International AS and A-level

Computer
Computer
Science
Science
(9645)
(9645) Specification
Specification

For teaching from September 2024 onwards

For teaching
For
For International
International AS
AS exams
exams
May/June 2025 onwards
For
For International
International A-level
A-level exams
exams
May/June 2026 onwards
For
For teaching
teaching and examination outside
and examination
the United Kingdom
OxfordAQA International AS and A-level Computer Science (9645).
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Contents
1 Introduction 5
1.1 Why choose OxfordAQA International AS and A-levels? 5

1.2 Why choose our International AS and A-level Computer Science? 5

1.3 Recognition 6

1.4 Support and resources to help you teach 6

2 Specification at a glance 8
2.1 Subject content 8

2.2 Assessments 9

3 Subject content 11
3.1 Procedural programming 11

3.2 Fundamental data structures 15

3.3 Program design 17

3.4 Searching and sorting algorithms 19

3.5 Representing data 20

3.6 Computer systems 28

3.7 Computer organisation and architecture 30

3.8 Machine code and assembly language 35

3.10 Advanced data structures 40

3.11 Advanced algorithms 42

3.12 Functional programming 43

3.13 Theory of computation 48

3.14 Networking and cyber security 52

3.15 Databases 57

3.16 Artificial intelligence 60

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4. Scheme of assessment 62
4.1 Availability of assessment units and certification 62

4.2 Aims and learning outcomes 62

4.3 Assessment Objectives 63

4.4 Assessment weightings 63

5 General administration 64
5.1 Entries and codes 64

5.2 Overlaps with other qualifications 64

5.3 Awarding grades and reporting results 65

5.4 Resits 65

5.5 Previous learning and prerequisites 65

5.6 Access to assessment: equality and inclusion 66

5.7 Working with OxfordAQA for the first time 66

5.8 Private candidates 66

6 Appendix: Standard OxfordAQA assembly language instruction set 67

Are you using the latest version of this specification?

• You will always find the most up-to-date version of this specification on our website at
oxfordaqa.com/9645

• We will write to you if there are significant changes to the specification.

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1 Introduction
1.1 Why choose OxfordAQA International AS and A-levels?
Our international qualifications enable schools that follow a British curriculum to benefit from the best education
expertise in the United Kingdom (UK).

Our International AS and A-levels offer the same rigour and high quality as AS and A-levels in the UK and are
relevant and appealing to students worldwide. They reflect a deep understanding of the needs of teachers and
schools around the globe and are brought to you by Oxford University Press and AQA, the UK’s leading awarding
body.

Providing valid and reliable assessments, these qualifications are based on over 100 years of experience,
academic research and international best practice. They reflect the latest changes to the British system, enabling
students to progress to higher education with up-to-date qualifications

You can find out about OxfordAQA at oxfordaqa.com

1.2 Why choose our International AS and A-level Computer

Science?
We have worked closely with teachers to develop a relevant, engaging and up-to-date computer science
specification to inspire, motivate and challenge all students regardless of their academic ability.

Particular care has been taken to make the language used in question papers as accessible as possible and
suitable for those students for whom English is not their first language. UK English spellings will be used in
examination papers. British idiosyncratic terms however, will be avoided to aid students’ understanding.

Advances in computing are transforming the way we work and our Computer Science specification reflects these
changes. This flexible, accessible and rigorous qualification, is backed by top quality support, resources and
professional development. This up-to-date specification focuses on the knowledge, understanding and skills
students need to progress to higher education or thrive in the workplace.

You can find out about all our International AS and A-level Computer Science qualification at
oxfordaqa.com/9645

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1.3 Recognition
OxfordAQA meet the needs of international students. Please refer to the published timetables on the exams
administration page of our website (oxfordaqa.com/exams-administration) for up to date exam timetabling
information. They are an international alternative and comparable in standard to the Ofqual regulated qualifications
offered in the UK.

To see the latest list of universities who have stated they accept these international qualifications, visit
oxfordaqa.com/recognition

1.4 Support and resources to help you teach

We know that support and resources are vital for your teaching and that you have limited time to find or develop
good quality materials.

That’s why we’ve worked with experienced teachers to provide resources that will help you confidently plan, teach
and prepare for exams.

Teaching resources
You will have access to:

• sample schemes of work to help you plan your course with confidence

• training and support to help you deliver our qualifications

• student textbooks that have been checked and approved by us

• command words with exemplars

• computer science vocabulary with definitions.

Preparing for exams

You will have access to the support you need to prepare for our exams, including:

• specimen papers and mark schemes

• exemplar student answers with examiner commentaries.

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Analyse your students’ results with Enhanced Results Analysis (ERA)

After the first examination series, you can use this tool to see which questions were the most challenging, how the
results compare to previous years and where your students need to improve. ERA, our free online results analysis
tool, will help you see where to focus your teaching.

Information about results, including maintaining standards over time, grade boundaries and our post-results
services, will be available on our website in preparation for the first examination series.

Help and support

Visit our website for information, guidance, support and resources at oxfordaqa.com/9645

You can contact the subject team directly at [email protected] or

call us on +44 (0)161 696 5995 (option 1 and then 1 again).

Please note: We aim to respond to all email enquiries within two working days.

Our UK office hours are Monday to Friday, 8am – 5pm.

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2 Specification at a glance
2.1 Subject content
AS
1. Procedural programming

2. Fundamental data structures

3. Program design

4. Searching and sorting algorithms

5. Representing data

6. Computer systems

7. Computer organisation and architecture

8. Machine code and assembly language

A-level
9. Object-oriented and additional programming

10. Advanced data structures

11. Advanced algorithms

12. Functional programming

13. Theory of computation

14. Networking and cyber security

15. Databases

16. Artificial intelligence

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2.2 Assessments
AS
Unit 1: Programming + Unit 2: Concepts and principles of computer
science
What’s assessed What’s assessed

This paper tests a student’s ability to program, as This paper tests a student’s knowledge, skills
well as their knowledge, skills and understanding of and understanding of sections 3.5 to 3.8 of the
sections 3.1 to 3.4 of the specification: specification:

• Procedural programming • Representing data

• Fundamental data structures • Computer systems
• Program design • Computer organisation and architecture
• Searching and sorting algorithms • Machine code and assembly language

How it’s assessed How it’s assessed

• On-screen exam available in C#, Python or • Written exam

VB.Net
• 1 hour 30 minutes
• 2 hours
• 75 marks
• 75 marks
• 50% of AS
• 50% of AS
• 20% of A-level
• 20% of A-level
Questions Questions

Students answer a series of short questions and A series of short-answer and extended-answer
write and test programs, providing their responses in questions.
an Electronic Answer Document (EAD) provided by
OxfordAQA.

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A-level
Unit 3: Advanced Programming + Unit 4: Advanced concepts and principles of
computer science
What’s assessed What’s assessed

This paper tests a student’s ability to program using This paper tests a student’s knowledge, skills
both procedural and object-oriented programming, and understanding of sections 3.12 to 3.16 of the
as well as their knowledge, skills and understanding specification:
of sections 3.9 to 3.11 of the specification:
• Functional programming
• Object-oriented and additional programming
• Theory of computation
• Advanced data structures
• Networking and cyber security
• Advanced algorithms
• Databases
Programming is a synoptic activity, so questions will • Artificial intelligence
also require students to be familiar with the content
of sections 3.1 to 3.4 of the AS specification.

How it’s assessed How it’s assessed

• On-screen exam available in C#, Python or • Written exam

VB.Net
• 1 hour 30 minutes
• 2 hours 30 minutes
• 75 marks
• 90 marks
• 30% of A-level
• 30% of A-level

Questions Questions

Students answer a series of short questions and A series of short-answer and extended-answer
write and test programs, providing their responses in questions.
an Electronic Answer Document (EAD) provided by
OxfordAQA.

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3 Subject content
3.1 Procedural programming
3.1.1 Data types
Content Additional information
Understand the concept of a data type.
Understand and use the following data types Students using Python could use Python type hints to
appropriately: help them become more familiar with the concept of
data types, but this is not a requirement.
• integer
• real/float
• Boolean
• character
• string
• date/time.

3.1.2 Programming concepts

Content Additional information
Use, understand and know how the following Students will not need to use the terms function and
statement types can be combined in programs: procedure to distinguish between subroutines that do
and do not return values.
• variable declaration
• assignment
• selection
• iteration
• subroutine.
Use definite and indefinite iteration.
Use nested selection and nested iteration structures.
Use meaningful identifier names and know why it is
important to use them.
Be able to display output and obtain input from the
user.
Understand the importance of adding comments
to explain how code works and be able to read
comments in code and add comments to code.

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3.1.2.1 Arithmetic operations in a programming language

Content Additional information
Be familiar with and be able to use:

• addition
• subtraction
• multiplication
• real/float division
• integer division, including remainder (DIV and MOD)
• exponentiation (power)
• rounding
• truncation.

3.1.2.2 Relational operations in a programming language

Content Additional information
Be familiar with and be able to use:

• equal to
• not equal to
• less than
• greater than
• less than or equal to
• greater than or equal to.

3.1.2.3 Boolean operations in a programming language

Content Additional information
Be familiar with and be able to use: Students will not be required to know the order of
precedence of XOR, which varies between languages
• NOT and systems.
• AND
• OR
• XOR.

Know that the order of precedence between NOT, AND

and OR operators is:

• NOT – highest
• AND
• OR – lowest.

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3.1.2.4 String-handling operations in a programming language

Content Additional information
Be familiar with and be able to use:

• length
• position
• substring
• concatenation
• character → character code
• character code → character
• string conversion operations.

Required string conversion operations:

• string → integer
• string → float
• integer → string
• float → string
• date/time → string
• string → date/time.

