Chapter 1: Theory of Groups

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Contents

1.1 Sets and functions

1.2 Groups and abelian groups

1.3 Subgroups and Lagrange’s theorem

1.4 Cyclic groups

1.5 Symmetric groups

1.6 Group homomorphisms

1.7 Normal subgroups and Quotient groups

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Contents

1.1 Sets and functions

1.2 Groups and abelian groups

1.3 Subgroups and Lagrange’s theorem

1.4 Cyclic groups

1.5 Symmetric groups

1.6 Group homomorphisms

1.7 Normal subgroups and Quotient groups

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 Sets (Tập hợp)

Definition (Sets and Elements)

▶ A set is a collection of elements.

▶ We write x ∈ X if x belongs to X .

Definition (Subsets and Equality)

Let X and Y be two sets.
▶ X is a subset of Y , denoted by X ⊆ Y , if

∀x, x ∈ X ⇒ x ∈ Y .

▶ X is equal to Y , denoted by X = Y , if X ⊆ Y and Y ⊆ X .

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 Sets (Tập hợp)

Definition (Empty Set)

The empty set, denoted by ∅ or {}, is the set containing no
element.

Example
1. The empty set is a subset of every set.

2. The following two sets are equal

X := {a ∈ Z | 3 divides a},

3Z := {3 · b | b ∈ Z}.

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 Sets and Functions

Let X and Y be sets.

Definition (Intersections and Unions)

X ∩ Y := {z | z ∈ X and z ∈ Y }
X ∪ Y := {z | z ∈ X or z ∈ Y }

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 Sets and Functions

Let X and Y be sets and X be a subset of Z .

Definition (Differences and Complements)

X − Y := {z | z ∈ X and z ̸∈ Y }
X = Z − X := {z | z ∈ Z or z ̸∈ X }

Definition (Cartesian Product)

X × Y := {(x, y ) | x ∈ X , y ∈ Y }.

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 Sets and Functions

Let X and Y be sets.

Definition
A function from X to Y , denoted by f : X → Y , assigns to each
element of a ∈ X exactly one element of f (a) ∈ Y .

We denote by b := f (a)
▶ the value of f at a,
▶ the image of a via f .

Ingredients of a function:
▶ Domain X , and target Y ,
▶ Image f (X ) := {f (a) | a ∈ X },
▶ Graph {(a, f (a)) | a ∈ X }.

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 Sets and Functions

Let X and Y be sets. Examples of functions:

▶ The identity function idX : X → X , defined by idX (a) := a for
all a ∈ X .
▶ Given c ∈ Y . The constant function f : X → Y , defined by
f (a) = c for all a ∈ X .
▶ (Real) polynomial function P : R → R, defined by
P(x) := a0 + a1 x + . . . + an x n for all x ∈ R.
▶ (Complex) polynomial function P : C → C, defined by
P(x) := a0 + a1 x + . . . + an x n for all x ∈ C.

Question: What is the domain, target, image and the graph of

these functions?

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 Sets and Functions

Definition (Equality of functions)

Two functions f : X → Y and g : X ′ → Y ′ are equal if
▶ X = X ′ and Y = Y ′ , and
▶ ∀a ∈ X , f (a) = g (a).

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 Sets and Functions

Definition (Properties of a function)

Let f : X → Y be a function.
▶ f is injective if ∀a, a′ ∈ X , f (a) = f (a′ ) ⇒ a = a′ .
▶ f is surjective if f (X ) = Y .
▶ f is bijective if it is both surjective and injective.

Question 1: Is function f : Z → Z, defined by f (z) = 5z,

surjective? injective? bijective? What if we replace 5 by other
integer?

Question 2: Are the identity, constant, real and complex

polynomial functions surjective? injective? bijective?

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 Sets and Functions

Definition (Composite of two functions)

Let f : X → Y and g : Y → Z be two functions. Their composite,
denoted by g ◦ f , is a function X → Z defined by

(g ◦ f )(x) := g (f (x)) for all x ∈ X .

