, commercial programmes, educational programmes and children

programmes.Therefore, this study focused on how these programmes impacted the

representation of marginalized groups, starting from employment rate of disabled people in

(F, 1928).
media, under-representation of their matters, stereotypes and discrimination

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2.4.3 Online Programmes

According to Joe Cote (2022) is any media delivered digitally, it include newspapers articles,

blogs, music and podcasts. He further noted that from website or email to mobile phones and

streaming apps, or any internet-related form of communication can be considered new

media .The New Media Institute defines new media as “a catchall and the interplay between
(Cote, 2022).
technology, images and sound.” The study done by Matthew Guinibert (2022) in

the New Zealand Journal of Social Sciences Online, Guinibert defined digital media in various

categories. He didn’t settle on one definition giving his reasons that as a single definition would

have a short shelf life. Supporting his arguments he gave an example of a definition proposed by

Kilburn (2016) which mentioned largely redundant technologies such as CDs. He says that it is a

safe assumption that technological innovation will shift the landscape of digital media in close

future and challenge any definition his study could forward. Therefore, instead of relying on one

definition, his research arrived at understanding of academic definitions of digital media by

identifying four common facets (digitization, content, communication, technology)

(Guinibert, Cochrane, & Simeti, 2016).

Video digital contents include home videos, music videos, TV shows, and movies. This video

contents can be watched on websites such as You Tube, Hulu, CBS AII Access, Disney+, HBO

Max, and so on, in which companies and people alike can post content. Audio contents include

music which is the most common form of audio. Spotify has emerged as a popular way through

which people listen to music either over internet or from their desktop. Digital content in form of

music is also available through Pandora and last.fm, both of which allow listeners to listen to
(Park, 2012).
music for free.

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Image and photo sharing is also another form of digital content. Popular sites used include

Imgur, where people share self-created pictures, Flickr, people share their photo album, and

DeviantArt where people share Artwork. Instagram and Snapchat are the the popular apps used

for images. Visual stories are a new type digital content that was introduced by Snapchat. Since

the formats have been extended to other platforms such as Facebook and LinkedIn. Text is a

digital content available in written format. Blog websites stores data inform of textual format.

Examples of digital media include: digital photographs, digital books(eBooks), websites and

blogs, social media (Facebook, twitter), Mobile Phones Apps, Virtual Reality Glasses,
(Saad-Sulonen, 2012).
Immersive Art, Holograms, Podcasts and many more

Currently both print and broadcast media stations have adopted digital media to supplement the

old mode of delivering programmes. Example: The Standard Newspaper have The Standard e-

paper where their audience are able to read papers online. The Citizen Digital is a platform

launched by citizen, their programmes for both TV and Radio are available their on their website

and the app. These are just a small number of examples. Today media stations are forced to adapt
(Saad-Sulonen, 2012).
digital media in order to remain competitive on the market

2.4.4 Underrepresentation
According to Sage Publication 2023 Underrepresentation is defined as the insufficient

presence of a defined group of people in a certain category of social aspects. Can also be

defined as a state of being lower in quantity, quality or degree than is actually the case.

Underrepresentation takes various forms among them; people with disabilities, people

from a lower socio-economic status, people of a non-dominant religion etc. People living

with disabilities are the largest group of minorities in the world taking around 15 percent

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of the world’s population as per the World Health Organization [WHO]. PLWDs are

underrepresented in workplaces due to their inability to perform the required tasks.

Another reason is the cost incurred in employing these groups; the employers fear

incurring huge costs buying costly facilities Dixon Kruse, Van Horn, 2003.

Social economic status refers to the degree of financial security, educational attainment

and subjective perceptions of social status and class. The race and ethnicity of a person

determines their social economic status as per US Census Bureau, 2009. Minority racial

groups are most likely to experience multidimensional poverty than the whites as per

Reeves, Rodrique and Kneebone, 2016. The connection between social economic status

and race can be explained through the African-Americans who are likely to attend

schools with fewer resources as compared to Asian-Americans. This in turn results to

better education for the latter while the former experiences huge dropouts as shown by

the National Center for education Statistics, 2015 in US Cheryan, S., & Plaut, V. C.

(2010).

People of non-dominant religions such as atheists are likely to be underrepresented.

Example: In the US, the atheists, which mostly comprise of the young people, are

underrepresented in the Congress. Older and more religious Americans are likely to vote

for more religious politicians and the vice versa is also true. This explains why America

has had Christian presidents throughout their history Cheryan, S., & Plaut, V. C. (2010).

The media comes in handy in each of the above aspects in different ways. Example:

Through portraying people living with disabilities as inferior, i.e. Focusing on their

vulnerability more than their strengths, no company would be willing to absorb such

17
people as human resource. On the other hand, media representations tend to over-focus

on the concerns of the ‘high class’, e.g. their trendy clothes and classy cars. This is

according to David M. Newman. This is contrary to their watchdog role, where they

should focus on imbalance in wealth distribution, which makes it hard for the low social

economic classes to lead such luxurious lives. Most journalists are also from middle-class

backgrounds and are likely to write for people from similar backgrounds. This way, the

middle-class shape and dominate what goes on air. The media views working-class

audiences as people who lack interest in political discourses and analyses of social

institutions but fancy dramatized coverage such as rivalry between political personalities.

This is as per Curran and Seaton, 2003.

2.4.5 Stereotypes

A stereotype is a generalized and oversimplified belief or idea about a particular group of people

or things according to Springer Nature 2023.Stereotypes are often based on limited or incomplete

information and can be fueled by cultural, societal or personal biases .Stereotypes tend to be

negative, limiting and dehumanizing .They portray people in broad strokes ignoring the

individual differences that make each person unique .Stereotypical thinking can lead to

discrimination, prejudice etc. Stereotypes can be dangerous because they can create inaccurate,

unfair and harmful impressions that can be perpetuated through generations .It can be conscious
(Rahim, 2010)
or unconscious.

There are several types of stereotypes and they include Gender stereotypes which are the beliefs

about the typical attributes and behaviors of men and women, Racial stereotypes which are

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beliefs about the typical attributes and behaviors of different races, the cultural stereotypes which

are beliefs about the typical attributes and behaviors of people from different cultural

backgrounds, occupational stereotypes which are beliefs about typical attributes of people in a

certain job, Age stereotypes which are the beliefs about behaviors of people of different ages.

Scholars have covered on stereotypes in regard to people living with disabilities and they

include, Susan Burch is a disabilities studies scholar who writes about the intersection of

disability, race and gender in the United States .In her book ‘Unspeakable Histories ‘she

highlights how disabled people have been stigmatized and made invisible in historical narratives

and how this has perpetuated stereotypes about them. Hilton, J. L., & Von Hippel, W. (1996).

