LET’S PLAY

A GUESSING GAME
Can you guess the word?

RESEARCH
Can you guess the word?

PROBLEM
Can you guess the word?

QUESTION
Can you guess the word?

HYPOTHESIS
Can you guess the word?

VARIABLES
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM,
VARIABLES, AND HYPOTHESIS
Presented by: Cherry Ann C. Castigador
M.Ed. Guidance & Counseling
objectives
Studying this chapter should enable us to:
a. Identify common sources of a research problem;
b. Understand the characteristics of good research questions;
c. Distinguish between research hypothesis from statistical hypothesis,
and directional from non-directional hypothesis;
d. Explain how independent and dependent variables are related;
e. Determine the variables in the given examples;
f. Distinguish between a quantitative and a categorical variable; and
g. Differentiate the moderator, mediator, and extraneous variables.
• What is a Research
Problem?

• What are the

characteristics of good
research questions?
• A research problem
is initially posed as a
question, which
serves as the focus
of the researcher’s
investigation.
• What are the
sources of a
Research Problem?
 SOURCES OF A RESEARCH
PROBLEM?

• Working environment
• Area of interest or specialization
• Professional journals
• Proceedings of conferences
• Problems involve:
- areas of concern to researchers
- conditions they want to improve
- difficulties they want to eliminate
- questions for which they seek answers
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The question is:
 Feasible
 Clear
 Significant
 Ethical
RESEARCH QUESTIONS SHOULD BE FEASIBLE
• A feasible question is one that can be investigated
with available resources.
Example:
Feasible: How do the students at XYZ High School feel
about the new guidance program recently instituted in the
district?

Not so feasible: How would achievement be affected by

giving each student his or her own laptop computer to use
for a semester?
RESEARCH QUESTIONS SHOULD BE CLEAR
• Unambiguous
• What exactly is being investigated?

Example 1
“Is a humanistically oriented classroom effective?”
Example 2
“How do teachers feel about special classes for the
educationally handicapped?”
RESEARCH QUESTIONS SHOULD BE CLEAR
There are essentially three ways to clarify important terms in a
research question.

1. Use a constitutive definition or to use what is often

referred to as the dictionary approach.
2. Clarification by example
3. Operational definitions - specify the actions or
operations necessary to measure or identify the term
RESEARCH QUESTIONS SHOULD BE SIGNIFICANT
• It should be worth investigating.

1. How might answers to this research question

advance knowledge in my field?
2. How might answers to this research question
improve educational practice?
3. How might answers to this research question
improve the human condition?
RESEARCH QUESTIONS SHOULD BE ETHICAL

• The investigation should not involve physical or

psychological harm or damage to human beings
or to the natural or social environment of which
they are a part.
HYPOTHESIS
 hypothesis

• An educated guess
• A prediction of the possible outcomes of a
study or a proposition about the solution to
a problem
Example #1:
Question: Is rapport with clients of counselors using
client-centered therapy different from that of counselors
using behavior-modification therapy?

Hypothesis: Counselors who use a client-centered

therapy approach will have a greater rapport with their
clients than counselors who use a behavior modification
approach.
Example #2:
Is there a relationship between achievement in math and
interest in math of students in a secondary school?

A Hypothesis implies an if-then logic:

If low achievers in math attend remedial classes, then
their performance in math achievement test will
improve.
Example #3:
There is a positive relationship between achievement in
math and interest in math of students in secondary
school.

A Hypothesis implies an if-then logic:

If more exercises on solving situational problems are
given, the students will develop better math skills in
solving life problems in the future.
The Criteria of a Good Hypothesis (Borg & Gall, 1989)

1. The hypothesis should state an expected relationship

between two or more variables.
2. The researcher should have definite reasons based on
either theory or evidence for considering the hypothesis
worthy of testing.
3. A hypothesis should be testable.
4. A hypothesis should be brief, consistent and clear.
Types and Forms of Hypothesis (Kerlinger, 1986)

1. Research Hypothesis or Substantive Hypothesis

• It is a tentative proposition suggested as a solution
to a problem or an observation of some expected
state of affairs.
• It is a statement given by the researcher or problem
solver regarding the relationship between the
variables in the study.
Types and Forms of Hypothesis (Kerlinger, 1986)

2. Statistical Hypothesis (statistical form)

• It is a statement about one or more variables that are
measured of the population of the study. It is often
expressed in quantitative form.
Example:
Research Question: What is the relationship between students’
career preference and their families’ socio-economic status?

