Question 1. What is the bandwidth of a speech signal?

Given 240 KHz of bandwidth, how many

speech signals can be sent? Draw a neat diagram showing how 5 speech signals can be stacked
within the frequency range of 492 KHz to 512 KHz.

Answer: Bandwidth of speech signal is 4 KHz. 60 speech signals can be sent.

Question 2. What is quadrature multiplexing? Draw a neat diagram to show quadrature multiplexing
and demultiplexing of two signals m1(t) and m2(t). The highest frequency component in both m1(t)
and m2(t) is 4 KHz.

Quadrature multiplexing (also known as Quadrature Amplitude Modulation or QAM) is a

modulation scheme that allows multiple signals to be transmitted simultaneously over the
same channel by modulating both the amplitude and phase of two carrier waves. In
quadrature multiplexing, two independent baseband signals are modulated onto two carrier
waves that are 90 degrees out of phase with each other. This allows for efficient use of
bandwidth and increased data transmission rates.
Question 3. What is Digital modulation? Explain Binary Phase Shifty Keying (BPSK). Given a bit stream
10011001, create a Polar NRZ electrical signal. Draw a neat diagram to show the BPSK modulation of
the resultant signal. Explain with a diagram how you demodulate this modulated signal to retrieve
the Polar NRZ line code.

Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) is a digital modulation scheme where binary data
(0s and 1s) is represented by varying the phase of the carrier signal. In BPSK, there
are two possible phase shifts: 0° and 180°, corresponding to the binary symbols 0
and 1, respectively.

Here's a step-by-step explanation of BPSK:

1. Digital Data Encoding:

• Binary data is first encoded into a stream of symbols, where each
symbol represents one bit of digital information.
• Typically, 0s and 1s are mapped to two distinct phase states: 0° and
180°, respectively.
2. Modulation Process:
• The carrier signal, usually a sinusoidal waveform with a specific
frequency, is modulated by the encoded binary symbols.
• If the binary symbol is 0, the carrier signal's phase remains unchanged.
• If the binary symbol is 1, the carrier signal's phase is shifted by 180°.
3. Transmission:
• The modulated signal containing the phase-shifted carrier wave is
transmitted over the communication channel.
•
4. Reception:
• At the receiver, the received signal is demodulated to recover the
original binary data.
• The demodulation process involves comparing the phase of the
received signal with a reference phase.
 • If the phase of the received signal matches the reference phase, the
demodulator outputs a 0; otherwise, it outputs a 1.

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Question 4. Given a polar NRZ signal, explain how to perform (i) Amplitude Shift Keying and (ii)
Frequency Shift Keying (explain both the modulation and demodulation part of each).

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Question 5. What is a Superheterodyne receiver?

A Superheterodyne receiver is a type of radio frequency (RF) receiver commonly used in

satellite communication and other wireless communication systems. It consists of several key
components and operates on the principle of frequency mixing to convert incoming RF
signals to a lower, more manageable intermediate frequency (IF) for further processing.
Question 6. What are the methods of multiple access techniques?

The ability of a satellite to carry many signals at the same time is known as multiple access. Multiple
access allows the communication capacity of the satellite to be shared among a large number of
earth stations, and to accommodate the different mixes of communication traffic that are
transmitted through a satellite transponder.

There are three basic multiple access techniques.

In frequency division multiple access (FDMA) all users share the satellite at the same time, but each
uplink earth station transmits at a unique allocated frequency. This approach to sharing the
frequency spectrum is familiar to us all, as it is the way that radio broadcasting has always shared the
air waves. Each radio station is allocated a frequency and a bandwidth, and transmits its signals
within that part of the frequency spectrum. FDMA can be used with analog or digital signals. In time
division multiple access(TDMA) each user is allocated a unique time slot at the satellite so that
signals pass through the transponder sequentially. Because TDMA causes delays in transmission, it is
used only with digital signals. FDMA and TDMA are illustrated in Figure 6.9. The signals in Figure 6.9
have equal bandwidth or occupy equal time periods; in practice, different bandwidth signals can
share a transponder in FDMA and signals with different durations can share a TDMA frame. In code
division multiple access (CDMA) all users transmit to the satellite on the same frequency and at the
same time, so the signals are overlaid on one another as illustrated in Figure 6.10. The earth stations
transmit coded spread spectrum (SS) signals that can be separated at the receiving earth station by
correlation with the transmitted code. For example, in the global positioning system (GPS) each
individual GPS satellite transmits a different coded spread spectrum signal. The signals are nearly
orthogonal, allowing a GPS receiver to extract the spread spectrum signal for one satellite in the
presence of similar spread spectrum signals from other visible GPS satellites. CDMA is inherently a
digital technique.