Tom Shakespeare is a British sociologist and disability rights advocate .In his book ,’Disability

Rights and Wrongs ,’Shakespeare critiques the medical model of disability and argues that

people with disabilities are not sick or broken but rather face barriers to inclusion due to social

attitudes and physical environments . Rosemarie Garland Thomson is an American Bioethicist

who writes about disability as a feature of human diversity in her book ,’Extraordinary Bodies

‘she challenges the idea that disability is an individual problem to be solved and argues for a

social model of disability that recognizes the role of cultural attitudes in creating barriers for
(Kalibova & Walach, 2020).
people with disabilities.

Stereotypes have effect and some of them are as named below:Discrimination;When PLWD are

constantly stereotyped ,they can experience discrimination as a result .They could be denied

employment ,housing or access to services just because of disability .Furthermore there is an

issue of misunderstanding; Stereotypes can cause misunderstanding about PLWD and this can

19
result in people feeling uncomfortable ,avoiding interactions or not knowing how to interact with

them properly .Low self-esteem ;stereotypes can cause PLWD to have low esteem ,they may feel

like they don’t fit in or are not valued. Bullying; stereotypes can lead to bullying of PLWD, they

may be teased, ridiculed or excluded from social activities. Lack of representation; they may not

be represented in the media, entertainment or politics .This can limit opportunities for them.
(Rice, E Chandler, & E Harrison, 2015)

2.4.6 Discrimination

Discrimination is the unjust and prejudicial treatment of different categories of people especially

on the grounds of race, disability according to American Psychological Association 2023.

Discrimination can take other forms including age, nationality, pregnancy, religion, retaliation,

sexual harassment. Because of discrimination, marginalized groups face injustice, illiteracy,

social and cultural boycott, lack of equal opportunities and non-dominant social identities.

Discrimination in the form of nationality happens when a person is harassed because of his

country of origin. This also cuts across a person’s accent and ethnicity. In most cases, such

offences count as discrimination when it creates a hostile work environment or leads to adverse

employment decisions such as a person being laid off or demoted.

Retaliation happens when an employer pays back an employee adversely for making a

complaint about discrimination. Example: When an employee files to be a witness in an

Equal Employment Opportunity investigation or complaint, an employee facing

punishment for concealing sexual harassment. Example: 20 percent of female science

students are sexually harassed by the staff as per a survey conducted by the University of

20
Texas in 2018 Reskin, B. (2012). The race discrimination system. Annual review of

sociology, 38, 17-35.

The key causes of marginalization are inability to meet basic needs, inability to build and

use assets and powerlessness according to a research done by Narayan and Poersch’s in

2000. In the basic sense, basic needs would mean food, clothing and shelter but an

improved form of understanding includes psychological basic needs, among them:

positive identity, self-esteem, security, trust in others and dignity. On the other hand,

marginalized groups are unable to build and use assets due to its scarcity. However, a

research done by Concitini in 2005 on the street children in Dhaka reveals uncovered

social arrangements, which curbed vulnerability. This includes lending and borrowing

money, bar-tiring of goods and choosing leaders by consensus. Powerlessness relates to

discrimination in the sense of the marginalized being unable to claim their rights Altman,

A. (2011).

The media has over the years failed to pay attention to details when disseminating news

on the marginalized groups. This has led to unforeseen discrimination. Example: The use

of the word “disabled” instead of “persons with disability”, “deaf” instead of “someone

with hearing impairment”. Journalists should therefore keep a close eye on the terms used

in contemporary times to refer to the marginalized groups. They should also consult

every subject about the terminology they adopt to describe themselves, example: the

transgender Altman, A. (2011).

21
2.5 EMPIRICAL REVIEW

A study dumped Media discourses and discrimination against members of marginalized groups

by Zarko Trajanoski carried out in the year 2011 in the city of Skopje in North Macedonia

which was aimed to establish ; ways in which media discourses construct “Macedonian reality

“regarding the marginalized groups in the community [ in this case study people living with

HIV.] The study aimed to establish how Macedonian media represents reality of marginalized

groups and how it shapes the truth about them. The research took into consideration the role of

the media and media workers (mostly journalists): in constructing and sustaining equality; in

giving privileges and marginalizing certain citizen groups; in identifying the needs and

problems of members of marginalized communities; in the fight against discrimination

(David, 2013)
.

The study employed questioners and use of focus groups as methods of data collection for the

study. The study established that often, the problems and needs of members of marginalized

groups remain in the zone of media invisibility because of intentional ignoring by the journalists

or the media. Although journalists and media should not ignore the problems and needs of

members of marginalized groups, particularly in cases when there are serious incidents of

violation of their human rights, media ignoring is a common occurrence. Although the media

more and more consider (themselves) to be agents of social inclusion, in our country

[Macedonia] media contents that strive to present in non-sensational manner the problems of
(David, 2013)
members of marginalized groups are very rare .

In a study named ‘Marginalized Access’ in South African Higher Education: Black Women

Academics Speak! Conducted in the year 2014 by Dr Juliet Ramona in the University of the Free

22
State, Bloemfontein, South Africa School of Education Studies, aimed to understand the

perspectives about how the university manages the increasing number of black women

academics and, most importantly, whether it ensures their successful participation in institutional

spaces. While access of previously marginalized groups to higher education has increased, the

findings of this study indicate that social and cultural practices, as well as institutional structures

at the university act as a barrier to black women’s successful participation. The study employed

use of interviews and focus groups discussion as the main methods of data collection for the

study. Participants were involved in individual interviews and focus group discussions. The latter

were specifically meant to be reflective sessions in which issues that arose in individual
(David, 2013)
interviews could be discussed by the group .

The findings of the study were that, social, cultural, and institutional practices create barriers that

hamper the successful participation of black women in academics. Concerns were raised by

participants that point to what is termed ‘marginalized access’, in which black women academics

enter institutional spaces in large numbers, but through conscious or unconscious practices, their

presence is not validated. In this case, the concerns of black women academics focus on

opportunities for professional development, which was also raised by the Council for Higher

Education (2010) in evaluating the status of women in higher education. The main points of

concern raised by participants were grouped into three key themes relating to feelings of

marginalization: issues pertaining to upward mobility, epistemic validation, and white male
(Perisher, 2014)
domination .