Question
Find the composite g ◦ f and f ◦ g , where:
▶ f : Z → Z defined by f (z) = z 2 , and g : Z → Z defined by
g (z) = 3z.
▶ f : R → R defined by f (r ) = r n , and g : R \ {−1} → R
1
defined by g (r ) := r +1 .

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 Sets and Functions

Lemma (Associative property of compositions)

Composition of functions is associative, i.e., if f : X → Y ,
g : Y → Z and h : Z → W are functions, then

h ◦ (g ◦ f ) = (h ◦ g ) ◦ f .

Lemma (Compositions with identity)

If f : X → Y is a function, then
▶ idX ◦ f = f ,
▶ f ◦ idy = f .

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 Sets and Functions

Definition (Inverse of a function)

A function f : X → Y is called invertible if there exists a function
g : Y → X such that g ◦ f = idX and f ◦ g = idY .

In this case, g is called the inverse of f .

Lemma (Invertibility of a function)

A function is invertible if and only if it is bijective.

Question
For which integer a, the following functions are invertible?
▶ f : Z → Z, defined by f (z) := z + a.
▶ g : Z → Z, defined by g (z) := az.
▶ h : Z → Z, defined by h(r ) := r a .

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 Sets and Functions
Definition (Direct/Inverse image)
Let f : X → Y be a function.
▶ For U ⊆ X , the (direct) image of U via f is

f (U) := {f (x) | x ∈ U} ⊆ Y .

▶ For V ⊆ Y , the inverse image of V via f is

f −1 (V ) := {x ∈ X | f (x) ∈ V } ⊆ X .

Question:
Find the image and inverse image of the set {0} via
▶ f : Z → Z, defined by f (z) := z + a.
▶ g : Z → Z, defined by g (z) := az.
▶ h : Z → Z, defined by h(r ) := r a .
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Contents

1.1 Sets and functions

1.2 Groups and abelian groups

1.3 Subgroups and Lagrange’s theorem

1.4 Cyclic groups

1.5 Symmetric groups

1.6 Group homomorphisms

1.7 Normal subgroups and Quotient groups

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 Groups and abelian groups

Definition (Operations)
An operation ∗ on a set G is a function

∗ : G × G → G.

Denote a ∗ b := ∗(a, b).

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 Groups and abelian groups

Definition (Groups)
A set G , together with an operation ∗ is called a group if it
satisfies
(i) Associative law: a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c for every a, b, c ∈ G .

(ii) Identity: there is e ∈ G such that: e ∗ a = a for all a ∈ G .

(iii) Invertibility: for every a ∈ G , there is a′ ∈ G with a′ ∗ a = e.

Definition (Abelian groups)

A group (G , ∗) is abelian if it satisfies:
(iv) Commutative law: a ∗ b = b ∗ a for every a, b ∈ G .

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 Group and abelian group

Remark 1
▶ e is called the identity of G .
▶ a′ is called the inverse of a, denoted by a−1 .

Remark 2
▶ If ∗ ≡ · is a multiplication, (G , ∗) is called multiplicative
group.
▶ If ∗ ≡ + is an addition, (G , ∗) is called additive group.

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 Groups and abelian groups
Example 1
The set Z, together with the usual addition

a ∗ b := a + b,

is a group.

Question 1: What is its identity? What is the inverse of an

element?
Question 2: Is it abelian?

Example 2
Similarly, (Q, +), (R, +) and (C, +) are also abenlian groups.

Question: Is (N, +) an abelian group?

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 Groups and abelian groups
Example 3
The set Q∗ := Q \ {0}, together with the usual multiplication

a ∗ b := a · b,

is a group.

Question 1: What is its identity? What is the inverse of an

element?
Question 2: Is it abelian?
Question 3: Why should we remove 0?

Example 4
Similarly, (R∗ , ·) and (C∗ , ·) are also abenlian groups.

Question: Is (Z∗ , ·) an abelian group?

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 Groups and abelian groups

Example 5
The set M(2, R) of 2x2 matrices with real number entries,
together with the usual addition

A ∗ B := A + B,

is a group.

Question 1: What is its identity? What is the inverse of an

element?
Question 2: Is it abelian?

