| NSW Department of Education

Physics Module 7: the nature of

light

education.nsw.gov.au
 Table of contents
Table of contents.......................................................................................................................................... 2
Teaching the year 12 modules..................................................................................................................... 3
Course overview.......................................................................................................................................... 3
Module summary.......................................................................................................................................... 5
Big ideas...................................................................................................................................................... 5
Evidence: discovery and justification....................................................................................................... 5
Science is interconnected........................................................................................................................ 6
Measurement........................................................................................................................................... 6
Relationships to other modules.................................................................................................................... 7
Core concepts.............................................................................................................................................. 7
The electromagnetic spectrum................................................................................................................. 7
Early models of light................................................................................................................................. 8
The quantum model of light...................................................................................................................... 9
Special relativity..................................................................................................................................... 10
Opportunities for extended concepts.......................................................................................................... 11
Exploring Maxwell’s equations............................................................................................................... 11
Where is all the antimatter?................................................................................................................... 11
How to take a photo of a black hole....................................................................................................... 12
Investigating polarisation....................................................................................................................... 12
Alternative conceptions and misconceptions.............................................................................................. 12
Symmetry in special relativity................................................................................................................. 12
Relativistic momentum........................................................................................................................... 13
Conceptual difficulties................................................................................................................................ 13
Light-years and electron volts................................................................................................................ 13
Suggested teaching strategies................................................................................................................... 14
Suggested order of topics...................................................................................................................... 14
Suggested investigations........................................................................................................................... 20
Appendices................................................................................................................................................ 21
Appendix one: Models of light................................................................................................................ 21
Appendix two: Sample question............................................................................................................. 21
Appendix three: The nature of light investigation handbook...................................................................25
Resources.................................................................................................................................................. 38

2 Physics Module 7 – the nature of light

 Teaching the year 12 modules
The new Stage 6 Physics course was implemented in NSW schools in 2018-2019. This
syllabus incorporates new content and learning activities such as Depth Studies. The
syllabus is designed around inquiry questions and formal assessment tasks emphasise the
skills for working scientifically.

The Year 12 course provides avenues for students to apply the concepts they were
introduced to in Year 11 to motion in two dimensions, electromagnetism, theories of light,
the atom and the Universe.

Therefore, pedagogies that promote inquiry and deep learning should be employed in the
Physics classroom. The challenge presented by the additional content and the change in
pedagogical approach were the catalysts for the preparation of these module guides for
Stage 6. These guides are intended to assist teachers deliver Physics effectively by
outlining overarching concepts (big ideas), core and extended ideas, strategies for
teaching the modules, uncovering of alternative conceptions, and strategies to address
them. The guides support the teacher in facilitating the development of deep knowledge
structures, such as the relationships between concepts. The module guides do not cover
all aspects of the syllabus, as that was not within the scope of the project.

It is essential that teachers note that the module guides do not substitute the syllabus, but
only support teachers to teach it. The information contained in these documents are
correct at the time of publication. While every effort has been made to eliminate errors, any
errors or omission that are identified after the release of these documents will be corrected
and released as resource updates. It is recommended that teachers access the Curriculum
website for the latest version of these documents.

Course overview
The Year 11 course introduces fundamental concepts of motion, forces, fields, energy and
momentum. It provides opportunities for students to develop skills in Working Scientifically,
including skills related to the quantitative analysis and modelling of physical systems.

The Year 12 course further develops these concepts and applies them to the analysis of
phenomena and technologies that are relevant to society and to contemporary physics.
The Law of conservation of energy, along with the development of theories and models
form common themes across each of the modules. The role of scientific investigation and
evidence in advancing our understanding is explored in detail in Modules 7 and 8.

Inquiry questions are included in the course content and are used to frame the syllabus.
The depth of understanding required to fully address the inquiry questions may vary. This
allows for differentiation of the course content to cater for the diversity of learners.