In a study dumped THE KENYA PRIMARY EDUCATION DEVELOMENT (PRIEDE)

PROJECT on VULNERABLE AND MARGINALISED GROUPS carried out by Kenyan

23
ministry of education on September 2017 in the following counties; Nakuru, West Pokot,

Marsabit, Kwale, Wajir and Trans-nzoia which targeted Marginalized and Vulnerable Groups

which were specifically Hunters /Gatherers, Pastoralist and Fishermen aimed to establish

whether the PRIEDE Project is inclusive and benefits the Vulnerable and marginalized groups

(VMGs), identify challenges children from the VMG communities face in accessing education,

develop a VMG engagement plan and develop a grievance redress feedback mechanism. The

study used Primary data collection through administration of a structured questionnaire,

Observation of classroom lesson and interviews for groups of the respondents. Secondary data

was collected through review of relevant literature including legal and policy documents on

VMGs and Primary Education Development (PRIEDE) Project implementation reports.

The study established the following findings; Majority of the respondents (95%) reported that

they benefitted from the PRIEDE Project interventions. The percentage (5%) of those reporting

not to benefit from the project was mainly community leaders and elders who may not have had

school going children at the lower primary level. At school level, the study established that the

schools situated in the marginalized communities had received EGM pupil text books, EGM

teachers’ guides, adapted books for children with special needs. The study ascertained the books

and teachers guides were in use

2.6 CRITIQUE OF THE EXISTING LITERATURE

In a study named Media discourses and discrimination against members of marginalized groups

by Zarko Trajanoski carried out in the year 2011 in the city of Skopje in North Macedonia

argues that , the problems and needs of members of marginalized groups remain in the zone of

24
media invisibility because of intentional ignoring by the journalists or the media. However, this

is not always the case because marginalized groups most of the times do not come out to the

media for their needs to be aired rather they seclude themselves and it is impossible for the

media to every member of the society. This study also, focused on persons effected by HIV but

failed to cover other marginalized groups such as women and children. Use of questioners to

collect data might not have been effective since some members of the society are illiterate and

also others can provide false information .One on one interviews could have been better since

verbal expression is easier than written expression.

In the year 2014 ,Dr Juliet Ramohai from the University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South

Africa School of Education, carried out a study named ‘Marginalized Access’ in South African

Higher Education: Black Women Academics Speak! In which she highlighted the priority given

to black women when it comes to tertiary education. However, the study faded to recognize other

marginalized groups in the country such as black men and people living with disabilities who are

our main focus of study when it comes to opportunities to further their education in institutions

of higher learning. Use of interviews might not have been an effective method of data collection

due to limited time and also some people might shy away from giving their opinions. Use of both

interviews and questioners would have provided more and better data
(Stringer, Dougill, Fraser, & Hubacek, 2006).

In September 2017 the Kenyan ministry of education carried a study named THE KENYA

PRIMARY EDUCATION DEVELOMENT (PRIEDE) PROJECT on VULNERABLE AND

MARGINALISED GROUPS in which they wanted to identify whether the PRIEDE Project is

inclusive and benefits the Vulnerable and marginalized groups (VMGs), identify challenges

25
children from the VMG communities face in accessing education .However this study focused on

few counties some of which are not marginalized and left out a big number of marginalized

communities in north eastern region and the lower eastern region . The study studied children

generally and ignored the fact that some are more marginalized like those living with disabilities

which is our main study. They study should have come up with ways of uplifting disabled

children to the level of others in this project.

2.7 RESEARCH GAP

Researchers used insufficient methods of data collection which limited the amount of data

collected to inform the studies. Also there was under representation of marginalized groups

because each study had only one focus group and non-captured people living with disabilities

which is the main focus of this study. Some of these studies portrayed media as victimizing

marginalized communities but the opposite is the case because marginalized groups shy away

from the media and it is impossible to air their needs if they do not reach out and share their

grievances.

2.8 SUMMARY

Chapter two of the paper titled the impact of media representation on the marginalize groups in

Kenya in the case of PLWD provided a literature review of the existing literature and research

studies on the topic. It covered the theoretical review which included the theory in relation to the

study, in this case the agenda setting theory was used as a theory that goes in relation with the

study. A review of the theoretical literature relevant to the problem being investigated that is

going into literature work done before on the research topic including journals .Then how the

26
theory supported the study in this case the agenda setting theory informs the study in that the

media has ability to affect public opinion by picking and publicizing specific issues which can

impact what people think and discuss. In our case we discussed about how media frames stories

concerning the marginalized and how it is perceived. The conceptual frame work guided the

study by identifying the variables: the independent and dependent variables.

27
CHAPTER 3

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presented ;research design, population, sampling frame, sampling technique and

sample size, instruments utilized, data collection procedure ,pilot test , data processing and

analysis.

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN

This study employed qualitative research design. According to Maxwell, J.A {2012}, A

qualitative research design is a research design concerned with establishing answers to the whys

and how’s of the phenomenon in question. Due to this, qualitative research is often defined as

being subjective rather than objective, and findings are gathered in a written format .Qualitative

research is based on the disciplines of social sciences like psychology, sociology, and

anthropology.

The Reasons for adoption of qualitative research design was that qualitative research methods

allow for in-depth and further probing and questioning of respondents based on their

responses.Moreover, the interviewer/researcher has an opportunity to understand the motivation

and feelings of their subject. Understanding how your audience makes decisions can help derive

conclusions. The researcher can also perceive changing attitudes within a target group such as

consumers of a product or service, or attitudes in the workplace. Lastly, qualitative data captured

allows researchers to be far more speculative about what areas they choose to investigate and

28
how to do so. It allows data captured to be prompted by a researcher’s instinctive for where good

information will be found.

3.3 POPULATION

According to Leon-Guerrero and Frankfort-Nachmias (2018) a population is a group of people,

objects, or events who share a set of characteristics and are of interest to the researcher.

Moreover, Gravetter and Wallnau (2014) also defined a population as the entire group of

individuals, objects, or events that you are interested in studying and drawing conclusions about.

The target population for this study was Juja Sub County in Kiambu.The reasons why we

selected Juja is that there is diversity the Juja population in Kiambu County is diverse, with

individuals of various backgrounds and ethnicities living there. This variety offers a fair

representation of the Kenyan population and increases the likelihood of capturing the various

experiences of PLWD.Moreover, We looked at accessibility, Juja is readily accessible to JKUAT

students because it is located within the same county, making fieldwork and data collection

simpler.

Availability of PLWD ,Juja has a relatively large number of PLWD who are readily accessible,

making it simpler for us students to identify and recruit study participants. Futhermore, there is

relevance, there is a need to address the marginalization of PLWD in Kenya, the research subject

is relevant to the community. By focusing on Juja, the student could gain insights and

recommendations that can be implemented in the local community, increasing the impact of the

study.