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 Groups and abelian groups

Example 6
The set GL(2, R) of 2x2 invertible matrices with real number
entries, together with the usual mulitiplication

A ∗ B := A · B,

is a group. This group is call the real general linear group.

Question 1: What is its identity? What is the inverse of an

element?
Question 2: Is it abelian?

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 Groups and abelian groups

Exercise 1
Prove that the set
5Z := {5m | m ∈ Z},
together with the usual addition +, is a group.

Is this group commutative?

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 Groups and abelian groups

Proposition
Let G be a group with operation ∗ and identity e.
(i) a ∗ a′ = e for all a ∈ G .
(ii) a ∗ e = a for all a ∈ G .

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 Groups and abelian groups

Lemma
Let (G , ∗) be a group.
(i) The cancellation laws hold: for a, b, x ∈ G , we have
if x ∗ a = x ∗ b then a = b, and
if a ∗ x = b ∗ x then a = b.

−1
(ii) a−1 = a, for all a ∈ G .

(iii) (a ∗ b)−1 = b −1 ∗ a−1 , for all a, b ∈ G .

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Contents

1.1 Sets and functions

1.2 Groups and abelian groups

1.3 Subgroups and Lagrange’s theorem

1.4 Cyclic groups

1.5 Symmetric groups

1.6 Group homomorphisms

1.7 Normal subgroups and Quotient groups

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 Subgroups

Definition (Subgroups)
Let (G , ∗) be a group and H ⊆ G .
H is called a subgroup of G , denoted by H ≤ G , if
(i) e ∈ H, and
(ii) if x, y ∈ H, then x ∗ y ∈ H, and
(iii) if x ∈ H, then x −1 ∈ H.

Proposition
Let (G , ∗) be a group and H ⊆ G .
Then H is a subgroup of G iff H ̸= ∅, and

x, y ∈ H ⇒ x ∗ y −1 ∈ H.

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 Subgroups

Proposition
Every subgroup H of a group G is itself a group.

Example 1
Prove that the set 5Z := {5a | a ∈ Z} is a subgroup of (Z, +).

Example 2
Let G = R2 = {(a, b) | a, b ∈ R} be a group with the operation ∗
defined by
(a, b) ∗ (c, d) = (a + c, b + d).
Let H = {(a, a) | a ∈ R}. Then H is a subgroup of G .

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 Subgroups

Example 3
Let (G , ∗) be a group with identity e.
1. The set {e} is a subgroup of G . (Why?)

2. The set G is itself a subgroup of G . (Why?)

Note: {e} and G are called trivial subgroups of G .

Example 4
1. (Z, +) ≤ (Q, +) ≤ (R, +) ≤ (C, +).

2. (Q \ {0}, ·) ≤ (R \ {0}, ·) ≤ (C \ {0}, ·).

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 Lagrange’s Theorem

Definition
Let (G , ∗) be a group. Order of G , denoted by |G |, is the number
of elements in G .

Lagrange’s Theorem
Let (G , ∗) be a finite group, and H ⊆ G . If H is a subgroup of G ,
.
then |H| divides |G |, which means |G | .. |H|.

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 Lagrange’s Theorem

Exercise
Assume that G is a group of order p, where p is a prime number.
Find all subgroups of G .

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Contents

1.1 Sets and functions

1.2 Groups and abelian groups

1.3 Subgroups and Lagrange’s theorem

1.4 Cyclic groups

1.5 Symmetric groups

1.6 Group homomorphisms

1.7 Normal subgroups and Quotient groups

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 Cyclic groups

Definition (Powers of an element)

Let (G , ∗) be a group with identity e and let a ∈ G . We define we
define:
▶ a1 = a and an = a ∗ a ∗ · · · ∗ a for n ≥ 2.
| {z }
n times
▶ a0 = e.
▶ If n ≥ 1, then define a−n = (a−1 )n .

Note: (a−1 )n = (an )−1 .