Research Hypothesis: Children of affluent families tend to prefer

the professional careers while children of low-income families
prefer vocational/technical training.

Statistical Hypothesis: There is a significant relationship between

students’ career preference and their families’ socio-economic
status.
• The hypothesis of no difference or no relationship is
called the null hypothesis.
• When a statistical hypothesis is being tested using
inferential statistics, it is the null hypothesis that is
being tested.

Example: There is no significant relationship between

students’ career preference and their families’ socio-
economic status.
Hypothesis: Directional and Non-directional Form

1. Directional Form
• Hypothesis that predicts the direction of the
outcomes or the relationships between parameters of
the study

2. Non-directional Form
• if no definite direction of the outcome is predicted.
 Directional Non-directional
Examples: Examples:
1. There is a positive relationship 1. Faculty morale is related to the
between attitude towards frequency of promotions.
math and achievement in 2. There is no relationship
math. between attitude towards
2. Male students score higher in science and achievement in
risk taking than female science.
students. 3. There is no change in the
3. The science achievement of pupils’ behavior before and
high-ability students exceeds after attending the summer
that of average ability students camp.
 GUIDELINES IN WRITING
GOOD HYPOTHESIS
• The hypothesis should be written as a statement.
• The hypothesis should be written in a clear language
and use as a framework for the research.
• Important term should be defined precisely before
they are used in writing hypothesis.
 GUIDELINES IN WRITING
GOOD HYPOTHESIS
• Hypothesis should be written in the context of the
variables’ operational definitions and conditions.
• There could be more than one hypothesis in a study.
Use as many hypotheses as needed.
• Hypothesis should be done based on relevant theory
and existing knowledge.
variables
 variables

• It is a concept—a noun that stands for

variation within a class of objects, such as
gender, eye color, achievement, motivation,
or running speed.
Example:
“Effects of reinforcement on student achievement”

The researcher systematically divides a large group of

students, all of whom are ninth-graders, into three smaller
subgroups. She then trains the teachers of these subgroups to
reinforce their students in different ways (one gives verbal
praise, the second gives monetary rewards, the third gives
extra points) for various tasks the students perform.
Example:
“Effects of reinforcement on student achievement”

Variable
(contains three variation)

The grade level of the students Constant

QUANTITATIVE VS. CATEGORICAL

QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES CATEGORICAL VARABLES

• numbers, degree, amount, or • eye color, gender, religious
quantity preference, occupation
QUANTITATIVE VS. CATEGORICAL
QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES
Example:

We can assign numbers to various individuals to indicate how

much interest they have in a subject, with a 5 indicating very
much interest, a 4 much interest, a 3 some interest, a 2 little
interest, a 1 very little interest, down to a 0 indicating no interest.

If we can assign numbers in this way, what variable we have?

QUANTITATIVE VS. CATEGORICAL
CATEGORICAL VARIABLES
Example:

A researcher wishes to compare certain attitudes in two different

groups of voters, one in which each individual is registered as a
member of one political party and the other in which individuals
are members of another party.

The variable involved would be?

QUANTITATIVE VS. CATEGORICAL
CATEGORICAL VARIABLES
Example:

Variable - political party

Categorical Variable - a person is either in one or the other

category, not somewhere in between being a registered member
of one party and being a registered member of another party
 Independent Dependent
variable(s) variable(s)
Affects
(presumed or (presumed
possible cause) results)

• Predictor variable • Criterion variable

• Manipulated/Experimental • Not manipulated
Example: The concern of the researcher is learners’ performance in
mathematics achievement test

• Possible Independent Variables:

 Sex of the learners
 Mental ability
 Level of anxiety in learning mathematics
 Attendance in problem-solving approach sessions
 Classroom environment where the test was held
 Time spent in preparing for the test
Example: Will students who are taught by a team of three
teachers learn more science than students taught by one teacher?