3.1.2.5 Random number generation in a programming language

Content Additional information
Be familiar with, and be able to use, random number
generation.

3.1.2.6 Exception handling

Content Additional information
Be familiar with, and be able to use, exception
handling.

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3.1.2.7 Subroutines
Content Additional information
Be familiar with subroutines and their uses.
Know that a subroutine is a named ‘out of line’ block
of code that may be executed (called) by simply writing
its name in a program statement.
Be able to explain the advantages of using subroutines
in programs.
Be able to describe the use of parameters to pass data Students will not be required to distinguish between
within programs. passing parameters by value or reference, but may
use these techniques if they wish to and they are
supported by the programming language that the
student is using.
Be able to use subroutines that return values to the Students should know how to return more than one
calling routine. value from a subroutine. In C# and VB.Net this can be
achieved using tuples.
Know that variables that are accessible throughout an
entire program are known as global variables.
Know that subroutines may declare their own Students using C# or VB.Net should also be aware of
variables, called local variables, and that local block scope variables. Block scope variables only exist
variables: inside the block of code that they are declared within.
Typical blocks of code would include selection and
• exist only while the subroutine is executing iteration structures. Questions will not be asked about
• are accessible only within the subroutine. block scope, but students may wish to use this scope
when programming.
Know that it is good practice to limit the scope of a In Python, local variables should be used in preference
variable where possible. to global variables. In C# and VB.Net, block scope or
local variables should be used in preference to global
variables.
Be able to contrast local variables with global
variables.
Be able to explain how a stack frame is used with
subroutine calls to store:

• the return address

• parameters
• local variables.

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3.2 Fundamental data structures

Content Additional information
Be familiar with the concept of data structures.
Be able to distinguish between static and dynamic
data structures and compare their uses, as well as
explaining the advantages and disadvantages of each.

3.2.1 Arrays and lists

Content Additional information
Be able to use arrays and lists when solving problems, Python does not contain built-in support for arrays, but
including the use of two-dimensional arrays and lists of students can use arrays, for example, by importing the
lists. array (currently does not support string elements or
multi-dimensional arrays) or numpy modules.

In programming exams, it will be acceptable to use

either lists or arrays to solve a problem unless the
question states that a list must be used or an array
must be used.

Students will not be required to use arrays of more

than two dimensions in exam questions, but may do
so if they wish to.

3.2.2 Records
Content Additional information
Be familiar with the composition of a group of In Python, classes can be used in a non-object-
values (known as fields) into a record which can be oriented way to create records simply. For example:
manipulated as a single entity.
class Coordinate():
def __init__(self):
self.x = 0
self.y = 0
myposition = Coordinate()
myposition.x = 10
myposition.y = 5
Alternatively, data classes can be used in Python 3.7
onwards. For example:

from dataclasses import dataclass

@dataclass
class Coordinate:
x: int = 0
y: int = 0
In C# and Visual Basic, struct and Structure can
be used to create records.

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3.2.3 Queues
Content Additional information
Understand that a queue is a first-in first-out (FIFO)
data structure.
Be able apply the following operations to data stored
in a queue:

• add an item (enqueue)

• remove an item (dequeue).
Be able to describe situations in which a queue is an
appropriate data structure to use.
Understand how to implement a linear queue and a
circular queue using a one-dimensional array.

For implementations in a one-dimensional array,

understand how to test if the queue is empty or full.
Have experience of using a programming language
library that implements the queue data structure.

3.2.4 Stacks
Content Additional information
Understand that a stack is a last-in first-out (LIFO) data
structure.
Be able apply the following operations to data stored Peek or top returns the value of the top (most recently
in a stack: pushed) element without removing it.

• push
• pop
• peek (also known as top).
Be able to describe situations in which a stack is an
appropriate data structure to use.
Understand how to implement a stack using a one-
dimensional array.

For implementations in a one-dimensional array,

understand how to test if the stack is empty or full.
Have experience of using a programming language
library that implements the stack data structure.

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3.3 Program design

3.3.1 Structured approach to programming
Content Additional information
Understand the structured approach to program Students should be able to describe the structured
design and construction. approach including:

• modularised programming
• the use of parameters and return values
• the use of local or (if supported by language) block
scope variables.
Be able to explain the advantages of the structured
approach.
Be able to construct and use hierarchy charts and
structure charts when designing programs.

3.3.2 Abstraction and decomposition

Content Additional information
Be familiar with the concept of abstraction. Abstraction is removing unnecessary details from a
problem to facilitate its solution.
Be familiar with the concept of decomposition. Decomposition is breaking a problem into a number
of sub-problems, so that each sub-problem
accomplishes an identifiable task, which might itself be
further subdivided.

Decomposition can be achieved through the use of

subroutines.

3.3.3 Following and writing algorithms

Content Additional information
Understand the term algorithm. An algorithm is a sequence of steps that can
be followed to complete a task and that always
terminates.
Be familiar with the use of pseudocode to express Students will be expected to be able to understand
algorithms. algorithms written in pseudocode but will not be
expected to write pseudocode in the exam.
Be able to convert an algorithm from pseudocode into
high-level language program code.
Be able to hand-trace algorithms.

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3.3.4 Aspects of software development

Content Additional information
Analysis Be aware that before a problem can be solved, it must
be defined, the requirements of the system that solves
the problem must be established and a data model
created.

Requirements of the system must be established by

interaction with the intended users of the system.
The process of clarifying requirements may involve
prototyping/agile approach.
Design Be aware that before constructing a solution, the
solution should be designed and specified, for
example planning data structures for the data model,
designing algorithms, designing an appropriate
modular structure for the solution and designing the
human user interface.

Be aware that design can be an iterative process

involving a prototyping/agile approach.
Implementation Be aware that the models and algorithms need to be
implemented in the form of data structures and code
(instructions) that a computer can process.

Be aware that the final solution may be arrived at using

an iterative process employing prototyping/an agile
approach with a focus on solving the critical path first.

The critical path consists of the part of a solution that

everything else depends upon.
Testing Be aware that the implementation must be tested
for the presence of errors, using selected test data
covering normal (typical), boundary and erroneous
data.

Students should have practical experience of

designing and applying test data, normal, boundary
and erroneous to the testing of programs so that they
are familiar with these test data types and the purpose
of testing.
Evaluation Know the criteria for evaluating a computer system,
including:

• correctness
• efficiency
• maintainability.

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3.4 Searching and sorting algorithms

3.4.1 Searching algorithms
Content Additional information
Know the linear search algorithm and be able Students may be asked to write code to implement a linear
to trace it. search algorithm in the exam.

Students should know that an inefficient version of the linear

search algorithm will always look at every item in a list, whilst a
more advanced version will stop as soon as the item is found.
Know the binary search algorithm and be Students will need to understand how the binary search algorithm
able to trace it. operates and may be asked to write code to implement a binary
search algorithm in the exam.
Compare the linear search and binary search Students should be able to compare the algorithms in terms of:
algorithms.
• their time efficiency.
• the conditions under which they can be used (if the array/list
has to be ordered or not).

Formal comparisons using big-O notation will not be required at

AS, but may be required at A-level.

3.4.2 Sorting algorithms

Content Additional information
Know the bubble sort algorithm and be able This is included as an example of a particularly inefficient sorting
to trace it. algorithm.

Students will be expected to know that a number of versions of

the algorithm exists and that the most basic version that uses
definite iteration can be made more efficient by:

• reducing the number of items checked by one after each

pass through a list
• using indefinite iteration so that the sort process stops when
one pass has been made through the list without any swaps
being made.

Students may be asked to write code to implement a bubble

sort algorithm in the exam.
Know the merge sort algorithm and be able Students will not be asked to write code to implement the
to demonstrate how it operates. merge sort algorithm in the exam but may be asked to explain
or demonstrate how the algorithm works using a set of data.
Compare the efficiency of the bubble sort Students should be able to compare the algorithms in terms of
and merge sort algorithms. their efficiency of use of time and memory. Formal comparisons
using Big O notation will not be required at AS but may be
Understand that the time-efficiency of the required at A-level.
bubble sort algorithm depends upon the
extent to which the list is sorted at the start. Students should be able to explain that an efficient version of
the bubble sort algorithm will terminate more quickly if the list is
already partially sorted.

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3.5 Representing data

3.5.1 Number bases
Content Additional information
Be familiar with the concept of a number base, in
particular:

• decimal (base 10)

• binary (base 2)
• hexadecimal (base 16).
Convert between decimal, binary and hexadecimal Number base conversions will not be examined
number bases. independently, but students may be required to be
able to convert between these number bases whilst
answering questions on other topics, such as floating
point numbers and assembly language.

3.5.2 Units of information

Content Additional information
Know that:

• the bit is the fundamental unit of information

• a byte is a group of 8 bits.

Know that 2n different values can be represented with For example, 3 bits can be configured in 23 = 8
n bits. different ways: 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111
Know that quantities of bytes can be described using The terms kibibyte, mebibyte, etc have replaced the
binary prefixes representing powers of 2 or using historic meanings of the terms kilobyte, megabyte etc.
decimal prefixes representing powers of 10, eg one
kibibyte is written as 1KiB = 210 B and one kilobyte is
written as 1kB = 103 B.
Know the names, symbols and corresponding powers
of 2 for the binary prefixes:

• kibi, Ki - 210
• mebi, Mi - 220
• gibi, Gi - 230
• tebi, Ti - 240
Know the names, symbols and corresponding powers
of 10 for the decimal prefixes:

• kilo, k - 103
• mega, M - 106
• giga, G - 109
• tera, T - 1012

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3.5.3 The binary number system

3.5.3.1 Unsigned binary
Content Additional information
Know the difference between unsigned binary and
signed binary.
Know that in unsigned binary the minimum and
maximum values for a given number of bits, n, are 0
and 2n - 1 respectively.