© NSW Department of Education, Aug-2420

 During the teaching of the Year 11 course, it is expected that students have been provided
opportunities to develop all seven of the Working Scientifically skills. Ideally, these would
be embedded into the teaching of the Knowledge and Understanding components of the
course. In preparation for the Year 12 course, students in Year 11 could benefit from work
that engages them in the following areas:
 Propose hypotheses, design and conduct valid and reliable practical investigations
that effectively use technologies to collect and analyse data. Teachers should look
for opportunities to engage students in these beyond where the syllabus explicitly
states the need to conduct a practical investigation.
 Construct and analyse graphical data for both primary and secondary sources. This
should include describing relationships between variables, particularly time-varying
quantities such as displacement and velocity. Emphasis should be placed on
extracting qualitative and quantitative information from the gradient and/or the area
under a graph.
 Evaluate and improve the quality of data collected. Students should be encouraged
to recognise errors, uncertainty and limitations in the data they collect. Practical
investigations provide opportunities to practice quantifying errors, including the
calculation of absolute and relative errors, along with techniques such as the use of
a line-of-best fit to minimise the impact of random errors in measurement.
 Assess the uses, benefits and limitations of various types of scientific models.
Models are a powerful tool in science, allowing phenomena to be more easily
explained and predicted by capturing and highlighting only the most important
features of a system. For example, when analysing gravitational potential energy
(GPE) in Module 2, it is beneficial to employ a model in which acceleration due to
gravity is a constant 9.8 ms-2 and arbitrarily set GPE=0 at the Earth’s surface. This
model is suitable for analysing the motion of objects close to the Earth’s surface
including projectiles, pendulums and rollercoasters. However, students should also
be encouraged to consider the limitations of such models. For example, the model
above would not be appropriate, or effective, for analysing the motion of satellites as
acceleration due to gravity cannot reasonably be considered constant over large
distances.
 Study the rates of change of quantities including displacement, velocity, temperature
and energy to support deeper insights into physical phenomena. Rates of change
are particularly important to the understanding of electromagnetism in Year 12.
 Collect relevant information from secondary sources and determine the accuracy,
reliability and validity. Many of the investigations will require students to obtain
information from the Internet or other sources. Students will benefit from learning
how to access suitable information and appreciate how new evidence can change
prevailing views.
 Developing an awareness of the interconnectedness of physics concepts, including
the application of conservation of energy and momentum to the understanding of
diverse phenomena.

4 Physics Module 7 – the nature of light

  Developing confidence in the selection and manipulation of units for physical
quantities. Students should be provided opportunities to practice converting units,
along with calculating and communicating quantities using scientific notation.
 Creating and analyse diagrams that represent vector quantities including free-body,
field and ray diagrams. Students should develop confidence in resolving 2-
dimensional vectors into their components and in adding multiple vectors to find the
resultant.

Module summary
The theories and models about light have evolved over time; through general wave
behaviour, electromagnetic waves and quantum properties and these have set the
foundation for special relativity.

This topic is a set on the foundations of Module 6 Electromagnetism, the unification of

electricity and magnetism. Completion of this module provides a suitable introduction into
the quantum physics component of Module 8 From the Universe to the Atom

Module 7 explores the following inquiry questions:

 IQ7-1: What is light?
 IQ7-2: What evidence supports the classical wave model of light and what
predictions can be made using this model?
 IQ7-3: What evidence supports the particle model of light and what are the
implications of this evidence for the development of the quantum model of light?
 IQ7-4: How does the behaviour of light affect concepts of time, space and matter?

Big ideas
Evidence: discovery and justification
Along with Module 8, this module builds strong relationships between theories and models
and the experimental evidence that led to their discovery and subsequent acceptance. The
use of new evidence to make distinctions between competing theories is highlighted by the
models of light championed by Newton and Huygens. The nature of light is then further
challenged by new observations in the photoelectric effect.