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 Cyclic groups

Definition (Cyclic subgroup)

Let G be a group and a ∈ G . The set

⟨a⟩ : = {an | n ∈ Z}
= {. . . , a−2 , a−1 , e, a, a2 , . . .}

is called the cyclic subgroup of G generated by a.

Definition (Cyclic group)

A group G is called cyclic if there is a ∈ G such that G = ⟨a⟩.
In this case, a is called a generator of G .

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 Cyclic groups

Example 1: The integers Z

Consider the group (Z, +),

Question:
1. Determine the subgroup ⟨1⟩?
2. Conclude that (Z, +) is a cyclic group. Find a generator.
3. What is the order of Z?

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 Cyclic groups

Example 2: The integers Z5 modulo 5

Consider the group Z5 := {0̄, 1̄, 2̄, 3̄, 4̄} with the addition +
modulo 5.

Question:
1. Determine the subgroup 2 .
2. Conclude that Z5 is a cyclic group. Find a generator.
3. What is the order of Z5 ?

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 Cyclic groups

Example 3: The integers Z6 modulo 6

Consider the group Z6 := {0̄, 1̄, 2̄, 3̄, 4̄, 5̄} with the addition +
modulo 6.

Question:
1. Determine the subgroups 2 .
2. Show that Z6 is a cyclic group.
3. What is the order of Z6 ?

Note: The set Zm := {0̄, 1̄, . . . , m − 1}, together with the addition
+ modulo m, is a cyclic group (with generator 1 ).

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 Cyclic groups

Exercise
Consider the set R of real number with the operation ∗ defined by
p
5
a ∗ b := a5 + b 5

for all a, b ∈ R.
1. Prove that (R, ∗) is a group. Is this group abelian?
2. Determine 2n := 2 ∗ 2 ∗ . . . ∗ 2, (n times), for all n ∈ N.
3. Determine the cyclic subgroup ⟨2⟩ of (R, ∗).

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 Cyclic groups

Let (G , ∗) be a group.
Recall
The order of G , denoted by |G |, is the number of elements of G .

Definition (Order of an element)

Let a ∈ G .
▶ If there is a positive integer n such that an = e, then the
smallest such n is called the order of a.
▶ If an ̸= e for every positive integer n, we say that a has
infinity order.

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 Cyclic groups

Example 1
Determine the order of an integer m in the additive group (Z, +).

Example 2
Consider the group Z5 := {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} with the addition +
modulo 5.
1. What is the order of Z5 .
2. Determine the orders of all elements in Z5 .

Example 3
Consider the group Z6 := {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} with the addition +
modulo 6.
1. What is the order of Z6 .
2. Determine the orders of all elements in Z6 .

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 Cyclic groups

Proposition 1
Let (G , ∗) be a finite group of order m, and a ∈ G .
1. The order of a is equal to the order of the cyclic subgroup ⟨a⟩.
2. The order of a divides m.
3. am = e.

Proposition 2
Every finite group of prime order is cyclic.

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Contents

1.1 Sets and functions

1.2 Groups and abelian groups

1.3 Subgroups and Lagrange’s theorem

1.4 Cyclic groups

1.5 Symmetric groups

1.6 Group homomorphisms

1.7 Normal subgroups and Quotient groups

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 Symmetric groups

Definition (Permutations)
Let n ≥ 1 and X := {1, 2, . . . , n}.
▶ A permutation α of X is a bijection (bijective function) from
X to itself.
▶ Denoted by  
1 2 ... n
.
α(1) α(2) . . . α(n)
▶ We denote by Sn the set of all permutations of X .

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 Symmetric groups

Example
Permutations in S3 are
     
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
e := , , ,
1 2 3 2 1 3 3 1 2
     
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
, , .
1 3 2 2 3 1 3 2 1

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 Symmetric groups

Exercise
1. List all permutations in S4 .
2. How many permutations are there in S4 ?
3. How many permutations are there in Sn ?

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 Symmetric groups

Theorem
The set Sn , together with the composition ◦ of two permutations,
is a group.
(Sn , ◦) is called the symmetric group on n letters.

Main Problems
1. Determine the composition of two permutations.
2. Decompose a permutation into the product of
cycles/transpositions.
3. Determine the inverse of a permutation.