3.5.3.2 Unsigned binary arithmetic

Content Additional information
Be able to:

• add two unsigned binary integers

• multiply two unsigned binary integers.

3.5.3.3 Signed binary using two’s complement

Content Additional information
Know that signed binary can be used to represent Two’s complement is the only representation of
negative integers and that one possible coding scheme negative integers that will be examined.
is two’s complement.
Students are expected to be able to convert between
signed binary and decimal and vice versa.
Know how to: The range of n bits is -2n-1 to +2n-1 - 1

• represent negative and positive integers in two’s

complement
• perform subtraction using two’s complement
• calculate the range of a given number of bits, n.

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3.5.3.4 Numbers with a fractional part

Content Additional information
Know how numbers with a fractional part can be Students are not required to know the Institute of
represented in: Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) standard,
only to know, understand and be able to use a
• fixed point form in binary in a given number of bits simplified floating representation consisting of a
and format mantissa and an exponent.
• floating point form in binary in a given number of
bits and format.
For both fixed point and floating point be able to Exam questions on floating point numbers will use a
convert: format in which both the mantissa and exponent are
represented using two’s complement.
• from decimal to binary using a given number of bits
and format
• from binary to decimal using a given number of bits
and format.
Understand that in floating point the number of bits
in the mantissa determines the precision with which
numbers can be represented and the number of bits
in the exponent determines the range of numbers that
can be represented.

3.5.3.5 Rounding errors

Content Additional information
Know and be able to explain why both fixed point and For a real number to be represented exactly by the binary
floating point representation of decimal numbers may number system, it must be capable of being represented
be inaccurate. by a binary fraction in the given number of bits and
format. Some values cannot ever be represented exactly,
for example the decimal number 0.1.

3.5.3.6 Absolute and relative errors

Content Additional information
Be able to calculate the absolute error of numerical
data stored and processed in computer systems.
Be able to calculate the relative error of numerical data
stored and processed in computer systems.
Be able to explain why relative error is a more useful
measure than absolute error.

3.5.3.7 Underflow and overflow

Content Additional information
Explain overflow and underflow and describe the Overflow occurs when the result of a calculation is
circumstances in which they occur. so large that it cannot be represented in the available
number of bits.

Underflow occurs when the result of a calculation is so

close to zero that, in a given number of bits, its closest
representation is zero.

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3.5.3.8 Compare fixed and floating point

Content Additional information
Compare the advantages and disadvantages of fixed
point and floating point representations in terms of:

• range
• precision
• speed of calculation.

3.5.3.9 Normalisation of floating point form

Content Additional information
Know why floating point numbers are normalised and
be able to normalise un-normalised floating point
numbers with positive or negative mantissas.

3.5.4 Representing characters

Content Additional information
Understand that characters are represented using a Codes are represented as numbers and stored as bit
character set, in which each character is assigned a patterns.
unique code.

Describe ASCII and Unicode coding systems for

coding character data.

Explain why Unicode was introduced.

Know that ASCII is a 7-bit encoding system. ASCII can represent 27 = 128 characters.
Know that Unicode has more than one encoding system.

Know that UTF-8:

• is the most widely used Unicode encoding

• is a variable-length encoding system where 8, 16,
24 or 32 bits are used to represent a character
• was designed for backwards compatibility with
ASCII and that in UTF-8 and ASCII the numbers 0
to 127 represent the same characters.
Know that in both Unicode and ASCII characters are Students will not be expected to remember the Unicode
grouped into blocks: or ASCII values of particular characters in the exam, but
may be asked to work out the code of another character
• numeric digits start at code 48 in a block if given the code of the first character in
• English uppercase letters start at code 65 the block. For example, if told the ASCII code of the
character A, a student could be expected to work out
• English lowercase letters start at code 97.
the ASCII code of the character G.
Understand the difference between the character code For example, the pure binary representation of the
representation of a decimal digit and its pure binary digit 6 is 110 but its representation as a character
representation. code in ASCII in binary is 0110110 and in UTF-8 it is
00110110.

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3.5.5 Representing graphics

3.5.5.1 Bitmapped graphics
Content Additional information
Describe how bitmaps represent images.
Understand the following for bitmaps: The size of an image is calculated as the width of an
image in pixels multiplied by the height of the image
• size in pixels in pixels using the notation: width in pixels x height in
• colour depth. pixels.

Colour depth is the number of bits used to represent

the colour of a pixel.
Calculate storage requirements for bitmapped images, Excluding metadata:
excluding metadata.
storage requirements = size in pixels x colour depth
Be aware that bitmap image files may also contain
metadata. where size in pixels is width in pixels x height in pixels.

Be familiar with typical metadata. Examples: width, height, colour depth.

3.5.5.2 Vector graphics

Content Additional information
Explain how vector graphics represents images using The properties of each geometric object/shape in the
lists of objects. vector graphic image are stored as a list.
Give examples of typical properties of objects. Typical properties include:

• x and y coordinates of top left corner of object

• colour of object outline
• line width of object outline
• colour of object fill.

3.5.5.3 Comparing bitmapped and vector graphics

Content Additional information
Compare the vector graphics approach with the
bitmapped graphics approach and understand the
advantages and disadvantages of each.
Be aware of appropriate uses of the vector graphics
and bitmapped graphics approaches.

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3.5.6 Representing sound

3.5.6.1 Analogue and digital
Content Additional information
Understand the difference between analogue and
digital quantities.
Describe the principles of operation of:

• an analogue to digital converter (ADC)

• a digital to analogue converter (DAC).
Be able to describe the use of an ADC in the recording
of analogue audio and the use of a DAC in the
playback of digital audio.

3.5.6.2 Digital representation of sound and Nyquist’s theorem

Content Additional information
Describe the digital representation of sound in terms Sample resolution is the number of bits used to
of: represent one sample.

• sample resolution Sampling rate is the number of samples taken in a

second and is usually measured in hertz.
• sampling rate.
1 hertz = 1 event/cycle per second. In the context of
sampling, 1 hertz = 1 sample taken per second.
Calculate sound sample sizes in bytes. File size (bits) = rate (Hz) x res x secs

rate = sampling rate (Hz)

res = sample resolution

secs = number of seconds.

Be able to describe Nyquist’s theorem and use it to
calculate the minimum sampling rate that should
be used to sample a sound in order to be able to
represent it accurately.

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3.5.7 Basic encryption methods

Content Additional information
Understand what is meant by encryption and be able Encryption is the use of an algorithm to convert
to define it. plaintext into ciphertext so that it cannot easily be
understood by a third party who does not know
both the method used to encrypt the data and the
encryption key.

Exam questions will be primarily focussed on the

Caesar and Vernam ciphers. If any other type of cipher
is used in an exam question, it will be explained in the
question and will be of similar conceptual difficulty.
Be familiar with the terms cipher, plaintext and A key is a value, such as a sequence of letters or bits,
ciphertext. that is applied to plaintext by a cipher to convert the
plaintext into ciphertext.
Know what a key is.
Be familiar with the Caesar cipher and be able to The Caesar cipher is easily cracked as:
apply it to encrypt a plaintext message and decrypt a
ciphertext message. • there are only 25 possible keys

Be able to explain why the Caesar cipher is easily

• the frequency of letters in the ciphertext
corresponds to the frequency of letters in the
cracked.
plaintext, making it susceptible to frequency
analysis
• once the shift applied to one letter is identified, the
shift applied to all letters is known.
Be familiar with the Vernam cipher (sometimes known
as a one-time pad cipher) and be able to apply it to
encrypt a plaintext message and decrypt a ciphertext
message.
Know what perfect security is. A cipher is perfectly secure if nothing can be learned
about the plaintext from examining the ciphertext.
Know that the Vernam cipher can be perfectly secure.
For the Vernam cipher to be perfectly secure:
Describe the conditions that must be met for the
Vernam cipher to be perfectly secure. • the key must be chosen completely randomly
• the key must be at least as long as the plaintext
• the key must be used only once
• the key must be known only to the sender and
receiver.
Compare the Caesar and Vernam ciphers. Caesar and Vernam ciphers provide completely
different levels of security: the Caesar cipher provides
very little security, the Vernam cipher offers perfect
security subject to conditions being met.

Between these two types are ciphers that are

computationally secure.

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Content Additional information

Know that most ciphers used by computers rely on A computationally secure cipher is a cipher for which
computational security. information about the plaintext can be learned from
the ciphertext, but algorithms to crack the cipher take
Understand the concept of a computationally secure an unfeasible time to complete or have a very low
cipher. probability of success.
Compare Vernam cipher with ciphers that depend on
computational security.
Understand the key exchange problem. The key exchange problem is the problem of sharing
the key between the sender and receiver without it
being at risk of being intercepted.
Know the difference between a symmetric and an A symmetric cipher uses the same key to encrypt and
asymmetric cipher. decrypt the data.

Both the Caesar and Vernam ciphers are symmetric

ciphers.

An asymmetric cipher uses different mathematically

related keys to encrypt and decrypt the data: since the
encryption and decryption keys are different the key
exchange problem does not apply.

3.5.8 Error detection and correction

Content Additional information
Describe and explain the use of:

• parity bits
• majority voting
• checksums.

Compare the use and effectiveness of these three

methods.

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3.6 Computer systems

3.6.1 Hardware and software
Content Additional information
Understand the relationship between hardware and Hardware is the electronic components of a computer
software and be able to define the terms: system.

• hardware Software is the sequences of instructions that are

executed using the hardware.
• software.

3.6.2 Software
Content Additional information
Explain what is meant by:

• system software
• application software.
Understand the need for, and functions of the following For utilities, students will be expected to understand
system software: that utility programs add additional functionality to
assist with the management of a computer system and
• operating systems (OSs) to be able to give examples, such as a virus checker or
• utility programs compression program.