In each of the multiple access techniques, some unique property of the signal – frequency, time, or
code – is used to label the transmission such that the wanted signal can be recovered at the receiving
terminal in the presence of all other signals. CDMA is much less efficient than TDMA and FDMA in
terms of bits per hertz of transponder bandwidth, so its use is restricted to applications in which the
unique features of CDMA are required.
Question 7. Write a short note on CDMA.

In code division multiple access (CDMA) all users transmit to the satellite on the same frequency and
at the same time, so the signals are overlaid on one another as illustrated in Figure 6.10. The earth
stations transmit coded spread spectrum (SS) signals that can be separated at the receiving earth
station by correlation with the transmitted code. For example, in the global positioning system (GPS)
each individual GPS satellite transmits a different coded spread spectrum signal. The signals are
nearly orthogonal, allowing a GPS receiver to extract the spread spectrum signal for one satellite in
the presence of similar spread spectrum signals from other visible GPS satellites. CDMA is inherently
a digital technique.

In each of the multiple access techniques, some unique property of the signal – frequency, time, or
code – is used to label the transmission such that the wanted signal can be recovered at the receiving
terminal in the presence of all other signals. CDMA is much less efficient than TDMA and FDMA in
terms of bits per hertz of transponder bandwidth, so its use is restricted to applications in which the
unique features of CDMA are required.
Question 8. What are the advantages of TDMA over FDMA?

TDMA has all the advantages over FDMA that digital signals have over analog. TDMA systems,
because the signals are digital and can be divided by time, are easily reconfigured for changing traffic
demands, are resistant to noise and interference, and can readily handle mixed video, data, and
voice traffic. One major advantage of TDMA when using the entire bandwidth of a transponder is
that only one signal is present in the transponder at one time, thus overcoming some of the
problems caused by non-linear transponders operating with FDMA. However, using all of the
transponder bandwidth requires every earth station to transmit at a high bit rate, which requires
high transmitter power, making the basic form of TDMA not well suited to narrowband signals from
small earth stations. TDMA can be used to assemble multiple bit streams into a single higher speed
digital signal that has an RF bandwidth much less than the transponder bandwidth. Several such MF-
TDMA signals can then share a transponder using FDMA. MF-TDMA is well suited to internet access
systems using GEO and LEO satellites, and systems with satellite telephones and mobile video links.

In summary, TDMA's digital nature provides flexibility, resistance to interference, support for
mixed traffic, and solutions for issues like non-linear transponders and narrowband signals,
making it ideal for modern satellite communication systems.
Question 9. Define guard time in TDMA and FDMA.

1. **Guard Time in TDMA for Satellite Communication**:

- In satellite communication systems employing Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), multiple
users share the same frequency band, but each user is allocated different time slots to transmit their
data.

- Guard time in TDMA refers to a brief period inserted between consecutive time slots within the
satellite's transmission frame.

- The primary purpose of the guard time is to provide a buffer to prevent interference between
adjacent time slots.

- In satellite communication, the guard time is particularly essential due to factors like propagation
delays caused by the long distances between the satellite and ground stations.

- By including a guard time, the system accounts for these propagation delays, ensuring that signals
from one time slot do not overlap with signals from adjacent time slots.

- This prevents data corruption and maintains the integrity of the transmitted signals, enhancing
the reliability of communication in satellite systems.

2. **Guard Band in FDMA for Satellite Communication**:

- In satellite communication systems utilizing Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), different
users are allocated distinct frequency bands within the satellite's transponder bandwidth.

- Guard band in FDMA refers to a frequency gap intentionally left unused between adjacent
frequency bands within the transponder's bandwidth.

- The primary purpose of the guard band is to prevent interference between adjacent frequency
bands.

- Interference can occur due to factors like adjacent channel leakage, nonlinear distortion, and
variations in uplink signal power.

- By providing a guard band, the system ensures that signals transmitted within one frequency band
do not interfere with signals in adjacent bands.

- This helps maintain isolation between frequency bands, minimizes cross-talk, and preserves the
quality of communication signals in satellite systems.

In summary, guard time in TDMA and guard bands in FDMA are crucial elements in satellite
communication systems, serving to prevent interference and maintain signal integrity, thereby
enhancing the reliability and efficiency of satellite links.
Question 10. Write a short note on GPS.

Question 11. Define guard time in TDMA and FDMA.

Same as 9.

Question 12. In an FDMA, given a total bandwidth of 10 MHz, n = 1000 users have to be
accommodated with a guard band of 1 KHz. What is the maximum rate at which the users can
communicate?
Question 13. In a TDMA scheme, within a time frame of T seconds, n = 1000 users communicate.
Each user in each frame sends 10, 000 bits at a rate of Rb bits per second. Assume Guard time is
equal to the duration of 100 bits, and Preambe is equal to the duration of 100 bits.
https://www.cs.longwood.edu/courses/cmsc121/resources/f16/hamming-codes/

1. Given a set of codewords, find the minimum distance.

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To find the minimum distance of a set of codewords, you need to calculate the Hamming
distance between each pair of codewords and then determine the smallest distance among
them. The Hamming distance between two codewords is the number of positions at which
the corresponding symbols are different.