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 Symmetric group
Remark (Composition of two permutations)
Given  
1 2 ... n
α :=
α(1) α(2) . . . α(n)
and  
1 2 ... n
β := ,
β(1) β(2) . . . β(n)
then  
1 2 ... n
α ◦ β := .
α(β(1)) α(β(2)) . . . α(β(n))

Exercise    
1 2 3 1 2 3
Given α := and β := , determine α ◦ β and
2 1 3 3 2 1
β ◦ α.

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 Symmetric groups

Definition (Cycles and Transpositions)

▶ Let i1 , i2 , . . . , ir be distinct integers in {1, 2, . . . , n}. If a
permutation α ∈ Sn fixes other integers and

α(i1 ) = i2 , α(i2 ) = i3 , . . . , α(ir ) = i1 ,

then α is called an r -cycle.

▶ In this case, we write α = (i1 i2 · · · ir ).

▶ A 2-cycle is a transposition.

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 Symmetric groups

Example
In S4 , we have
 
1 2 3 4
▶ is a cycle.
2 3 4 1

▶ It can be rewrite as (1 2 3 4).

 
1 2 3 4
▶ is a transposition.
2 1 3 4

▶ It can be rewrite as (1 2).

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 Symmetric groups

Theorem
Every permutation is a product of transpositions.

Definition (Signum)
Signum of α ∈ Sn is defined to be

signα := (−1)m ,

where m is the number of transpositions into the factorization of α

in a product of transpositions.
Step 1: Factorize a permutation into product of cycles.
Step 2: Factorize cycles into product of transpositions.

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 Symmetric groups

Proposition (Factorization of an r -cycle into a product of

tranpositions)

(i1 i2 · · · ir −1 ir ) = (i1 ir )(i1 ir −1 ) · · · (i1 i2 ).

Exercise  
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Given the permutation α := .
6 4 7 2 5 1 8 9 3
1. Factorize α into a product of cycles.
2. Factorize α into a product of transpositions.
3. Determine signα.

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 Symmetric groups

Proposition (Inverse of a permutation)

▶ (i1 i2 . . . ir )−1 = (ir . . . i2 i1 ).
▶ If α = β1 ◦ · · · ◦ βs , then α−1 = βs−1 ◦ · · · ◦ β1−1 .

Exercise  
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Given α := , determine α−1 .
6 4 7 2 5 1 8 9 3

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Contents

1.1 Sets and functions

1.2 Groups and abelian groups

1.3 Subgroups and Lagrange’s theorem

1.4 Cyclic groups

1.5 Symmetric groups

1.6 Group homomorphisms

1.7 Normal subgroups and Quotient groups

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 Group homomorphisms

Definition (Group homomorphisms)

Let (G , ∗) and (H, ◦) be groups. A function f : G → H is a
homomorphism if for every x, y ∈ G , we have

f (x ∗ y ) = f (x) ◦ f (y ).

Example 1
Given a group (G , ∗), the function f : G → G , defined by

f (a) = a

for all a ∈ G , is a homomorphism. (Why?)

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 Group homomorphisms

Definition (Group homomorphisms)

Let (G , ∗) and (H, ◦) be groups. A function f : G → H is a
homomorphism if for every x, y ∈ G , we have

f (x ∗ y ) = f (x) ◦ f (y ).

Example 2
Given groups (G , ∗) and (H, ◦), the function f : G → H, defined by

f (a) = eH

for all a ∈ G , is a homomorphism. (Why?)

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 Group homomorphisms

Exercise 1
Let (R+ , ·) the multiplicative group of positive real numbers, and
(R, +) be the additive group of real numbers.
Prove that the function f : R+ → R, defined by

f (a) := log2 (a)

for all a ∈ R+ , is a homomorphism.

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 Group homomorphisms

Definition
Let f : G → H be a group homomorphism.
▶ f is called a monomorphism if f is injective.
▶ f is called an epimorphism if f is surjective.
▶ f is called an isomorphism is f is bijective.