• libraries
• translators (compiler, assembler, interpreter).
Understand that a role of the operating system is to
hide the complexities of the hardware from the user
and other software.
Be able to describe the following functions of an Students only need to understand how main memory
operating system: is allocated. Virtual memory does not need to be
covered.
• scheduling
• memory allocation
• I/O device management
• interrupt handling.

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3.6.3 Programming languages and translation software

3.6.3.1 Classification of programming languages
Content Additional information
Show awareness of the development of types of Students do not need to be familiar with the terms first
programming languages and their classification into generation, second generation and third generation.
low-level and high-level languages.
Know that low-level languages are considered to be:

• machine code
• assembly language.
Describe machine code and assembly language.
Understand the advantages and disadvantages of
machine code and assembly language programming
compared with high-level language programming.
Explain the term ‘imperative high-level language’. An imperative high-level language is a high-level
language in which the commands describe the process
that should be followed to carry out a task.

3.6.3.2 Types of program translator

Content Additional information
Understand the role of each of the following:

• assembler
• compiler
• interpreter.
Explain the differences between compilation and
interpretation. Describe situations in which each would
be appropriate.
Explain why an intermediate language such as Intermediate languages are used because:
bytecode is produced as the final output by some
compilers and how it is subsequently used. • intermediate language code is more portable than
machine code
• security checks can be performed on intermediate
language code before it is executed
• intermediate language code can use less memory
than equivalent machine code.

The intermediate language code is used by either:

• a virtual machine, which will interpret the

intermediate language code to execute it, or
• a just-in-time (JIT) compiler that converts the
intermediate language code into machine code
suitable for the computer it is being executed on.
Understand the difference between source code and
object (executable) code.

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3.7 Computer organisation and architecture

3.7.1 Internal hardware components of a computer
Content Additional information
Have an understanding and knowledge of the basic
internal components of a computer system.
Understand the role of the following components and
how they relate to each other:

• processor
• main memory
• address bus
• data bus
• control bus
• I/O controllers.
Understand the need for, and means of,
communication between components. In particular,
understand the concept of a bus and how address,
data and control buses are used.
Understand the concept of addressable memory. Exam questions on this topic will state the size of each
addressable memory location.
Be able to describe the stored program concept. The stored program concept is that machine code
instructions stored in main memory are fetched
and executed serially by a processor that performs
arithmetic and logical operations.
Be able to explain the difference between von
Neumann and Harvard architectures and understand
the advantages of each.

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3.7.2 The processor and its components

Content Additional information
Explain the role and operation of a processor and its
major components:

• arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

• control unit
• clock
• general-purpose registers
• dedicated registers, including:

• program counter (PC)

• current instruction register (CIR)
• memory address register (MAR)
• memory buffer register (MBR)
• status register (SR).

3.7.3 The Fetch-Execute cycle and interrupts

Content Additional information
Explain how the Fetch-Execute cycle is used to
execute machine code programs including the stages
in the cycle (fetch, decode, execute) and details of
registers and buses used.
Describe the role of interrupts and interrupt service The volatile environment consists of the program
routines (ISRs); their effect on the Fetch-Execute cycle; counter, status register, stack pointer and any other
and the need to save the volatile environment while the registers that might be altered by the ISR.
interrupt is being serviced.
Students will not be required to explain how interrupts
with different priorities are dealt with.

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3.7.4 Factors affecting processor performance

Content Additional information
Explain the effect on processor performance of:

• multiple cores
• cache memory
• clock speed
• word length
• address bus width
• data bus width.

3.7.5 Secondary storage

Content Additional information
Explain the need for secondary storage within a Students should be able to distinguish between
computer system. secondary storage and main memory.
Know the main characteristics, purposes, suitability
and understand the principles of operation of the
following devices:

• magnetic hard disk

• solid-state drive (SSD).
Make comparisons between the use of magnetic hard
disk and solid-state storage and make a judgement
about their suitability for different applications.
Explain the term cloud storage. Cloud storage is storage of data on servers at a remote
location that is accessed via the Internet.
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of cloud
storage when compared to local storage.

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3.7.6 Logic gates

Content Additional information
Construct truth tables for the following logic gates: Students should know and be able to use the following
symbols:
• NOT
• AND NOT
• OR
• XOR AND
• NAND
• NOR
OR

XOR

NAND

NOR

Be familiar with drawing and interpreting logic circuit

diagrams involving one or more of the above gates.
Complete a truth table for a given logic circuit.
Write a Boolean expression for a given logic gate The following notation will be used:
circuit.
• NOT: ̅
• AND: ⋅
• OR: +
• XOR: ⨁
Draw an equivalent logic gate circuit for a given
Boolean expression.
Recognise and trace the logic of the circuits of a half-
adder and a full-adder.
Construct the circuit for a half-adder. Students will not be required to construct the circuit
for a full-adder.
Be familiar with the use of the edge-triggered D-type Students should know that the D-type flip-flop has a
flip-flop as a memory unit. clock and data input and that when the clock signal
goes high the current state of the input is stored and
will be output until the clock signal goes high again.

Knowledge of the internal operation of the D-type flip-

flop is not required.

Students will not be required to draw circuits that use

D-type flip-flops but may be asked to state the output
of a simple circuit that includes D-type flip-flops.

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3.7.7 Boolean algebra

Content Additional information
Be familiar with the use of Boolean identities and De The order of precedence of operators from highest to
Morgan’s laws to manipulate and simplify Boolean lowest is:
expressions.
• NOT: ̅
• AND: ⋅
• OR: +

Brackets can be used to change the order of

evaluation.

Students should know how the laws of distributivity,

associativity and commutativity apply:

• Commutativity:

A+B=B+A

A⋅B=B⋅A

• Associativity:

A+(B+C)=(A+B)+C

A⋅(B⋅C)=(A⋅B)⋅C

• Distributivity (AND distributes over OR):

A⋅(B+C)=A⋅B+A⋅C

Students should be able to apply the following Boolean

identities:

=A

A⋅A=A

A+A=A

A⋅ = 0

A+ = 1

A⋅0=0

A+0=A

A⋅1=A

A+1=1

A⋅(A+B)=A

A+A⋅B=A

A+ ⋅B=A+B

A⨁B= A⋅ + ⋅B

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Students should be able to apply De Morgan’s laws:

A+B=

A⋅B=

3.8 Machine code and assembly language

3.8.1 Instruction format
Content Additional information
Understand the term ‘processor instruction set’ and
know that an instruction set is processor specific.
Know that instructions consist of an opcode, an Knowledge of the format of a particular instruction set
addressing mode and one or more operands (value, is not required.
memory address or register).
For example, in a 32-bit ARM data processing
Know that the format of an instruction, in machine instruction:
code or assembly language, may be dependent on the
type of instruction. • The instruction is stored in 12 bits:

• 4 bits are used to represent the opcode

• 1 bit is used to represent the addressing mode
for <operand2>
• the remaining bits are used to represent other
information such as the condition under which
the instruction should be executed.

• Up to three operands are stored in 20 bits:

• 2 x 4 bits are allocated to storing two register

numbers
• 12 bits are allocated to storing <operand2>,
which can be a register number or a value to
process, depending on the addressing mode.
Understand and apply immediate, direct and indirect Immediate addressing: the operand is the value to
addressing modes. operate on.

Direct addressing: the operand is the address from

which the value to operate on should be fetched.
Address can be interpreted as meaning either main
memory address or register number.

Indirect addressing: the operand is a register that

contains the address in main memory from which the
value to operate on should be fetched.
Know that in machine code instructions are expressed
in binary and that in assembly language they are
expressed as mnemonics.

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3.8.2 Assembly language programming

Content Additional information
Understand and apply the basic operations of: Exam questions will use the OxfordAQA assembly
language instruction set, which is based on the ARM
• load processor instruction set. A copy of the instruction
• add set will be included in any exam paper that includes
an assembly language question and can be found
• subtract
in 6 Appendix: Standard OxfordAQA assembly
• store language instruction set.
• branching (conditional and unconditional)
• compare
• logical bitwise operators (AND, OR, NOT, XOR)
• logical

• shift right
• shift left

• halt.
Use the basic operations above to write, trace and An exam question could require a student to write a
reason about assembly language programs using program to meet a written requirement or to implement
immediate, direct and indirect addressing modes. an algorithm expressed in pseudocode.

A student should be able to convert pseudocode into

assembly language and convert assembly language
into pseudocode.

3.9 Object-oriented and additional programming

3.9.1 Classes, objects and instantiation
Content Additional information
Know why the object-oriented paradigm is used.
Be familiar with the concepts of:

• class
• property/attribute
• method
• object
• instantiation
• encapsulation
• inheritance
• overriding
• association

and be able to apply and identify these.

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Content Additional information

Know what a class is and be able to create classes. A class defines methods and property/attribute
fields that capture the common behaviours and
characteristics of objects.
Know what an object is and how to create objects Objects based on a class are created using an explicit
using instantiation. or implicit constructor.

Know that a constructor is called when an object

is instantiated from a class and be able to create
constructor functions.

Know that a constructor initialises an object to a given

state.

3.9.2 Encapsulation
Content Additional information
Know what encapsulation is and how it is used in Know that encapsulation is when the ways in which a
object-oriented programming. class operates and how the class represents data are
hidden from other classes.
Be able to design classes to use encapsulation
appropriately.
Be able to use access modifiers to determine which Be able to use the public, private and protected access
classes can access properties and methods in a class. modifiers.

Students using Python should be familiar with the

naming conventions used to represent public, private
and protected.

Note that access modifiers are also known as access

specifiers.
Use getter and setter methods to provide controlled
access to data stored in a class.