Here is a step-by-step process to find the minimum distance:

Calculate Hamming Distance: For each pair of codewords in the set, determine the number
of positions at which the symbols differ.
Find Minimum Distance: Identify the smallest Hamming distance among all pairs of
codewords. This distance represents the minimum distance of the code.
Minimum Distance: The minimum distance is the smallest Hamming distance found.

2. Given a generator matrix, find the minimum distance.

Generate all possible codewords and minimum weight will be minimum distance.

3. Given the minimum distance, find out how many bits of error the code can correct. Or,
equivalently, given a code corrects e errors, what should be the minimum distance.

4. Given the minimum distance, find out how many bits of error the code can detect. Or,
equivalently, given a code detects e errors, what should be the minimum distance.

5. How error correcting codes effect the data rate?

Error-correcting codes play a crucial role in communication systems by enabling the reliable
transmission of data over noisy channels. However, they do have an impact on the effective
data rate due to the additional redundancy introduced by the encoding process. Here's how
error-correcting codes affect the data rate:

1. **Increased Overhead**: Error-correcting codes add redundancy to the original data to

detect and correct errors. This redundancy increases the overall size of the transmitted data,
resulting in higher overhead.

2. **Reduced Efficiency**: The additional redundant bits reduce the efficiency of data
transmission, as a portion of the transmitted bits are used solely for error detection and
correction purposes rather than conveying useful information.

3. **Lower Effective Data Rate**: Due to the increased overhead and reduced efficiency, the
effective data rate of the system decreases when error-correcting codes are employed. This
means that the actual rate at which useful information is transmitted over the channel is
lower than the raw data rate without error correction.
 4. **Trade-off Between Reliability and Data Rate**: Error-correcting codes provide a trade-
off between reliability and data rate. By introducing redundancy, they enhance the reliability
of communication by detecting and correcting errors. However, this comes at the cost of a
lower effective data rate.

5. **Optimization**: Engineers aim to optimize error-correcting codes to strike a balance

between reliability and data rate. This involves selecting codes with appropriate parameters,
such as code rate and minimum distance, to achieve the desired level of error correction
while minimizing the impact on the data rate.

Overall, error-correcting codes are essential for ensuring reliable communication in the
presence of noise and channel impairments. While they may reduce the effective data rate,
the improvement in reliability often justifies their use in practical communication systems.

6. What is the minimum distance of an (100, 1) repetition code?

100

7. Explain how errors can be detected using error correcting codes.

Error detection using error-correcting codes relies on the addition of redundant information
to the transmitted data. These codes are designed to introduce redundancy in such a way
that errors in the received data can be detected and potentially corrected. Here's how errors
can be detected using error-correcting codes:

1. **Encoding**:
- Before transmission, the original data is encoded using an error-correcting code. This
encoding process adds redundancy to the data by appending additional bits (parity bits) to
the original message.

2. **Codewords**:
- The encoded data, known as codewords, are then transmitted over the communication
channel. Each codeword contains both the original data and the additional redundancy
introduced by the error-correcting code.

3. **Reception**:
- At the receiver, the transmitted codewords are received, possibly with errors due to noise
or other channel impairments.

4. **Decoding**:
- The received codewords are decoded using the same error-correcting code that was used
for encoding at the transmitter.
- The decoder attempts to correct any errors that may have occurred during transmission
based on the redundancy introduced by the code.

5. **Error Detection**:
- After decoding, the receiver checks for errors in the decoded data. This can be done by
comparing the received codeword to the nearest valid codeword according to the code's
decoding algorithm.
 - If the received codeword differs from the nearest valid codeword by more than a certain
threshold (determined by the minimum distance of the code), an error is detected.

6. **Error Correction**:
- In addition to error detection, some error-correcting codes also have the capability to
correct errors. If errors are detected, the decoder attempts to correct them using the
redundancy introduced by the code.
- Error correction is typically achieved by finding the closest valid codeword to the received
codeword and assuming it as the intended transmitted message.

7. **Feedback or Retransmission**:
- If errors cannot be corrected or if the level of errors exceeds the code's correction
capability, the receiver may request a retransmission of the data from the transmitter.

In summary, error detection using error-correcting codes involves encoding the original data
with redundancy, transmitting the encoded data over the channel, decoding the received
data to detect errors, and potentially correcting errors based on the redundancy introduced
by the code. This process helps ensure the integrity and reliability of data transmission over
noisy channels.