29
3.4 SAMPLING FRAME

According to Ralph DiGaetano and others 2013, sample frame is the listing of the units from

which a sample is to be selected. He clarified that when deciding upon a file to serve as a source

for a sample frame for a survey, perhaps the most important consideration is the extent to which

the target population will be covered by the frame. The setup was Juja Constituency where the

study coverd all electoral wards namely Juja, Kalimoni, Witeithie, Murera and Theta.The reasons

why we chose Juja Constituency first is population, Juja has a big population and that gives us

enough samples for our study. Second, there are government offices around where we can get the

facts about the PLWDs. Third, Juja is a town and therefore we can get people from different

parts of the country working here and therefore collecting diverse data. Lastly, cost. Doing our

research around Juja would relieve us in terms of costs DiGaetano, R. (2013).

To illustrate a survey whose target population is people living with disabilities (PLWDs), might

consider potential frames either physical impaired, the blind, hearing impaired, mental problem

as well as people around these group, that means the affected group. They can be lovers, family

members, neighbors or friends. First, we shall establish a number of PLWDs in the study area

with support from the authorities around Juja Sub County which is our area of study D.iGaetano,

R. (2013).

In first instance frames were ordinary people, close people living with PLWDs and secondly the

PLWDs. The units of selection were the ordinary and close people at the first stage and the

PLWDs at the second stage. Thus, the unit of selection and the target population are synonymous

terms for the final selection stage. In the second instance, however, the frame would likely be

defined (in a later stage of selection) as a list of households in small areal units such as villages

30
or city blocks. In applying the sample plan households were selected and screened to ascertain

the presence of PLWDs In this case, the household is the unit of selection upon which the

probability of selection is based, even though members of the target population were not actually

identified and surveyed until the households approved the willingness to take part. In household

surveys, the selection differed, as we had two groups of respondents. Those ones not disabled

and the PLWDs groups. The selection was base on the knowledge and willingness to take part as

well. The respondents had to be knowledgeable about the representation of the PLWDs before

getting to PLWDs themselves Ishak, et al. (2014)

3.5 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND SAMPLE SIZE

3.5.1 Sampling Techniques

According to Emidio Amadebai, Sampling techniques are the methods employed while choosing

a sample from a population.This study employed a probability sampling strategy using the

simple random sampling technique. Simple random sampling is a technique that involves

allocating equal chance to the selected elements of a population, Mugenda and

Mugenda(2003) .The study collected data from residents of each of Juja sub county wards

namely: Juja, Murera, Witeithie, Theta and Kalimoni as defined in the sampling frame Mugenda,

O. M., & Mugenda, A. G. (2003).

Simple random sampling was suitable to our study due to its simplicity and high accuracy; the

results from this method was likely to be less biased compared to other techniques(Melissa

Horton, 2022).The study selected individuals of different profiles to dispel any form of bias,

31
where same profile people are likely to participate in a study and may end up giving identical

responses( Pritha Bandhari, 2020) Whitley, E., & Ball, J. (2002).

3.5.2 Sample Size

A sample size is the number of replicates or observations included in a statistical sample as

defined by Smith, Scott(8 April 2013) .It can also be defined as the measure of number of

individual samples used in a study, Walter et.al., 1999.

Ward No of Total

people

Juja 71,382 -

Witeithie 25,777 -

Murera 15,887 -

Theta 23,134 -

Kalimoni 19861 -

156,041 Total

Using slovene’s formula; n=N/(1+Ne²)

Where:

n- Sample size

N-Total population

32
e- Margin of error

n= 156,041/(1+156,041×0.05²)

n= 156,041/(1+156,041× 0.0025)

156,041/(1+ 390.1025)

156,041÷ 391.1025

n= 398.9

;399 -the sample size was accurate since for populations above 10,000, a sample size of 384 was

adequate, Mugenda and Mugenda,(2003).

3.6 INSTRUMENTS

In the research paper the instruments used in data collection were questionnaires and interviews.

An interview can be defined as a conversation between two or more people, where one person

asks questions and the other person(s) provides answers. One scholar, Kvale (1996), defines an

interview as a purposeful and interactive conversation between at least two people, where

questions are asked by one or more interviewers for a specific reason. Similarly, Rubin and

Rubin (2012) define an interview as "a purposeful and planned conversation between two or

more people, initiated and guided by a researcher, for the purpose of obtaining information from

the interviewee.

33
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions for gathering

information from respondents. According to scholars, there are various definitions of a

questionnaire. According to Babbie (2016), a questionnaire is a written instrument used to gather

data from respondents.Kumar (2019) also defines a questionnaire as a structured questionnaire

that consists of a set of questions designed to obtain data from the respondents.Bryman (2016)

defines a questionnaire as a written set of questions that is administered to a sample of people

with the aim of collecting data. Saunders et al. (2018) defines a questionnaire as a list of written

questions sent or presented to a respondent in order to collect data.

The reasons why this research work made use of questionnaires and interviews is that,

questionnaires and interviews are both common methods of data collection in research studies in

various fields, including social sciences. Here are some reasons why questionnaires and

interviews can be useful in a research study conducted in Juja, Reach a larger sample:

Questionnaires can be used to reach a large number of respondents at a lower cost and less time-

consuming compared to interviews. Thus, they are an ideal method for collecting data from a

larger and more diverse group of participants. Also, there is control over the study, the use of

questionnaires allows the researcher to control the research process in terms of time, structure,

and format, which may be advantageous in studies that have a tight schedule or limited

resources. Mugenda, O. M., & Mugenda, A. G. (2003).

Furthermore there is Privacy and anonymity, the use of questionnaires can promote anonymity

and privacy for participants, as respondents can complete them in their own time and space. Rich

and informative data, Interviews allow a researcher to obtain more informative and rich data

through the use of open-ended questions. This method is suitable for research studies that aim to

34
capture a more detailed perspective of a specific topic of interest. Lastly, Establishing rapport:

Interviews provide an opportunity for participants to express their views and opinions which can

help in researcher-participant relationship building, especially when discussing sensitive topics.

In conclusion, both questionnaires and interviews have their strengths and weaknesses. The

choice of method ultimately depends on the specific research question, research design,

objectives, and resources available Roulston, K., & Choi, M. (2018).

The reseasons why Interviews was employed in this research paper is that there was availability

of rich data, Interviews allows the researcher to obtain more detailed and in-depth information

about a specific topic or phenomenon. This is because interview questions are often open-ended

and allowed participants to share their personal experiences, opinions, and beliefs. Flexibility,

Interviews can be tailored to individual participants based on their background, perspectives, and

experiences. The researcher can modify the questions depending on the responses given and

probe further for clarification. Moreover, Participant engagement, Interviews provide an

opportunity for participants to express their views and opinions, which can help in building a

good rapport between the researcher and participants. This can result in a more honest and

candid exchange of information, leading to a deeper understanding of the research topic Mann,

S. (2016)

Furthermore verification can be done Interviews can be used to verify the data collected through

other methods such as questionnaires or observations. In this case, the researcher can use the

interview to clarify and validate the information collected. In conclusion, interviews are a

versatile and valuable method of data collection in research studies in Juja. The use of interviews

helped researchers to obtain more detailed and nuanced information, engage participants

35
effectively, and build trust and rapport with them, resulting in more reliable and meaningful

findings Mann, S. (2016).