The provisional nature of scientific knowledge is embodied in Newton’s famous statement

“If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants”, and is demonstrated
though both Maxwell’s unification of electricity and magnetism and Einstein’s explanation
of the photoelectric effect.

© NSW Department of Education, Aug-2420

 Einstein’s two postulates of special relativity demonstrate a pathway to discovery that is
highly important to modern physics, the axiomatic method. Beginning with a small set of
postulates, assumed truths not requiring evidential support, a logical process is followed to
derive testable predictions. Einstein used a set of thought experiments to draw out testable
predictions as the logical consequences of his postulates. Special relativity makes several
surprising predictions based on the assumption of the constancy of the speed of light in a
vacuum, including time dilation, length contraction, a limitation of the maximum velocity of
particles and the mass-energy equivalence. In contrast to many classical theories, these
predictions were made many decades in advance of the technologies required to put them
to the test.

Science is interconnected
Scientific theories do not exist in isolation, instead, they are better considered as making
up a ‘web of belief’. Core ideas are those that have survived numerous experimental tests
or those which have wide ranging links across the web. New observations may easily
challenge peripheral or not widely connected ideas such as the ether model for the
transmission of light. By contrast, core ideas such as the law of conservation of energy
have wide ranging application and importance and are often preserved by adjusting other
parts of the web if required. Chadwick’s discovery of the neutron, investigated in Module 8,
is just such an example of how a strong belief in conservation laws led to the proposal of a
previously unobserved particle.

Module 7 explores the dramatic consequences of disturbing the centre of this web.
Changes to our understanding of the behaviour of light, making the speed of light in a
vacuum an absolute constant, challenges our concepts of space, time and matter. It has
turned these quantities on their heads, for example, the speed of light, previously thought
to be relative to the motion of the observer, is now held as an absolute constant. To make
room for this to be true, space, time and matter must now be relative quantities affected by
the frame of reference of the observer. This change heralded the birth of Modern Physics
and has successfully predicted and been confirmed across wide ranging phenomena.

Measurement
The ability to make precise and accurate measurement is central to scientific inquiry.
Experimental observations may lead to the development of theories and laws and are
required in their validation. Beginning in 1799, with the deposition of platinum standards
representing the meter and kilogram in Paris, efforts have been made to create a single,
coherent system of measurements throughout the world. This led to the establishment of
the International System of Units (SI). Initial efforts relied on the production of artefacts to
represent fundamental units with all measurements being compared to these artefacts or
copies thereof. More recently, the demands for increased precision imposed by research
into phenomena on the smallest scales of time and space has driven the 2019 SI
redefinition. As of May 20, 2019, all SI base units will be defined in terms of seven
fundamental constants, with each constant assigned an exact numerical value in the

6 Physics Module 7 – the nature of light

 process. More information regarding the International System of Units is available from the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) and also from the UK’s National
Measurement Institute (NPL).

Many of the historical efforts measure the speed of light using the displacement-time
s
relationship, v= , were plagued by errors. These stemmed from the high speed of light,
t
the inability to observe its travel over large distances and the lack of technology to
precisely measure small increments of time. The wave nature of light provides an alternate
method of measuring its speed. By creating standing waves and applying the wave
equation, , ν=fλ , the accuracy of measurements of the velocity of light is instead
dependent on measurements of distance and the frequency of radiation used. Students
are guided through several key efforts to measure the speed of light and should consider
how each attempted to improve accuracy by overcoming some of these issues or by
exploiting the wave nature of light.

The role of new technologies and inventive methodologies for measurement are further
explored in relation to the photoelectric effect and in validating predictions made by special
relativity.

Relationships to other modules

Modules 7 and 8 include a significant overlap in concepts relating to quantum phenomena.
From Module 8, the emission spectra concepts in the IQ8-3, (Quantum Mechanical Nature
of the Atom) could be brought forward to be taught along with IQ7-3 (Light: Quantum
Model ). As Module 8 has five topics, this will improve the balance of concepts between
the two modules.