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3.9.3 Relationships between classes

Content Additional information
Know that inheritance is a relationship between classes For example, a Car class could be a more specialised
in which one class is a more specialised version of an version of a Vehicle class.
existing class.

Be able to create classes using inheritance.

Know that when inheritance is used there is a base Base class is also known as parent class.
class and a subclass.
Subclass is also known as derived class.
Be able to use the protected access modifier to
determine which methods and properties of a base Properties and methods that are common to the base
class can be accessed in subclasses without being class and the subclass are defined in the base class
accessible to objects in other classes. but accessible to both the parent and base class.

The protected access specifier is used in the base

class to give a subclass access to specific methods
and properties.
Know what overriding is. Know that overriding is when a method from the base
class is redefined in a subclass so that an instance
Be able to use overriding. of the subclass can behave in a different way to an
instance of the base class.

Students using C# and VB.Net will need to declare

a method as virtual so that it can be overridden in a
subclass.
Know that association is a relationship between two Association is a much weaker relationship than
objects in which one object can make use of another. inheritance.

Be able to use association. For example, in a football simulation, a Team object

might be associated with Player objects.

Students will not be required to distinguish between

aggregation and composition.
Be familiar with the use of class diagrams to show The following line types will be used to represent
inheritance and association relationships. relationships.

Inheritance:

Association:

The public access specifier will be indicated by the +

symbol, the private access specifier by the - symbol
and the protected access specifier by the # symbol.

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3.9.4 Additional programming

3.9.4.1 Files
Content Additional information
Be able to read/write from/to a text file.

3.9.4.2 Recursion
Content Additional information
Know that a recursive subroutine is a subroutine that
calls itself.
Know that recursive subroutines have a base and a The base case is the case in which the subroutine
recursive case. does not call itself.

The recursive case is the case in which the subroutine

calls itself.

Recursive subroutines must have a base case to

prevent the function recursing indefinitely.

Note that there may be more than one base case and/
or more than one recursive case in a subroutine.
Be able to solve simple problems using recursion. Students should be able to read and write code
that uses recursion and be able to trace recursive
algorithms.

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3.10 Advanced data structures

3.10.1 Graphs
Content Additional information
Be aware of a graph as a data structure used to
represent complex relationships.
Be familiar with typical uses for graphs.
Be able to explain the terms:

• graph
• weighted graph
• vertex/node
• edge/arc
• undirected graph
• directed graph.
Know how an adjacency matrix and an adjacency list Students should be familiar with the use of an
may be used to represent a graph. adjacency matrix to represent both weighted and
unweighted graphs.
Be able to compare the use of adjacency matrices and Adjacency matrices are more appropriate when:
adjacency lists.
• edges must be added or removed frequently
• the presence/absence of edges is tested frequently
• a graph is dense, ie there are many edges relative
to the number of vertices.

Adjacency lists are more appropriate when a graph is

sparse, ie there are few edges relative to the number of
vertices.

3.10.2 Trees
Content Additional information
Know that a tree is a connected, undirected graph with Note that a tree does not have to have a root.
no cycles.
Know that a rooted tree is a tree in which one vertex A class hierarchy in object-oriented programming is an
has been designated as the root. A rooted tree has example of a rooted tree, with Object as the root and
parent-child relationships between nodes. The root is all other classes descending for it.
the only node with no parent and all other nodes are
descendants of the root.
Know that a binary tree is a rooted tree in which each
node has at most two children.
Understand how a binary tree can be used as a binary
search tree.

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3.10.3 Hash tables

Content Additional information
Be familiar with the concept of a hash table and its A hash table is a data structure that creates a mapping
uses. between keys and values.
Know what a hash function is. A hash function uses a record’s key to calculate a
value which represents the position that the record is
Be able to apply simple hash functions. stored at in a hash table.
Understand the properties of a good hash function. Hash functions often use the MOD operator to limit the
maximum size of the hash table by always returning a
value in the range 0 .. hash table size - 1.

Good hash functions generate an even distribution of

records throughout the table and are quick to compute.
Know what is meant by a collision and how collisions A collision occurs when two key values compute the
are handled using rehashing. same hash.

When a collision occurs, the second record, that should

have been stored at the position occupied by the first
record, is instead stored in the next available position.
Understand the advantages and disadvantages of
using a hash table as an alternative to an array.

3.10.4 Priority Queues

Content Additional information
Know what a priority queue is.
Be able apply the following operations to data stored
in a priority queue:

• add an item (enqueue)

• remove an item (dequeue).
Be able to describe situations in which a priority queue Priority queues can be used to implement some
is an appropriate data structure to use. graphing algorithms, such as a breadth-first search or
Dijkstra’s algorithm.
Understand how to implement a priority queue using a
one-dimensional array.

For implementations in a one-dimensional array,

understand how to test if the priority queue is empty or full.

3.10.5 Dictionaries
Content Additional information
Be familiar with the concept of a dictionary. A collection of key-value pairs in which the value is
accessed via the associated key.
Be familiar with simple applications of dictionaries.
Have experience of using a programming language
library that implements the dictionary data structure.

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3.11 Advanced algorithms

3.11.1 Graph algorithms
Content Additional information
Be able to trace breadth-first and depth-first search Example applications are:
algorithms and describe typical applications of both.
• breadth-first: shortest path for an unweighted graph
• depth-first: navigating a maze.
Be able to implement breadth-first and depth-first
search algorithms in program code.
Understand and be able to trace Dijkstra’s shortest Students will not be expected to recall the steps in
path algorithm. Dijkstra’s shortest path algorithm or to write program
code to implement it, unless the algorithm is given to
Be aware of applications of shortest path algorithm. them on a question paper.

3.11.2 Tree algorithms

Content Additional information
Be able to trace the tree-traversal algorithms:

• pre-order
• post-order
• in-order.
Understand how to implement pre-order, post-order
and in-order tree-traversal algorithms.

Be able to describe uses of tree-traversal algorithms. Pre-order: copying a tree, producing a prefix
expression from an expression tree.

In-order: binary search tree, outputting the contents of

a binary search tree in ascending order.

Post-order: producing a postfix expression from an

expression tree, emptying a tree.

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3.12 Functional programming

3.12.1 The functional programming paradigm
Content Additional information
Know that a function, f, has a function type A → B Informally, a function is a rule that, for each element
where A is the argument type and B is the result type. in some set A of inputs, assigns an output from set
The name of a function and its type are expressed as B, but without necessarily using every member of B.
f: A → B For example, f: {a,b,c,…,z} → {0,1,2,…,25} could use
the rule that maps a to 0, b to 1, and so on, using all
values which are members of set B.
Know that A is called the domain and B is called the The domain is a set from which the function’s input
co-domain. values are chosen.

The co-domain is a set from which the function’s

output values are chosen. Not all of the co-domain’s
members need to be outputs. For example, the
function

sqr: ℝ → ℝ will never output a negative value.

Be familiar with the natural, integer, rational and real ℕ = {0, 1, 2, 3, … }
number systems, which can be used as the domains
and co-domains of functions. ℤ = { …, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, … }

Be familiar with the concept of a natural number and ℚ is the set of numbers that can be written as fractions
the set ℕ of natural numbers (including zero). (ratios of integers). Since a number such as 7 can be
written as 7/1, all integers are rational numbers.
Be familiar with the concept of an integer and the set ℤ
of integers. ℝ is the set of all ‘possible real world quantities’.

Be familiar with the concept of a rational number

and the set ℚ of rational numbers, and that this set
includes the integers.

Be familiar with the concept of a real number and the

set ℝ of real numbers.
Know that a function is a first-class object in For example, integers, floating point values,
functional programming languages and in imperative characters and strings are first class objects in many
programming languages that support such objects. programming languages.

Know that first-class objects (or values) are objects

which may:

• appear in expressions
• be assigned to a variable
• be assigned as arguments
• be returned in function calls.

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Content Additional information

Know that function application means a function The process of giving particular inputs to a function is
applied to its arguments. called function application, for example add(3, 4)
represents the application of the function add to
integer arguments 3 and 4.

The type of this function is

add: integer x integer → integer

where integer x integer is the Cartesian
product of the set integer with itself.
Know what is meant by composition of functions. The operation functional composition combines two
functions to get a new function.

Given two functions:

f: A → B
g: B → C
The function g ○ f, called the composition of g and
f, is a function whose domain is A and co-domain is C
and so has the type A → C.

If the domain and co-domains of f and g are ℝ, and

f(x) = (x + 2) and g(y) = y3. Then:
g ○ f = (x + 2)3
f is applied first and then g is applied to the result
returned by f.
Understand what a higher-order function is. A function is higher-order if it takes a function as an
argument or returns a function as a result, or does
both.

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3.12.2 Writing functional programs

Content Additional information
Show experience of constructing simple programs in a Exam questions on functional programming will use
functional programming language. the Haskell language.

Functional programming techniques can also be used

in C#, Python and VB.Net.
Know how to define and use a function with For example:
argument(s).
add a b = a + b
Know how to apply the arithmetic operations of ^ is used for exponentiation (power).
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and
power.

Know how to perform Boolean comparisons and Students should be able to use ==, /=
combine them. (not equal to), >, <, && (and), || (or), not.

Have experience of defining functions using recursion, For example:

with both base and recursive case(s).
fact 0 = 1
Be familiar with the use of pattern matching to
recognise values and determine which case of a fact n = n * fact n - 1
recursive function to apply.
Have experience of using the map higher-order map is the name of a higher-order function that applies
function. a given function to each element of a list, returning a
list of results.

For example:

square x = x * x
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4]
map square numbers
produces the list:

[1,4,9,16]
Have experience of using the filter higher-order filter is the name of a higher-order function that
function. processes a data structure, typically a list, in some
order to produce a new data structure containing
exactly those elements of the original data structure
that match a given condition.