3.7 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE

Data collection procedures refer to the methods and techniques used to gather data from various

sources for research or analytical purposes. The following are some definitions provided by

scholars, according to Creswell (2014), data collection procedures are the mechanisms used to

obtain information from respondents(p. 183).Babbie (2016) defines data collection procedures as

"the procedures used to gather evidence from the world (p. 132).Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill

(2019) define data collection procedures as the strategies used to ensure that data is

systematically gathered, recorded, and analyzed (p. 250).Denzin and Lincoln (2018) describe

data collection procedures as "the systematic process by which researchers collect data from the

natural setting or from individuals, groups, or organizations in order to understand and interpret

social phenomena(p. 11).

The questionnaires were developed using Google forms and administered through emails which

were sent to respondendents including Jkuat students together with residents, including those

living with disabilities. The process begun with developing the questions then testing the

questions with a small group of respondents for clarity and reliability .we then administered the

questionnaires and did a follow up with respondents to encourage more feedback .From the

feedback we analyzed and drew conclusions based on the theme. The interview started with

identification of participants, we then developed open ended questions followed by conducting

the interview in person then we analyzed the data with regard to the responses.

36
3.8 PILOT TEST

NK Lowe · 2019, defined pilot study as a small feasibility study designed to test various aspects

of the methods planned for a larger, more rigorous, or confirmatory investigation. According to

Mugenda and Mugenda (2003), a pilot study with a sample of a tenth of the total sample with

homogenous characteristics is appropriate for the pilot study. Pilot testing is an important step in

research process because it reveals vague questions and unclear instructions in the instruments. It

also captures important comments and suggestions from the respondents that enable the

researcher to improve on the efficiency of research instrument. Pilot study is carried out in Juja

town, Juja ward.

The pilot study involved administration of sample questionnaires to a small group of target

population who were to be used to gauge their responses. This will helped in identifying the

controversial questions. It’s common that some questions may not be taken comfortably by

respondents. They may include intrusion of privacy of which some would not want to talk about

their personal matters. Such questions may also remain unanswered during data collection

therefore they should be framed into comfortable questions or excluded.

3.9 DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS

Data processing entails gathering, organizing, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting data using

various techniques and tools in order to draw meaningful conclusions and make informed

decisions this is according to Albright, S. Christian (2010).This definition emphasizes the multi-

step process of data processing, which includes gathering and organizing data, analyzing it using

statistical and other techniques, interpreting the results, and presenting the findings in an

37
understandable and pertinent manner to the research question. The ultimate aim of data

processing is to make informed decisions based on evidence gathered from data analysis.

According to Albers, Michael J. (2017) data analysis is the process of describing, illustrating,

and evaluating data using statistical and logical methods. It entails analyzing and interpreting

data in order to extract meaningful insights and make conclusions. Data analysis methods can

include descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, and data visualization. The ultimate aim of

data analysis was to use the data evidence to make informed decisions or to create

recommendations based on the findings Vonrhein, et al. (2011).

The data processing and analysis procedure would include the following steps .To begin with

there will be data gathering ,the first stage was to gather information from various sources, such

as newspapers, television, radio, social media, and other online platforms. The information

gathered would be relevant to the subject of PLWD media representation in Kenya. News

articles, social media posts, video clips, and other relevant material may be included. The

following stage was to organize the data into a manageable format. This entailed categorizing

the data based on topics like favorable or negative representation of PLWD, media type, or

media outlet Vonrhein, et al. (2011).

Data Cleaning followed, once the data had been organized, it was cleaned by removing any

irrelevant or duplicate information, formatting the data, and correcting any mistakes. The next

step was data analysis, data analysis commenced once the data had been cleaned and organized.

This entailed identifying patterns and themes in the data using statistical methods such as content

analysis. For example, the researcher examined the frequency of positive or negative media

38
representation of PLWD, the type of disability most frequently represented in the media, or the

media source with the most PLWD representation. After analyzing the data, interpretation

followed, to derive meaningful insights and conclusions. This included determining the

implications of the findings for the media business, policymakers, and people with disabilities

themselves Blackburn, J. K. (1995).

39
CHAPTER 4

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter dealt with data analysis, presentation and discussion of the results findings. The

results of the study were presented and discussed in relation to the research questions. This study

aimed at examining the impact of media representation on the marginalized communities in

Kenya, cases of PLWD.The case study was on the people living with disabilities in Juja sub-

county in Kiambu.In analysis, data from questionnaires was organized, coded, analyzed and

converted into quantitative summary reports for analysis using the statistical package for social

sciences (SPSS).

According to Flynn, R. K., Pedersen(2005)et.al response rate in a research context is the extent

to which the collected set of data includes all sample members of the targeted population. A total

of 80 surveys questionnaires were distributed and 65 were filled and submitted .This represented

81% response rate. Witmer, D. F., Colman (1999) et.al assert that a response rate above 50% is

adequate for analysis and therefore the 81% response rate was considered as being very good for

analysis The data that was obtained from the questionnaire responses was presented using pie

charts ,bar graphs and tables.

40
4.2 Respondents background information

4.2.1 Gender Distribution of Respondents

Table 4.1 Gender distribution of respondents

Gender

Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent

male 45 69.2 69.2 69.2

Valid female 20 30.8 30.8 100.0

Total 65 100.0 100.0

Figure 4.1 Gender distribution of respondents

41
From the data obtained in Table 4.1 and figure 4.2 above, majority of the respondents were male

making up 69.2 percent of the total sample size. The female folks made up to about 30.8 of the

total respondents.

4.3 Distribution of respondents age brackets

Table 4.2 Distribution of respondent’s age bracket

Age

Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent

18-25 22 33.8 33.8 33.8

26-35 35 53.8 53.8 87.7

Valid
36-40 8 12.3 12.3 100.0

Total 65 100.0 100.0

Figure 4.2 Distribution of respondent’s age bracket

42
From the data in table 4.2 and figure 4.2 above, an overwhelming majority of the respondents

were of the age bracket 26-35, representing 53.8 percent of the total sample size. While the

remaining respondents of the age bracket 18-25 represented 33.8 percent of the total sample

size .The lowest turnout was 12.3 percent of the total sample size which represented the age

bracket of 36-40.