In Module 6, students explore the SI definition of the ampere at nsit.gov. While the 2017
syllabus, (IQ6-2) refers to a superseded definition of the ampere, investigating recent
revisions in the standards of measurement is an opportunity to familiarise students with
issues in the measurement of time and distance included in this module.

Students investigate the experimental validation of time dilation provided by observations

of cosmic-origin muons at the Earth’s surface. In order to appreciate the subtleties of how
the observations provide evidence of time dilation, students will require a basic
understanding of radioactive decay and half-life. These concepts are included in Module 8.

Core concepts
The electromagnetic spectrum
Maxwell’s contribution to the classical theory of electromagnetism was in the unification of
the then separate theories of electricity and magnetism, creating a single system of four

© NSW Department of Education, Aug-2420

 equations. They showed that electric and magnetic forces are not separate, only different
manifestations of the electromagnetic force. His equations also introduce a symmetry
between the creation of electric and magnetic fields and include Gauss’ law, Gauss’ law
for magnetism, Faraday’s law and Ampere’s law.

From his equations, Maxwell was able to show that electromagnetic fields could travel as
self-propagating waves, allowing them to propagate in a vacuum. His equations predicted
that there was a spectrum of electromagnetic waves of varying frequencies and
1
wavelengths but with an absolute speed given by the expression c= a fact that would
√ μ0 ε 0
later challenge the principle of relativity by seemingly providing an avenue to determine
absolute motion without the need for an external frame of reference.

Historical and contemporary methods to measure the speed of light are investigated in this
module. Notable historical examples that could be investigated include:
 Galileo, using shuttered lanterns
 Roemer, studying eclipse patterns of Jupiter’s moons
 Fizeau, using a rotating toothed wheel and mirror
 Michelson, using an octagonal mirror

It would be reasonable to only cover in detail, the efforts of Roemer and Fizeau as they
demonstrate methods of improving accuracy of measurements, compared to Galileo’s
lanterns by increasing the distance light travels and by improving the precision of time
measurements respectively.

Modern methods generally exploit the wave properties of light and rely on the ability to
produce lasers of a known and stable frequency, along with the ability to measure their
wavelength accurately. These methods highlighted the 1960 definition of the meter as the
limiting factor in the uncertainty around the speed of light. This led ultimately to the
redefinition of the meter in 1983 to be “the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum
during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second”. Therefore, the speed of light was
assigned a fixed and exact value as detailed in Speed of Light From Direct Frequency and
Wavelength Measurements, from the Journal of Research of the NIST

Studies of the spectra emitted by stars have yielded insights into their composition and
other properties. This is further explored in Module 8.

Early models of light

This module explores the differing models of light presented by Newton (published in
1704) and Huygens (published 1690) along with the evidence supporting them.
Observations of the reflection and refraction of light can be explained sufficiently with both
models, acting as a suitable example of underdetermination by data. This is where
available evidence is unable to make distinctions between competing hypotheses.

8 Physics Module 7 – the nature of light

 However, Newton’s and Huygen’s explanations of refraction did make different and
potentially testable claims about the speed of light in water: Newton’s explanation
suggested light sped up as it entered the water and Huygen’s suggesting it slowed down.
This was later tested by Foucault (1850), the results of which favoured the Huygen’s wave
model. Young’s double slit experiment (1801) and Malus’s discovery of the polarisation of
light (1808) subsequently provided convincing evidence of light’s wave-like nature.

Within this module, this topic is the best opportunity to conduct practical investigations,
with opportunities to demonstrate the wave nature of light using diffraction and polarisation
experiments.

