Equalization Techniques

Multiplexing and
Multi-user Access
 Equalization Techniques
Basic concept of Equalization in mathematical form and Block dia

An equalizer is an inverse channel filter to mitigate the

unpredicted channel problems.
 Equalization Techniques
Channel equalization concept in a
digital communication system using
matched filter and decision-making
Block diagram of Equalization

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Transversal Filter
Multiplierless Transversal Filter
 Adaptive Equalizers

Adaptive equalizers can control the tap weight on the

basis of estimated channel coef fic ients from the
received known training sequences.
Decision Directed Feedback
Equalizer
 Key Topics
• Multiplexing and multiple access
• FDM, TDM, CDM, and SDM
• Fixed allocation access: FDMA, TDMA,
CDMA, and SDMA
• OFDMA multicarrier scheme
Multiplexing and Multiple Access
When the multiple user informations are to be
transmitted together, such special techniques are
required.
Multiplexing Schemes
Multiplexing schemes are used when mainly four sche me s for
signals from multiple users are to be multiplexing based on the four
combined possibilities:
and sent on a single channel as a single (a) Frequency division
input stream. Multiplexing is used multiplexing (FDM)
to enable several users share a medium (b) Time division multiplexing
with minimum or no interference. (TDM)
(c) Code division multiplexing
(CDM)
For wireless communication, (d) Space division multiplexing
(SDM)
multiplexing can be carried out
in four dimensions: frequency,
time, code, and space.
Frequency Division Multiplexing

I n FD M, ind iv id ual
users are provided
individual channels,
which will in
combination make
t h e w h o l e
transmission
bandwidth.
Time Division Multiplexing of
two Channels

In TDM, each individual user is pre-assigned a time slot in

which he or she can send the information, and once that
slot is over, the slot for the next user will start. The
scenario for two users is given in Figure.
 Code Division Multiplexing

In CDM, separation is achieved by assigning each user

channel its own code. Guard spaces are realized by using
codes with the necessary distance in code space. Good
protection against unauthorized reception is the main
advantage of CDM.
Space Division Multiplexing

I n SDM, signals c an be
t ransmi t t e d by d i ffe re nt
directional antennas, or the
signals received by a
multidimensional antenna
can be combined to get all of
them back. Three directional
antennas along with their
lobes are shown in Figure.
 Multiple Access Schemes
Multiple access schemes allow many simultaneous users to share the
same available channel bandwidth or radio spectrum on an individual
basis.
M ult iple a cce ss m ay be a chie v e d by four
different ways as follows:
(a) Fixed assignment of resources in terms of
carrier allotment, time slot allocation, code
allocation, or area allocation to specif ic users-
-Frequency division multiple access (FDMA),
time division multiple access (TDMA), code
division multiple access (CDMA), and space
division multiple access (SDMA)
(b) Demand assignment
(c) Ra ndom a cce ss, tha t is, a dy na m ic
assignment of spectrum resources in time or
bandwidth to the users on the basis of demand
(d) Reservation-based access, w here prior
reservations intimate other users about the
request of a particular user User access over shared channel
Classification of Multiple Access
Schemes
 Frequency Division Multiple
Access
In FDMA, it is not possible for each user to use the entire
bandwidth and only limited bandwidth is allocated.
FDMA supports transmission of direct analog or digital data
such as amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation
(FM), and frequency shift keying (FSK) because FDMA requires
no buffering.

A full-duplex or frequency division duplex (FDD) FDMA

has been used since first-generation analog systems.
 Limitations of FDMA
• Carrier synchronization is required in FDMA
• It also requires expensive f il ters to reduce adjacent
channel interference.
• Intermodulation (IM) is another problem faced.
• No n- line arity in po we r amplif ie rs c ause s signal
spreading in the frequency domain.
• There is undef ined RF radiation that leaks into other
channels.
• There is generation of undesirable harmonics that cause
interference to other users in the mobile system or other
systems in adjacent spectrum bands.
 Capacity of FDMA
• Suppose the number of channels is Nc ,
total bandwidth is Wchannel , and guard band
is Wguard , and each channel has a
bandwidth Wsignal , then the FDMA capacity
is given by

where Nu is the number of users supported

and Ncch is the number of control channels.
 Time Division Multiple Access
In TDMA, the user can use the total bandwidth but for only a
limited slot duration. It is a bursty communication method.