4.4 Respondents level of education

Table 4.3 Respondents level of education

Level of education

Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent

secondary 17 26.2 26.2 26.2

Valid tertiary 48 73.8 73.8 100.0

Total 65 100.0 100.0

43
Figure 4.3 Respondents level of education

From the data obtained above ,majority of the respondents have attained tertiary level of

education making up 73.8 percent of the total sample size .The rest that made up 26.2 percent

were secondary education holders.

4.5 Media representation of PLWD in Kenya is it of justice?

Table 4.4 Media representation of PLWD in Kenya is it of justice

Media representation of PLWD in Kenya is it of justice

Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulative

y Percent Percent

yes 6 9.2 9.2 9.2

Valid no 59 90.8 90.8 100.0

Total 65 100.0 100.0

44
Figure 4.4 Media representation of PLWD in Kenya is it of justice

The data obtained from the table 4.4 and figure 4.4 regarding if media representation in Kenya is

of any justice to the PLWD, majority of the respondents who made up 90.8 percent of the total

sample believe that the media does not do justice to the representation of the PLWD. While the

minority who were 9.2 percent of the total sample think that the media has a just representation

of the PLWD in Kenya. Therefore it is clear that the media does not have a just representation of

the marginalized communities cases of PLWD.

45
4.6 Does Media accurately portrays the challenges faced by marginalized communities in

Kenya?

Table 4.5 Does Media accurately portrays the challenges faced by marginalized

communities in Kenya

Media accurately portrays the challenges faced by

marginalized communities in Kenya

Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent

strongly agree 1 1.5 1.5 1.5

agree 6 9.2 9.2 10.8

Valid disagree 49 75.4 75.4 86.2

strongly agree 9 13.8 13.8 100.0

Total 65 100.0 100.0

46
Figure 4.5 Media accurately portrays the challenges faced by marginalized communities

in Kenya

From the above data obtained in table 4.5 and Figure 4.5 on how the media accurately portrays

the challenges faced by marginalized communities in Kenya. 75.4 percent of the respondents

disagree that the media does not accurately portray the challenges of the marginalized while a

least number of the respondents which made up 1.5 percent strongly agree that the media

accurately portrays the challenges faced by the marginalized .In conclution,it has been

determined that there is no accuracy when it comes to the representation of the marginalized

communities by the media.

47
4.7 Media representation of the marginalized communities in Kenya affects how society

treats them

Table 4.6 Media representation of the marginalized communities in Kenya affects how

society treats them

Media representation of the marginalized communities in

Kenya affects how society treats them

Frequen Percent Valid Cumulative

cy Percent Percent

strongly
26 40.0 40.0 40.0
agree
Vali
agree 36 55.4 55.4 95.4
d
disagree 3 4.6 4.6 100.0

Total 65 100.0 100.0

48
Figure 4.6 Media representation of the marginalized communities in Kenya affects how

society treats them

The data obtained from table 4.6 and figure 4.6 on the Media representation of the marginalized

communities in Kenya affects how society treats them, 55.4 percent of the total sample agreed

with the statement that people will behave and treat the people living with disabilities according

to how the media is portraying them over a long period of time whereas 4.6 percent of the

respondents disagreed with that notion thinking that the media has no effect on how the society

treats the PLWDs.Therefore,it has been determined that how the media portrays the

marginalized directly affects how the society treats them .

49
4.8 Media representation of the marginalized has contributed to negative stereotypes or

stigmatization

Table 4.7 Media representation of the marginalized has contributed to negative stereotypes

or stigmatization

Media representation of the marginalized has contributed to

negative stereotypes or stigmatization

Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent

strongly
40 61.5 61.5 61.5
agree

Valid agree 20 30.8 30.8 92.3

disagree 5 7.7 7.7 100.0

Total 65 100.0 100.0

50
Figure 4.7 Media representation of the marginalized has contributed to negative

stereotypes or stigmatization

The data above obtained from table 4.7 and figure 4.7 on the Media representation of the

marginalized has contributed to negative stereotypes or stigmatization, 61.5 percent of the total

respondents agreed with the statement which were the majority while 7.7percent of the sample

size disagreed that the media has contributed to negative stereotypes or stigmatization.In

conclution ,it is clear that the media has a great contribution to negative stereotypes and

stigmatization of the marginalized communities.

51
4.9 Noticed any changes in the media representation of PLWD over the past few years

Table 4.8 noticed any changes in the media representation of PLWD over the past few

years

Noticed any changes in the media representation of PLWD

over the past few years

Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent

yes 17 26.2 26.2 26.2

Valid no 48 73.8 73.8 100.0

Total 65 100.0 100.0

52
Figure 4.8 noticed any changes in the media representation of PLWD over the past few

years

From the data obtained in table 4.8 and figure 4.8 on whether the respondents had noticed any

changes in the media representation of PLWD over the past few years, 73.8 percent of the total

sample through their observation over the past few years had not seen any changes in the media

on how they have been representing the people living with disabilities while 26.2percent of the

respondents through their keen observation agreed that had noticed some positive changes on

the media on how they represent the PLWDs.Therefore,it can be said that there is no noticeable

changes made by the media over the past few years on how they portray the marginalized

communities ecspeciaaly the PLWDs.

4.10 Media representation of PLWD affects their empowerment in the society

Table 4.9 Media representation of PLWD affects their empowerment in the society

Media representation of PLWD affects the empowerment in

the society

Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent

Valid yes 50 76.9 76.9 76.9

no 15 23.1 23.1 100.0

53
 Total 65 100.0 100.0

Figure 4.9 Media representation of PLWD affects their empowerment in the society

The above data in table 4.9 and figure 4.9 on whether media representation of PLWD affects

their empowerment in the society, 76.9 percent of the total respondents agreed that media

presentation plays a great role in the empowerment of the PLWD whereas 23.1percent of the

total sample disagreed that the media representation contributes to the empowerment of the

PLWD and that they are responsible for their own empowerment.Therefore,it has been

determined that the media plays a great role in the empowerment of PLWD.