For example:

filter (<10) [15, 8, 20, 3]

produces the list:

[8,3]

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Content Additional information

Have experience of using a fold (also known as reduce) foldl and foldr are the names of higher-order
higher-order function. functions which reduce a list of values to a single value
by repeatedly applying a combining function, together
Know that there are two fold functions in Haskell: with an initial value, to a list of values.
foldl starts with the leftmost item of a list and works
forward, while foldr starts with the rightmost item For example:
and works backward.
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4]
foldl (+) 0 numbers
evaluates to 10 since ((((0 + 1) + 2) + 3) + 4) = 10.

This is because it combines the list by repeatedly

applying the addition function to it starting with 0 at the
left.

foldr (+) 0 numbers

also evaluates to 10 since ((((4 + 0) + 3) + 2) + 1) = 10.

However:

foldl (-) 0 [1, 2, 3, 4]

evaluates to -10 since ((((0 – 1) – 2) – 3) – 4) = -10

whilst:

foldr (-) 0 [1, 2, 3, 4]

evaluates to -2 since ((((4 – 0) – 3) – 2) – 1) = -2

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3.12.3 Lists in functional programming

Content Additional information
Know that a list can store a sequence of values and For example,[7, 2, 1] is a list containing the three
that lists are represented using brackets. numbers 7,2 and 1.

Know that a list can be empty. [] is the empty list.

Know how to define a list. An example of defining a list:

listOne = [10, 7, 8]
listTwo = ["Adam", "Ananya"]
Be familiar with representing a list as a concatenation For example, in Haskell the list [4, 3, 5] can be
of a head and a tail. written in the form head:tail where head is the
first item in the list and tail is the remainder of the
Know that the head is an element of a list and the tail list. In the example, we have 4:[3, 5]. We call 4 the
is a list. head of the list and [3, 5] the tail.

Note that the tail of a list is always a list, even if it only

contains a single element, so should be written in
brackets.
Describe and apply the following list operations: For example:

• return head of list listOne = [1, 2, 3]

• return tail of list listTwo = [4, 5]
• test for empty list
listThree = []
• return length of list
head listOne evaluates to 1
• construct an empty list
tail listOne evaluates to [2, 3]
• append an item to a list.
null listOne evaluates to False
Have experience writing programs for the list
operations mentioned above in Haskell. null listThree evaluates to True
length listOne evaluates to 3
listOne ++ listTwo evaluates to
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Understand how the head and the tail of a list For example, if the function sum below was passed
argument to a function can be referred to inside the the argument [8, 3, 2] then x would reference the
function. value 8 and xs would reference the list [3, 2].

sum (x:xs) = x + sum (xs)

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3.13 Theory of computation

3.13.1 Finite state machines (FSMs)
Content Additional information
Be able to draw and interpret simple state transition For FSMs with output, only Mealy machines are
diagrams and state transition tables for FSMs with required, not Moore machines.
output and without output.

3.13.2 Regular expressions and regular languages

Content Additional information
Be able to form and use simple regular expressions for Students should be familiar with the metacharacters:
string matching.
• * (0 or more repetitions)
• + (1 or more repetitions)
• ? (0 or 1 repetitions, ie optional)
• | (alternation, ie or)
• ( ) to group regular expressions.

Students should also be able to use character

classes, for example [CH] matches the character C
or the character H and [A – Z] matches any character
between A and Z, including A and Z.

Any other metacharacters used in an exam question

will be explained as part of the question.
Be able to describe the relationship between regular Regular expressions and FSMs are equivalent ways of
expressions and FSMs. defining a regular language.
Be able to:

• write a regular expression to recognise the same

language as a given FSM
• design an FSM to recognise the same language as
a given regular expression.
Know that a language is called regular if it can be
represented by a regular expression.

Know that any regular language can be recognised by

an FSM.

Know that a regular expression can be written to

describe the language recognised by any FSM.

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3.13.3 Turing machines

Content Additional information
Know that a Turing machine can be viewed as a Exam questions will only be asked about Turing
computer with a single fixed program, expressed machines that have one tape that is infinite in one
using: direction.

• a finite set of states in a state transition diagram No distinction will be made between the input alphabet
and the tape alphabet.
• a finite alphabet of symbols
• an infinite tape with marked-off squares
• a sensing read-write head that can travel along the
tape, one square at a time.

One of the states is called a start state and states that

have no outgoing transitions are called halting states.
Be able to:

• represent transition rules using a transition function

• represent transition rules using a state transition
diagram
• hand-trace simple Turing machines.
Understand the equivalence between a transition
function and a state transition diagram.
Be able to explain the importance of Turing machines Turing machines provide a (general/formal) model
and the Universal Turing machine (UTM) to the subject of computation and provide a definition of what is
of computation. computable.

The UTM is a Turing machine that can simulate the

behaviour of any other Turing machine. A description
of the Turing machine to simulate and the machine’s
input are stored on the UTM’s tape.

3.13.4 Backus-Naur Form (BNF) and syntax diagrams

Content Additional information
Be able to check language syntax by referring to BNF
or syntax diagrams and formulate simple production
rules.
Know that BNF can represent some languages that For example, BNF can represent the following
regular expressions cannot represent. languages that cannot be represented by regular
expressions:

• palindromes
• a language where strings must contain equal
numbers of certain characters.

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3.13.5 Classification of algorithms

3.13.5.1 Comparing algorithms
Content Additional information
Understand that algorithms can be compared by The size of the problem usually refers to the amount
expressing their complexity as a function relative to of data to be processed, for example the number of
the size of the problem. Understand that the size of the elements in a list that an algorithm is being applied to.
problem is the key issue.
Understand that some algorithms are more efficient Efficiently implementing algorithms means designing
than others: data models and algorithms to run quickly while taking
up the minimal amount of resources such as memory.
• time-wise
• space-wise.

3.13.5.2 Order of complexity

Content Additional information
Be familiar with Big O notation to express time
complexity and be able to apply it to cases where the
running time requirements of the algorithm grow in:

• constant time – O(1)

• logarithmic time – O(log n)
• linear time – O(n)
• polynomial time – O(na)
• exponential time – O(an).
Be able to derive the time complexity of a simple
algorithm.

Know that algorithms may have a best and a worst- For example, bubble sort has a worst-case time
case time complexity and that these may be different. complexity of O(n2) and a best-case time complexity of
O(n).
Know the best and worst-case time complexity of the
following algorithms:

• linear search
• binary search
• bubble sort
• merge sort
• Dijkstra’s shortest path algorithm
• searching a binary search tree.

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3.13.5.3 Classification of algorithmic problems

Content Additional information
Know that algorithms may be classified as being either:

• tractable – problems that have a polynomial (or less)

time solution are called tractable problems
• intractable – problems that have no polynomial (or
less) time solution are called intractable problems.
Know that heuristic methods are often used when Students will be expected to explain what a heuristic
tackling intractable problems. method is but do not need to be familiar with any
specific heuristic techniques.
Understand that a heuristic is a set of rules or
knowledge about the problem domain and that a
heuristic method might:

• find an approximate but non-optimal solution to a

problem
• change some of the problem constraints.

3.13.5.4 Computable and non-computable problems

Content Additional information
Be aware that some problems cannot be solved
algorithmically.
Describe the Halting problem. The Halting problem is the unsolvable problem of
determining whether a program will eventually stop if
given particular input, without executing the program.

Students will not be required to prove that the Halting

problem is unsolvable.
Understand the significance of the Halting problem for The Halting problem demonstrates that there are some
computation. problems that cannot be solved by a computer.

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3.14 Networking and cyber security

3.14.1 Communications
3.14.1.1 Communication methods
Content Additional information
Define serial and parallel transmission methods
and discuss the advantages of serial over parallel
transmission.
Define and compare synchronous and asynchronous
data transmission.
Describe the purpose of start and stop bits in A start bit brings the clock of the receiver into phase
asynchronous data transmission. with the clock of the sender.

A stop bit allows the next start bit to be recognised

and in older devices gave the receiver time to deal with
the received data.

3.14.1.2 Communication basics

Content Additional information
Define:

• baud rate
• bit rate
• bandwidth
• latency
• protocol.
Understand the difference between baud rate and bit Bit rate can be higher than baud rate if more than one
rate. bit is encoded in each signal change.
Understand the relationship between bit rate and Bit rate is directly proportionate to bandwidth.
bandwidth.

3.14.2 Networking
3.14.2.1 Types of networking between hosts
Content Additional information
Explain the following and describe situations where In a peer-to-peer network, each computer has equal
they might be used: status. In a client-server network, most computers
are nominated as clients and one or more as servers.
• peer-to-peer networking The clients request services from the servers, which
• client-server networking. provide these services, for example file server, email
server.

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3.14.2.2 Thin-client versus thick-client computing

Content Additional information
Compare and contrast thin-client computing with
thick-client computing.

Understand the different hardware and networking

requirements of thin-client and thick-client systems.

3.14.2.3 Wired networking

Content Additional information
Compare copper and fibre-optic cables. Comparisons should be made in terms of cost, speed
and capacity.

Students should be able to select the most appropriate

type of cable for a given situation.
Be able to describe how the protocol Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
works.

3.14.2.4 Wireless networking

Content Additional information
Explain the purpose of Wi-Fi. A wireless local area network that is based on
international standards.

Used to enable devices to connect to a network

wirelessly.
Be familiar with the purpose of a Service Set Identifier
(SSID).
Be familiar with the components required for wireless Wireless network adapter. Wireless access point.
networking.
Note that in many home networks a single device
combines the functions of a switch, router and wireless
access point.
Be familiar with how wireless networks are secured. Strong encryption of transmitted data using WPA2,
SSID (Service Set Identifier) broadcast disabled, MAC
(Media Access Control) address allow list.
Be able to describe how the wireless protocol Carrier
Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
(CSMA/CA) with and without Request to Send/Clear to
Send (RTS/CTS) works.