What are the independent and dependent variables in this

question?

Independent variable: “three teachers” and “one teacher”

Dependent variable: “amount of science learning”
MODERATOR VARIABLES VS. MEDIATOR VARIABLES
(a special type of
independent variable)

It can modify or influence the Explain the relationship

strength of a relationship between the two other
between two other variables. variable.
Example #1:

Research Question: “Does anxiety affect test performance and, if so,

does it depend on test-taking experience?”

Independent variable: anxiety level

Moderator variable: test-taking experience
Mediator variable: socio-economic status
Dependent variable: test performance
Example #1:

Research Question: “Do high school students taught primarily by

the inquiry method perform better on tests of critical thinking than
high school students taught primarily by the demonstration method
and, if so, does it vary with grade level?”

Independent variable: instructional method

Moderator variable: grade level
Mediator variable: mental ability
Dependent variable: performance on critical thinking tests
 Example: “Will students who are
taught by a team of three teachers
learn more science than students
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES taught by one teacher?”

these are independent Possible extraneous variables:

variables that have not • Teachers’ personality
been controlled • Experience level of the students
• Nature of the subject taught
• The textbooks used
• Type of learning activities
• Teaching method
 THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
Presented by: Cherry Ann C. Castigador
M.Ed. Guidance & Counseling
objectives
Studying this chapter should enable us to:

a. Understand the significance of theoretical

framework in research; and
b. List down the steps in writing a theoretical
framework.
 THEORY FRAMEWORK
THEORETICAL
 A concept  Skeleton, a basic
FRAMEWORK formulated to
explain, predict,
structure or frame
of reference
and understand designed to support
a phenomena something

= theories that serve as the building blocks or

skeleton for the foundation or bases of the study
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
strengthens your study

*The researcher cites and

discusses related theories
that serve as the foundation
of the variables and their
relationships, to make the
study more scientific and
empirical.
HOW TO
WRITE
THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
HOW
TO
WRITE
THE
3 EASY STEPS!
THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK

1 2 3
HOW
TO
3 EASY STEPS!
WRITE
THE
THEORETICAL
1 Examine the research
FRAMEWORK problem and consider
the key variables in
your research.
HOW
TO
3 EASY STEPS!
WRITE
THE
THEORETICAL
2 Review your related
FRAMEWORK literature and choose
the theory applicable
to your study.
HOW
TO
3 EASY STEPS!
WRITE
THE
THEORETICAL
3 Discuss the theory and
FRAMEWORK
its relation to your
present study.
PROMPTS:
The study is anchored on…
This study is supported by the theory of…
This study is founded on the theory of…
The theoretical underpinning of this study is…
SAMPLES LEARNING THEORIES
OF COGNITIVE LEARNING
THEORY
THEORIES • Plato
• Descartes BEHAVIOR LEARNING THEORY
• William James • Pavlov
• John Dewey • Watson
• Jean Piaget • Skinner
CONSTRUCTIVISM LEARNING THEORY
• Piaget
• Bruner
• Vygotsky
SAMPLES LEARNING THEORIES
OF MOTIVATION/
REINFORCEMENT
THEORIES • Maslow
• Lockes
• Alderfer
• Vroom
• McClelland

SCHEMA THEORY
• Roger Schank
SAMPLES LEARNING THEORIES
OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

THEORIES • Gardner • Vygotsky

• Bandura

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
THEORY
• Bruner

EMOTIONAL QUOTIENT
• Daniel Goleman
 references
• Fraenkel, Wallen, & Hyun (2012). How to Design and
Evaluate Research in Education, Eight Edition. pages 26-
34, 75-86.
• ANA PH. Theoretical Framework.
Thank you!