54
4.11 Increased media representation of PLWD can lead to more awareness and
understanding of their rights

Table 4.10 Increased media representation of PLWD can lead to more awareness and

understanding of their rights

Increased media representation of PLWD can lead to more

awareness and understanding of their rights

Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulative

y Percent Percent

strongly
43 66.2 66.2 66.2
agree

Valid agree 17 26.2 26.2 92.3

disagree 5 7.7 7.7 100.0

Total 65 100.0 100.0

55
Figure 4.10 Increased media representation of PLWD can lead to more awareness and

understanding of their rights

From the data obtained from the above research question in table 4.10 and figure 4.10

questioning whether increased media representation of the PLWDs can lead to more awareness

and understanding of their individual rights .It was determined that a great number of the

respondents representing 66.2 percent of the total sample strongly agreed that the can be a

powerful tool that would bring a great awareness and understanding of their rights by the

society whereas a few number of respondents making up to 7.7percent of the total samples

disagreed that the media has no Impact on creation of awareness and understanding of the right

of the PLWDS.In conclution ,it can be said that the media is a powerful that can bring great

awareness and understanding of the marginalized groups and their rights by the society.

56
4.12 Media has a responsibility to represent marginalized communities (PLWD) in a more
accurate and respectful way

Table 4.11 Media has a responsibility to represent marginalized communities (PLWD) in

a more accurate and respectful way

Media has a responsibility to represent marginalized communities

(PLWD) in a more accurate and respectful way

Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent

strongly
40 61.5 61.5 61.5
agree

Valid agree 19 29.2 29.2 90.8

disagree 6 9.2 9.2 100.0

Total 65 100.0 100.0

57
Figure 4.11 Media has a responsibility to represent marginalized communities (PLWD) in

a more accurate and respectful way

According to the data from the above table 4.11 and figure 4.11 on whether media has a

responsibility to represent the marginalized communities in a more accurate and respectful way it

was determined that a majority of the respondents who made up 61.5 percent of the total

samples agreed and believed that the media has a responsibility to be accurate on representing

the various groups of the society especially the marginalized communities while the minority

from the respondents representing 9.2 percent of the total disagreed believing that the media does

not have any responsibility accurately and respectfully representing the marginalized

communities.Therefore,it can be noted that the media has a responsibility to be accurate on

representing the various groups of the society ecpecially the marginalized communities.

58
4.13 PLWDs and their organizations ensure their voices are represented accurately in the
media

Table 4.12 PLWDs and their organizations ensure their voices are represented accurately

in the media

PLWDs and their organizations ensure their voices are

represented accurately in the media

Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulative

y Percent Percent

strongly
53 81.5 81.5 81.5
agree
Valid
agree 12 18.5 18.5 100.0

Total 65 100.0 100.0

59
Figure 4.12 PLWDs and their organizations ensure their voices are represented accurately

in the media

From the data obtained in table 4.12 and figure 4.12 if PLWDs and their organizations ensure

their voices are represented accurately are represented accurately in the media it was determined

a great number of the respondents which represented 81.5 percent of the total sample strongly

agreed that the members of the marginalized communities especially the PLWDs are responsible

together with their organization to ensure that they get portrayed fairly and accurately whereas

18.5percent of the remaining few samples moderately agreed on their notion not having a

strong agreement to it compared to the majority of the respondents.Therefore ,it has been

determined that the members of the marginalized communities ecspeccially the PLWDs are

responsible together with their organization to ensure that they get portrayed fairly and

accurately.

4.14 Discussion of the findings

These data show that respondents are generally dissatisfied with how PLWD are portrayed in the

media. It implies that the majority of people see a lack of fairness, honesty, or inclusiveness in

how the media portrays people with disabilities. This unhappiness may be symptomatic of a

considerable difference between the media's portrayal of PLWD and PLWD's actual experiences

and viewpoints. The research does not reveal precise reasons for this perspective, but it raises

fundamental concerns about the role of the media in molding public attitudes and perceptions of

people with disabilities. It implies that the media may have passed up opportunities to showcase

the different experiences, capacities, and contributions of people with disabilities (PLWD) in

60
society. The media may contribute to the perpetuation of stereotypes, stigmas, and

misconceptions by failing to effectively reflect PLWD.

The minority of respondents who say that the media accurately portrays PLWD in Kenya may

have seen examples of the media portraying PLWD in a positive and inclusive light. However,

because this group accounts for a small fraction of the total sample, it is critical to incorporate

their viewpoints alongside the majority viewpoint. These findings raise serious concerns

regarding the intricate interplay between media portrayal and individual agency in the

empowerment of people with disabilities. While media exposure can give outlets for visibility

and awareness, PLWD empowerment is ultimately driven by their agency and actions. Media

representation can be a spark, but it should be supplemented with programmers that encourage

self-advocacy, access to resources, and equal opportunities for people with disabilities.

These findings have significant consequences for journalists, legislators, and disability rights

campaigners. It argues that more representation of PLWDs in the media is needed to raise public

awareness and comprehension of their rights. Media organizations may play an important role in

ensuring that the voices and stories of people with disabilities are heard and appropriately

depicted, so helping to dispel biases and misconceptions. It is important to highlight, however,

that the research data does not provide insights into the exact techniques or forms of media

portrayal that would be most helpful in raising awareness and understanding of the rights of

people with disabilities. Further research should look into particular examples of effective media

campaigns or efforts that have affected public views and attitudes towards people with

disabilities.

61
In conclusion, the research findings show that respondents are generally dissatisfied with how

people with disabilities (PLWD) are portrayed in the media. The majority of respondents believe

that the media portrays PLWD in an unfair, inclusive, and accurate manner. This implies a

considerable gap between the media's portrayal of PLWD and their actual experiences and

viewpoints .The research findings raises serious questions regarding the influence of the media in

affecting public attitudes and perceptions of people with disabilities. It implies that the media

may have passed on opportunities to highlight the different experiences, abilities, and

accomplishments of PLWD in society, therefore perpetuating stereotypes and stigmas.

62
CHAPTER 5

INTRODUCTION, SUMMARY CONCLUSION AND RECCOMENDATION

5.1INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, we explore the impact of media on marginalized communities in Kenya, focusing

specifically on people living with disabilities. The representation of the disabled community in

the media plays a significant role in shaping public perception, attitudes, and policies towards

this marginalized group. This chapter aims to analyze the portrayal of disability in the media,

examine the opportunities and challenges faced by people with disabilities in accessing media

platforms, and highlight the potential for media to empower and advocate for the rights of

disabled individuals.

Media Representation of People with Disabilities:Media plays a vital role in shaping societal

perceptions and providing a platform for marginalized communities to voice their concerns and

experiences. Unfortunately, the representation of people with disabilities in the media has often

been limited and skewed. Disabled individuals are commonly depicted as objects of pity or as

inspirational figures, reinforcing stereotypes and limiting their portrayal to a narrow range of

identities. Such representation has a profound impact on how the public perceives disability and

influences social inclusion and policymaking

Opportunities and Challenges for Accessing Media :The digital revolution has opened up new

avenues for people with disabilities to access and interact with media. However, significant

challenges persist. For individuals with visual or hearing impairments, the lack of accessible

63
content remains a major obstacle. Many websites, videos, and television programs are not

adequately captioned or transcribed, thereby excluding these individuals from fully utilizing

media platforms. In addition, the cost of assistive technologies required for enhanced media

consumption proves to be unaffordable for many individuals with disabilities in Kenya.