Capacity of TDMA (with FDMA)

TDMA Frame Generation

Advantages and Disadvantages
of TDMA
TDMA-FDMA Combined
 Spectral Efficiency
For FDMA
Spectral ef fic iency is
measured by the ratio of
the total time–
fre que ncy domain
dedicated for voice or
data transmission to the
total time fre que ncy
domain available to the
system.
 Spread Spectrum Multiple
Access
• There are mainly two multiple access schemes that are
very popular with SSM techniques:
1. Direct sequence SSM : It enables Code Division Multiple
access (CDMA) with sufficient fading rejection and
security.
2. Frequency hopping SSM : It enables frequency hopped
multiplethe
In CDMA, access
total (FHMA ). bandwidth can be shared by
available
all the users at a time.
 CDMA
• Code division multiple access is used along with
SSM, which uses neither frequency channels nor
time slots. In SSM, spreading is achieved through
the pseudo-noise (PN) code. If a unique code is
assigned to each individual user, demodulation will
be possible only if the code matches at the receiver
end. This enables multiple access.
The following are some of the properties that have made CDMA
useful:
• Signal hiding and non-interference with the existing systems
• Anti-jam and interference rejection
• Information security
• Accurate ranging
• Multipath tolerance
CDMA suffers from near-far problem, which is solved by adjusting the
transmitter power using a closed loop system.
 Capacity of CDMA
• If all N users received power Pr and there are N − 1
interferers and no channel noise, the signal-to-interference
ratio (SIR) is calculated as
 Increase the Capacity by

• Cell sectorisation
• Voice activity factor
The multiuser interference then becomes

Where = Number of users per

sector, then
 Frequency Hopped Multiple
Access
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of
transmitting radio signals by rapidly switching a carrier among
many frequency channels using a pseudo-random sequence
known to both the transmitter and the receiver. Such spread
spectrum signals are difficult to intercept.

Two types of
systems:
slow hopping and
fast hopping .
Hopping patterns for an FHMA scheme
Space Division Multiple Access
• Space division multiple access is geographical or cellular.
The idea behind the concept is that if two transmitter–
receiver pairs are far enough to interfere, they can operate
on the same frequency (by reusing the carrier) without
interfering with each other.
A n S D M A sy st e m u se s a dire ct ion a l
antenna for
splitting the coverage It is also a satellite
communication mode that optimizes the
use of radio spe ctrum and minimize s
system cost by taking advantage of the
directional properties of dish antennas.
Frequency Reuse Concept in
SDMA for a Satellite System
 Various Important Aspects
Related to SDMA for Cellular
Systems
• Antenna Technologies
– 1. Beam switching
– 2. Adaptive antenna

• Combining Signals from Different Antenna

Branches
– Best diversity scheme is maximum ratio
combining
SDMA is very much dependent upon division of zones,
frequency reuse, and antenna technologies.
Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiple Access
It is a hybrid multiple access
or multiplexing technique
with multicarrier modulation,
which divides the available
spectrum into many carriers,
each one being modulated
by a low-rate data stream.
Though OFDMA is similar to FDMA, it uses
the spectrum much more ef fic iently by
spacing the channels much closer together.
This is achieved by making all the carriers
or t h og on a l t o on e a n ot h e r, t h e re b y
pre ve nting inte rfe re nce be tw e e n the
closely spaced carriers. OFDMA is better in
comparison to FDMA and TDMA.
 Hybrid Methods of Multiple
Access
• FDMA–CDMA The spectrum is divided into channels and each channel is a
narrowband CDMA system with processing gain lower than the original
CDMA system.

• DSSS–FHSS The direct sequence modulates the signal and hops centre
frequency using a pseudo-random hopping pattern. The method avoids
near–far effect.

• TDMA–CDMA Different spreading codes are assigned to different cells. One

user per cell is allotted a particular time slot. Only one CDMA user transmits
in each cell at any given time. The method avoids near–far effect.

• TDMA–FHSS It involves a hop to a new frequency at the start of a new TDMA

frame. The method avoids severe fades on the channel. Hopping sequences
are predefined and unique per cell. It avoids co-channel interference if other
base stations transmit on different frequencies at different times.