3.14.2.5 Compare wired and wireless networking

Content Additional information
Compare the advantages and disadvantages of
wireless networking compared to wired networking.

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3.14.3 The Internet

Content Additional information
Understand the structure of the Internet.
Understand the role of packet switching and routers.
Know the main components of a packet. Including:

• source address
• destination address
• packet sequence number
• time to live
• payload
• error detection/correction information.
Explain how routing is achieved across the Internet.
Describe the term 'uniform resource locator' (URL) in
the context of internetworking.
Explain the terms ‘fully qualified domain name’ (FQDN),
‘domain name’ and ‘IP address’.
Describe how domain names are organised.
Understand the purpose and function of the domain
service and its reliance on the Domain Name System
(DNS).

Be able to outline how the Domain Name System

works using Domain Name Servers.
Explain the service provided by Internet registries and
why they are needed.

3.14.4 The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

(TCP/IP) protocol
3.14.4.1 The TCP/IP model
Content Additional information
Describe the role of the four layers of the TCP/IP stack
(application, transport, internet, link).
Understand why networking protocols like TCP/IP use
layers.
Describe the role of sockets in the TCP/IP stack.
Be familiar with the role of MAC (Media Access
Control) addresses.

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3.14.4.2 Standard application layer protocols

Content Additional information
Be familiar with the following protocols:

• FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
• HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure)
• IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
• POP3 (Post Office Protocol (v3))
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
• SSH (Secure Shell).
Be familiar with FTP client software and an FTP
server, when transferring files using anonymous or
authenticated access.

Be aware that FTP is being replaced by alternative

protocols such as SFTP that encrypt files for secure
transmission.
Be familiar with how SSH is used for remote
management.

Be familiar with using SSH to log in securely to a

remote computer and execute commands.
Describe the role of an email server when sending or
receiving emails.

Describe how SMTP and POP3 or IMAP protocols are

used when an email is sent.
Describe the role of a web server in serving up web
pages in text form.

Understand the role of a web browser in retrieving web

pages and web page resources and rendering these
accordingly.

3.14.4.3 IP addresses
Content Additional information
Know that an IP address is split into a network
identifier part and a host identifier part.
Know that networks can be divided into subnets
and know how a subnet mask is used to identify the
network identifier part of the IP address.
Know that there are currently two standards of IP
address, v4 and v6.
Know why v6 was introduced.
Distinguish between routable and non-routable IP
addresses.

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3.14.4.4 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

Content Additional information
Understand the purpose of the DHCP system.
Be able to describe how the DHCP system works.
Understand the advantages of the DHCP system over
manual configuration.

3.14.5 Cyber security

Content Additional information
Understand how a firewall works (packet filtering,
proxy server, stateful inspection).
Understand symmetric and asymmetric (private/ public
key) encryption and key exchange.
Understand how digital certificates and digital
signatures are obtained and used.
Discuss worms, trojans and viruses, and the
vulnerabilities that they exploit

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3.15 Databases
3.15.1 Relational databases
3.15.1.1 Conceptual data models and entity relationship modelling
Content Additional information
Produce a data model from given data requirements
for a simple scenario involving multiple entities.
Produce entity relationship diagrams representing Underlining can be used to identify the attribute(s)
a data model and entity descriptions in the form: which form the entity identifier.
Entity1(Attribute1, Attribute2, …).
The degree of relationships will be indicated as follows:

One-to-many:

Many-to-one:

One-to-one:

Many-to-many:

3.15.1.2 Key concepts

Content Additional information
Explain the concept of a relational database.

Be able to define the terms: The terms attribute, entity identifier and relation are
usually used in the context of abstract models of a
• attribute/field database.
• entity identifier/primary key
The terms field, primary key and table are usually used
• composite entity identifier/composite primary key in the context of implemented databases.
• foreign key
• relation/table.

3.15.1.3 Database design and normalisation techniques

Content Additional information
Be able to normalise relations to third normal form. Students should know what properties are possessed
by a relation in third normal form.

Students will not be expected to differentiate between

first, second and third normal forms.
Understand why databases are normalised.

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3.15.1.4 Structured Query Language (SQL)

Content Additional information
Be able to use SQL to retrieve, update, insert and Know how to use the commands:
delete data from multiple tables of a relational
database. • SELECT, FROM, WHERE,
ORDER BY, GROUP BY
• UPDATE
• INSERT
• DELETE
Be able to use aggregate SQL functions. Know how to use the functions:

• COUNT
• SUM
• AVG
• MIN
• MAX
Be able to use SQL to define a database table. Know how to create a table using data types for
integer and real numbers, strings, Boolean values,
dates and times.

Know how to specify the primary key of a table.

Know how to add a simple foreign key constraint using

a single field.

3.15.1.5 Client server databases

Content Additional information
Know that a client server database system provides
simultaneous access to the database for multiple
clients (known as concurrent access).
Understand that concurrent updates of a database can If two clients edit a record simultaneously, the first
result in the lost update problem. saved update can be lost when it is overwritten by the
second one.
Know how concurrent access can be controlled using
record locks to preserve the integrity of a database.

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3.15.2 Big data

Content Additional information
Know that ‘Big Data’ is a catch-all term for data Whilst its size receives all the attention, the most
that cannot be stored or processed using traditional difficult aspect of Big Data really involves its lack of
methods. Big Data can be described in terms of: structure. This lack of structure poses challenges
because:
• volume – too big to fit into a single server
• velocity – streaming data, milliseconds to seconds • analysing the data is made significantly more
difficult
to respond
• variety – data in many forms such as structured, • relational databases are not appropriate because
they require the data to fit into a row-and-column
unstructured, text, multimedia.
format.
Know that when data sizes are so big as not to fit on to Functional programming languages provide support for
a single server: distributed processing through:

• the processing must be distributed across more • immutable data structures

than one machine
• statelessness
• functional programming is a solution, because
• higher-order functions that can combine the results
it makes it easier to write correct and efficient
of processing on different servers (map-reduce).
distributed code.
Be familiar with the: Each fact within a fact-based model captures a single
piece of information.
• fact-based model for representing data
In a graph-based schema:
• graph schema for capturing the structure of the
dataset • An individual entity about which data are stored is
• nodes, edges and properties in graph schema. represented as an oval node.
• The properties of an entity are drawn in rectangles,
which are attached to the oval for the entity by a
dashed line.
• Relationships between the entities are represented
by solid line edges drawn between the them,
labelled with text to describe the nature of the
relationship.

For example:

DOB: 11/03/2012 Gender: Male

Student Shahid

Member of

Form 11R

Room: UW

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3.16 Artificial intelligence

3.16.1 Applications of artificial intelligence
Content Additional information
Know the characteristics of artificial intelligence. Students should be aware that there is no one
accepted definition of artificial intelligence.

Systems are often described as being artificially

intelligent if they solve a complex problem and arrive at
a solution:

• using a similar method to that which a human might

follow, or
• that is at least as good as a human might arrive at.

The problems solved by artificially intelligent systems

are typically problems that historically have not been
solvable by computer systems because they were
believed to require human intelligence and could not
be solved algorithmically using available computer
hardware.
Be aware that current artificial intelligence systems are Generally intelligent systems are an area of research.
not generally intelligent, but work in narrow fields.
Some people argue that modern deep learning
systems are early versions of generally intelligent
systems.
Be aware of the following common application areas
for artificial intelligence:

• generative AI
• search and recommendation systems
• playing strategic games
• medical diagnosis.

3.16.2 Creating artificially intelligent systems

Content Additional information
Know what a neural network is and understand how A neural network is a network of nodes that are
neural networks can be used. connected together in a similar way to neurons in the
human brain.
Be able to describe the structure of a neural network.
The nodes in a neural network are built up in layers.
Know that backpropagation is commonly used to train
a neural network. The outputs of nodes in one layer are weighted to form
the inputs to nodes in the next layer.

A simple neural network has three layers: an input

layer, a hidden processing layer and an output layer.

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Content Additional information

Know that deep learning systems use neural networks
with several hidden layers of nodes to produce output
and that using more layers of nodes allows for more
complex problems to be solved.
Know that machine learning is a type of artificial
intelligence in which the performance of the system is
improved based on experience.
Know that artificially intelligent systems are often
trained using data and that care must be taken when
selecting the training data to ensure that a system
does not develop bias.

3.16.3 Benefits and risks of artificial intelligence

Content Additional information
Understand the benefits associated with the use of Example benefits include:
artificial intelligence.
• improved and more consistent decision making. For
example, more accurate analysis of medical data
• ability to analyse very large data sets quickly
• continuous availability
• lower cost of operation
• can be available to more people and in areas that
human expertise is not readily available.
Understand the risks associated with the use of Students should consider the following risks arising
artificial intelligence. from the use of artificial intelligence:

• elimination of jobs and the social impact of this

• bias in decision making, which could be based on
characteristics such as gender or race
• false information can be output if the data used to
train a system is incorrect
• plagiarism
• use in surveillance systems.
• risk to human existence from superintelligent
systems.

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4. Scheme of assessment
Find mark schemes, and specimen papers for new courses, on our website at: oxfordaqa.com/computer-science

These qualifications are modular. The full International A-level is intended to be taken over two years. The
specification content for the International AS is half that of an International A-level.

The International AS can be taken as a stand-alone qualification or it can count towards the International A-level.

To complete the International A-level, students can take the International AS in their first year and the International
A2 in their second year or they can take all the units together in the same examination series at the end of the two
year course.