5.2 SUMMARY

Chapter 5 of the research paper titled “Impact of Media on Marginalized Communities in Kenya:

A Case Study of People Living with Disabilities” focuses on the specific experiences and

challenges faced by individuals with disabilities in Kenya in relation to media representation and

accessibility.The chapter begins by providing a background on the social and cultural context of

disability in Kenya and highlights the prevailing stereotypes and stigmatization faced by people

with disabilities. It further emphasizes the importance of inclusive media representation in

promoting social inclusion and challenging negative attitudes towards disability.

The researchers conducted interviews and surveys with individuals with disabilities to

understand their perceptions and experiences with media portrayal. The results revealed that the

representation of people with disabilities in Kenyan media was largely limited and often

perpetuated stereotypes, emphasizing their dependency or victimhood instead of showcasing

their abilities and achievements. Additionally, media content rarely featured disability-related

issues or the daily challenges faced by this marginalized group. Accessibility to media platforms

was also discussed, indicating that individuals with sensory or physical disabilities faced

significant barriers in accessing media content due to lack of adaptive technologies, sign

64
language interpretation, and closed captioning. This limited their participation in social and

cultural activities, hindering their social integration.

The chapter further discusses the potential positive impact of media on people with disabilities. It

highlights several initiatives by local and international organizations aimed at promoting

disability-inclusive media. In conclusion, Chapter 5 of the research paper sheds light on the

marginalization of people with disabilities in the media landscape of Kenya. It highlights the

need for more inclusive representation and improved accessibility to media platforms for

individuals with disabilities, with the aim of challenging stereotypes, promoting social inclusion,

and empowering this marginalized section of society.

5.3 CONCLUSION

This research on the impact of media representation on the marginalized communities in Kenya,

a case of PLWDs found that media has underrepresented the PLWDs in Kenya in that, the media

has not accurately portrayed the problems they face and therefore affecting the way they are

treated by the society.There was also no major change in the media representation of the PLWDs

in the past few years. There is also need for the societies and organizations representing these

people to ensure they are accurately represented in the media.

This research has contributed to our theoretical framework in that media messages go a long way

in influencing the target audience, in this case, our respondents whose responses to a great extent

match with the arguments of the agenda setting theory which we based our research on.Our

65
research findings match the argument of Zarko Trajanoki, who in his research in 2011, named

Media discourses and discrimination, argues that the problems and needs of the marginalized are

as a result of intentional ignorance from journalists. However, his study was based on people

living with HIV/AIDS which poses a different dynamic of looking at things since not many

HIV/AIDS victims would be open for interviews unlike the PLWDs.

5.4 RECCOMEDATIONS

The media should recognize the diverse range of disabilities and ensure accurate portrayals . they

should avoid stereotypes and strive for authenticity by involving individuals with disabilities in

the creation process, consulting disability organizations and seeking input from the

community.The media should represent persons living with disabilities in a well rounded manner

highlighting their achievements ,talents and everyday experiences. Their strengths and resilience

should be showcased rather than focusing solely on their disabilities or portraying them as

objects of pity .When talking about PLWDS a respectful and inclusive language language should

be used. Derogatory and outdated terms that perpetuate stereotypes should be avoided.

When representing PLWDS prioritize casting actors with disabilities for those roles whenever

possible . this ensures representation and provides opportunities for actors abled differently.The

media should make their content accessible to individuals with disabilities . they should include

captions , audio descriptions , audio descriptions and alternative formats whenever possible. This

allows people with sensory impairments to fully engage with the content.PLWDS should be

depicted in a variety of roles including everyday situations, professions and relationships .

normalize disability as a part of the human experience and show inclusive environments that

66
value diversity.Disability related topics should approached with sensitivity and respect.

Recognize that disability is a personal and diverse experience . avoid making assumptions and

engage in thoughtful dialogue to promote understanding.

The media should take the opportunity to educate and raise awareness about disability related

issues through responsible storytelling ,shedding light on challenges faced by people with

disabilities can contribute to social change and increased inclusivity.

67
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72
QUESTIONNAIRE

This questionnaire is designed to help the researcher conduct a study on the impact of media

representation of the marginalized communities in Kenya, cases of PLWD.The researchers

request your participation in this exercise by completing the questionnaire as honestly as possible

.The responses you give will not be disclosed to any other party.

GUIDELINES

Please read the following questions and tick the statement or choose the number that clearly

reflects your view, you can also express your views wherever you deem necessary.

QUESTIONS

PERSONAL INFORMATION

Gender

Male { } Female { }

1. What is your understanding of media representation?

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

73
2. How often do you consume media content related to persons living with disabilities (PLWD)?

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. Do you think the media representation of PLWD in Kenya is of justice to their image as part

of the marginalized?

Yes

No

4. For the table section, using the key {Where 1-Strongly agree, 2-Agree, 3-Indifferent, 4-

Disagree, 5-Strongly Disagree}, kindly tick appropriately according to how you agree or

disagree with the statements.

Statements 1 2 3 4 5

1 The media accurately accurately portrays the

74
 challenges faced by marginalized communities

in Kenya.

2 The Media representation of the marginalized

communities in Kenya affects how society treats

them.

3 The media representation of marginalized

communities in Kenya has contributed to

negative stereotypes or stigmatization.

5. In your opinion, what role can the Kenyan government and other stakeholders play in ensuring

that media representation of PLWD is accurate, respectful and inclusive?

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6. Have you noticed any changes in the Medias representation of people living with disabilities

in Kenya over the past few years?

Yes

No

75
7. How do you think media representation of PLWD in Kenya should be improved?

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

8. Have you witnessed any positive impacts of media representation of PLWD in Kenya?

Yes

No

9. Do you think media representation of PLWD in Kenya affects the empowerment of PLWD in

society?

Yes

No

76
10. For the table section, using the key {Where 1-Strongly agree, 2-Agree, 3-Indifferent, 4-

Disagree, 5-Strongly Disagree}, kindly tick appropriately according to how you agree or

disagree with the statements.

Statements 1 2 3 4 5

1 Increased media representation of PLWDs in

Kenya can lead to more awareness and

understanding of their rights and needs.

2 Media in Kenya has a responsibility to represent

marginalized communities, including PLWDs,

in a more accurate and respectful way.

3 Can PLWDs and their organizations, ensure that

their voices are represented accurately in the

media in Kenya.

77