Definition (Kernels and Images)

Let f : G → H be a group homomorphism. We denote:

ker(f ) := {x ∈ G | f (x) = eH }, and

im(f ) := {f (x) ∈ H | x ∈ G }.

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 Group homomorphisms

Theorem
Let f : G → H be a group homomorphism.
▶ f is a monomorphism iff ker(f ) = {eG }.
▶ f is an epimorphism iff im(f ) = H.
▶ f is an isomorphism iff ker(f ) = {eG } and im(f ) = H.

Exercise 2
Let (Z, +) be the additive group of integers and 7Z its subgroup.
Consider the function f : Z → 7Z, defined by f (a) := 7a for all
a ∈ Z.
1. Prove that f is a group homomorphism.
2. Determine ker(f ) and im(f ).
3. Is f an isomorphism? Why?

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 Group homomorphisms

Proposition 1
Let f : G → H be a group homomorphism. Then
1. f (eG ) = eH ,
2. f (x −1 ) = f (x)−1 for all x ∈ G ,
3. f (x n ) = f (x)n for all x ∈ G and n ∈ Z.

Proposition 2
Let f : G → H be a group homomorphism.
1. ker(f ) is a subgroup of G and im(f ) is a subgroup of H.
2. If x ∈ ker(f ) and a ∈ G , then axa−1 ∈ ker(f ).

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 Group homomorphisms

Exercise 3
Let (R, +) be the additive group of real numbers and (R+ , ·) the
multiplicative group of positive real numbers. Consider the function
f : R → R+ , defined by f (a) := ea for all a ∈ R.
1. Prove that f is a group homomorphism.
2. Determine ker(f ) and im(f ).
3. Is f an isomorphism? Why?

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Contents

1.1 Sets and functions

1.2 Groups and abelian groups

1.3 Subgroups and Lagrange’s theorem

1.4 Cyclic groups

1.5 Symmetric groups

1.6 Group homomorphisms

1.7 Normal subgroups and Quotient groups

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 Normal subgroups and Quotient groups

Our plan in this section is as follow:

▶ Construction of the group Z/mZ,

▶ Quotient groups G /I

▶ Isomophism theorems

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 Congruence modulo an integer

Definition (Congruence classes)

Given an m ∈ Z.
▶ For each a ∈ Z, the congruence class of a modulo m is the set

[a] := {a + mk|k ∈ Z}.

▶ We denote by Z/mZ the set of all such congruence classes.

▶ Addition: [a] + [b] := [a + b].

Example
▶ Z/2Z := {[0], [1]}
▶ Z/3Z := {[0], [1], [2]}
▶ Z/mZ := {[0], [1], . . . , [m − 1]}

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 Congruence classes

Example
▶ Z/2Z := {[0], [1]}
▶ Z/3Z := {[0], [1], [2]}
▶ Z/mZ := {[0], [1], . . . , [m − 1]}

Proposition
The set Z/mZ, together with the addition

[a] + [b] := [a + b]

is a cyclic group of order m.

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 Quotient groups

Definition (Normal subgroups)

Let (G , ∗) be a group, and I a subset of G .
I is called a normal subgroup of G if I is a subgroup and

if a ∈ I and g ∈ G , then g ∗ a ∗ g −1 ∈ I .

Note: If G is an abelian group, then every subgroup I of G is a

normal subgroup. (Why?)

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 Quotient groups

Definition (Cosets)
Let I be a normal subgroup of G .
▶ Let a ∈ G . The coset of a modulo I is the set

[a] := {a ∗ c|c ∈ I }.

▶ We denote by G /I the set of all such cosets.

▶ Operation: [a] ∗ [b] := [a ∗ b]

Theorem
The set G /I , together with the operation

[a] ∗ [b] := [a ∗ b]

is a group, which is called the quotient group of G modulo I .

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 Isomorphism theorems

Theorem
Let G , H be groups, and f : G → H a group homomorphism.
1. Ker(f ) is a normal subgroup of G .
2. G /Ker(f ) is isomorphic to Im(f ).

Exercise
Every cyclic group is isomorphic to either Z or Z/mZ for some m.

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