The International AS content will be 50% of the International A-level content. International AS assessments
contribute 40% of the total marks for the full International A-level qualification. The remaining 60% comes from
the International A2 assessments.

All materials are available in English only.

4.1 Availability of assessment units and certification

Exams and certification for this specification are available as follows:

Availability of units Availability of certification

International AS International A2 International AS International
A-level
June 2025  
January 2026  
June 2026    
January 2027 onwards    
June 2027 onwards    

4.2 Aims and learning outcomes

This specification encourages students to develop a broad range of the knowledge, understanding and skills of
Computer Science, as a basis for progression into further learning and/or employment.

The specification encourages students to develop:

• an understanding of, and the ability to apply, the fundamental principles and concepts of computer science,
including abstraction, decomposition, algorithms and data representation

• the ability to analyse problems in computational terms through practical experience of solving such problems
by writing programs to do so

• the capacity for thinking creatively, innovatively, analytically, logically and critically

• the capacity to see relationships between different aspects of computer science

• mathematical skills related to computer science.

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4.3 Assessment Objectives

The exams will measure how students have achieved the following assessment objectives.

• AO1: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the key concepts and principles of computer science.

• AO2: Apply knowledge and understanding of key concepts and principles of computer science.

• AO3: Analyse problems in computational terms in order to develop and test programmed solutions and
demonstrate an understanding of programming concepts.

4.3.1 Assessment Objective weightings for International AS

Computer Science
Assessment Objectives (AOs) Unit weightings (approx %) Overall weighting of
AOs (approx %)
Unit 1 Unit 2
AO1 0 27.5 27.5
AO2 0 17.5 17.5
AO3 50 5 55
Overall weighting of components (%) 50 50 100

4.3.2 Assessment Objective weightings for International A-level

Computer Science
Assessment Objectives (AOs) Unit weightings (approx %) Overall weighting of
AOs (approx %)
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4
AO1 0 11 0 16 27
AO2 0 7 0 9 16
AO3 20 2 30 5 57
Overall weighting of components (%) 20 20 30 30 100

4.4 Assessment weightings

The raw marks awarded on each unit will be transferred to a uniform mark scale (UMS) to meet the weighting of
the units and to ensure comparability between units sat in different exam series. Students’ final grades will be
calculated by adding together the uniform marks for all units. The maximum raw and uniform marks are shown in
the table below.

Unit Maximum raw mark Percentage weighting Maximum uniform

A-level (AS) mark
Unit 1 75 50 80
Unit 2 75 50 80
International AS qualification - 100 160
Unit 1 75 20 80
Unit 2 75 20 80
Unit 3 90 30 120
Unit 4 75 30 120
International A-level qualification - 100 400

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5 General administration
We are committed to delivering assessments of the highest quality and have developed practices and procedures
that support this aim. To ensure that all students have a fair experience, we have worked with other awarding
bodies in England to develop best practice for maintaining the integrity of exams. This is published through the
Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ). We will maintain the same high standard through their use for OxfordAQA.

More information on all aspects of administration is available at oxfordaqa.com/exams-administration

For any immediate enquiries please contact [email protected]

Please note: We aim to respond to all email enquiries within two working days.

Our UK office hours are Monday to Friday, 8am – 5pm local time.

5.1 Entries and codes

You should use the following subject award entry codes:

Qualification title OxfordAQA entry code

OxfordAQA International Advanced Subsidiary Computer Science 9646

OxfordAQA International Advanced Level Computer Science 9647

Please check the current version of the Entry Codes book and the latest information about making entries on
oxfordaqa.com/exams-administration

You should use the following unit entry codes:

Unit 1 – CS01

Unit 2 – CS02

Unit 3 – CS03

Unit 4 – CS04

A unit entry will not trigger certification. You will also need to make an entry for the overall subject award in the
series that certification is required.

Exams will be available May/June and in January

5.2 Overlaps with other qualifications

There is overlapping content in the International AS and A-level specifications. This helps you teach the
International AS and A-level together.

This specification overlaps with the AQA UK AS and A-level Computer Science (7516/7517).

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5.3 Awarding grades and reporting results

The International AS qualification will be graded on a five-point scale: A, B, C, D and E.

The International A-level qualification will be graded on a six-point scale: A*, A, B, C, D and E.

To be awarded an A*, students will need to achieve a grade A on the full A-level qualification and 90% of the
maximum uniform mark on the aggregate of the A2 units.

Students who fail to reach the minimum standard for grade E will be recorded as U (unclassified) and will not
receive a qualification certificate.

We will publish the minimum raw mark needed for each grade in each unit when we issue students’ results.
We will report a student’s unit results to schools in terms of uniform marks and unit grades and we will report
qualification results in terms of uniform marks and grades.

The relationship between uniform marks and grades is shown in the table below.

Uniform mark range per unit and per qualification

Grade Unit 1 Unit 2 International Unit 3 Unit 4 International
AS Computer A-level
Science Computer
Science
Maximum 80 80 160 120 120 400
uniform mark
A* *See note below
A 64–80 64–80 128–160 96–120 96–120 320–400
B 56–63 56–63 112–127 84–95 84–95 280–319
C 48–55 48–55 96–111 72–83 72–83 240–279
D 40–47 40–47 80–95 60–71 60–71 200–239
E 32–39 32–39 64–79 48–59 48–59 160–199

* For the award of grade A*, a student must achieve grade A in the full International A-level qualification and a
minimum of 216 uniform marks in the aggregate of Unit 3 and Unit 4.

5.4 Resits
Unit results remain available to count towards certification, whether or not they have already been used, provided
the specification remains valid. Students can resit units as many times as they like, so long as they’re within
the shelf-life of the specification. The best result from each unit will count towards the final qualification grade.
Students who wish to repeat a qualification may do so by resitting one or more units.

To be awarded a new subject grade, the appropriate subject award entry, as well as the unit entry/entries, must be
submitted.

5.5 Previous learning and prerequisites

There are no previous learning requirements. Any requirements for entry to a course based on this specification
are at the discretion of schools.

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5.6 Access to assessment: equality and inclusion

Our general qualifications are designed to prepare students for a wide range of occupations and further study
whilst assessing a wide range of competences.

The subject criteria have been assessed to ensure they test specific competences. The skills or knowledge
required do not disadvantage particular groups of students.

Exam access arrangements are available for students with disabilities and special educational needs.

We comply with the UK Equality Act 2010 to make reasonable adjustments to remove or lessen any disadvantage
that affects a disabled student. Information about access arrangements is issued to schools when they become
OxfordAQA centres.

5.7 Working with OxfordAQA for the first time

You will need to apply to become an OxfordAQA centre to offer our specifications to your students. Find out how
at oxfordaqa.com/centreapprovals

5.8 Private candidates

Centres may accept private candidates for examined units/components only with the prior agreement of
OxfordAQA. If you are an approved OxfordAQA centre and wish to accept private candidates, please contact
OxfordAQA at: [email protected]

Private candidates may also enter for examined only units/components via the British Council; please contact
your local British Council office for details.

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6 Appendix: Standard OxfordAQA

assembly language instruction set
LDR Rd, <memory ref> Load the value stored in the memory location specified by
<memory ref> into register d
LDR Rd, [Rn] Load the value stored in the memory location specified in register n into
register d
STR Rd, <memory ref> Store the value that is in register d into the memory location specified by
<memory ref>
STR Rd, [Rn] Store the value that is in register d into the memory location specified by
register n
ADD Rd, Rn, <operand2> Add the value specified in <operand2> to the value in register n and
store the result in register d
SUB Rd, Rn, <operand2> Subtract the value specified by <operand2> from the value in register n
and store the result in register d
MOV Rd, <operand2> Copy the value specified by <operand2> into register d
CMP Rn, <operand2> Compare the value stored in register n with the value specified by
<operand2>
B <label> Always branch to the instruction at position <label> in the program.
B<condition> <label> Branch to the instruction at position <label> if the last comparison
met the criterion specified by <condition>. Possible values for
<condition> and their meanings are:
EQ: equal to NE: not equal to
GT: greater than GE: greater than or equal to
LT: less than LE: less than or equal to
AND Rd, Rn, <operand2> Perform a bitwise logical AND operation between the value in register n
and the value specified by <operand2> and store the result in register d
ORR Rd, Rn, <operand2> Perform a bitwise logical OR operation between the value in register n
and the value specified by <operand2> and store the result in register d
EOR Rd, Rn, <operand2> Perform a bitwise logical XOR (exclusive or) operation between the value
in register n and the value specified by <operand2> and store the result
in register d
MVN Rd, <operand2> Perform a bitwise logical NOT operation on the value specified by
<operand2> and store the result in register d
LSL Rd, Rn, <operand2> Logically shift left the value stored in register n by the number of bits
specified by <operand2> and store the result in register d
LSR Rd, Rn, <operand2> Logically shift right the value stored in register n by the number of bits
specified by <operand2> and store the result in register d
HALT Stops the execution of the program.

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Labels: A label is placed in the code by writing an identifier followed by a colon (:). To refer to a label, the
identifier of the label is placed after the branch instruction.

Interpretation of <operand2>

<operand2> can be interpreted in two different ways, depending on whether the first character is a # or an R:

• # – use the decimal value specified after the #, eg #25 means use the decimal value 25

• Rm – use the value stored in register m, eg R6 means use the value stored in register 6
The available general purpose registers that the programmer can use are numbered 0–12

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Fairness first
Thank you for choosing OxfordAQA,
the international exam board that puts
fairness first.

Benchmarked to UK standards, our

exams only ever test subject ability, not
language skills or cultural knowledge.

This gives every student the best

possible chance to show what they can
do and get the results they deserve.

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You can contact us at oxfordaqa.com/contact-us
or email [email protected]

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