The quantum model of light

The photoelectric effect was first observed by Heinrich Hertz in 1887, and subsequent
observations provided evidence to support the quantum (or photon) model of light as
proposed by Einstein in 1905. When applied to the quantum models of light, the law of
conservation of energy correctly predicts aspects of black body radiation and the
photoelectric effect. These quantum models have in common the exchange of energies in
discrete packets or quanta. In module 8, this is further applied to account for the hydrogen
spectrum and is the basis for the Bohr model of the atom.

The photoelectric effect describes the emission of electrons from a metal surface when it is
irradiated with radiation of a sufficiently high frequency. The emitted electrons are called
‘photoelectrons’ and their emission results in the production of a ‘photocurrent’. The key
observations leading to the development of a quantum model of light were:
1. The existence of a threshold frequency, f 0, where only frequencies above this
threshold will produce a photocurrent, regardless of intensity. The threshold
frequency is dependent on the metal surface.
2. The energy of photoelectrons is independent of the intensity of the light source.
3. The magnitude of the photocurrent is proportional to the intensity of the light source.

The first two of the above observations could not be accounted for by the electromagnetic
wave theory of light. A quantum model of light can explain all three observations. The
basic postulates of this model are:
1. Electromagnetic waves consist of discrete, massless units called photons. A photon
travels in vacuum at the speed of light, c=3.00 × 108 m s−1
2. Each photon has an energy proportional to its frequency. E photon=hf , where f is the
frequency of the wave and h is a universal constant called Planck’s constant. The
value of Planck’s constant is h=6.626 ×10−34 Js. In other words, electromagnetic
waves consist of discrete ‘chunks’ of energy.

When applied to the photoelectric effect, this model predicts the maximum kinetic energy
of photoelectrons and is represented mathematically by:

© NSW Department of Education, Aug-2420

 K max =hf −ϕ

Whereϕ is the work function of the given metal surface. The threshold frequency, f 0, is
defined by h f 0=ϕ as this leads to photoelectrons with zero kinetic energy. For frequencies
higher than the threshold frequencies, the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons is
equal to the difference between the photon energy and the work function.

Special relativity
Scientific evidence and its role in developing and validating theories is explored in this
topic. It should be noted when analysing and evaluating the evidence confirming or
denying Einstein’s two postulates of special relativity (SR), that it is not an expectation that
students provide evidence that denies either postulate. However, it is expected that
evidence relating to each postulate is analysed.

Galileo’s thought experiment illustrates how evidence could be collected to support what
was later known as the Principle of Relativity. In the early seventeenth century, the popular
view of our solar system was that the Earth was stationary at its centre because we did not
observe any of the expected effects of racing through space at very high speeds. Galileo
used his ship as a model for the Earth in order to demonstrate that it is impossible to
detect the motion of the Earth using observations within its inertial frame. That is,
experiments conducted on a ship at rest, or moving at constant velocity, would produce
identical results. This would make it impossible to use experiments of motion, or any other
experiments, to distinguish between the two inertial frames.

Maxwell’s prediction of a constant speed for light, albeit very high, provided a potential
experimental method for distinguishing between inertial frames. By measuring the speed
of light in an inertial frame and comparing it to the predicted speed, one could determine
their absolute motion.

Einstein’s second postulate states that all inertial frames of reference are equivalent. This
extends the equivalence of physical laws in inertial frames of reference to include not just
Newton’s laws of motion, but all physical laws particularly those relating to electromagnetic
phenomena. Thus, the Michelson-Morley experiment (1887) could be considered to
provide evidence for both postulates.

Einstein predicted phenomena, including time dilation and length contraction, would occur
as a logical consequence of the two postulates for SR. He demonstrated these through a
range of thought experiments at a time when technological limitations made it practically
impossible to observe the phenomena experimentally. Suitable thought experiments for
time dilation and length contraction involve the use of a ‘light clock’ placed inside a train
carriage that is moving at a constant velocity relative to an observer on the platform of a
train station. The orientation of the light clock relative to the motion (either perpendicular or
parallel) allows the respective phenomena to be investigated.

10 Physics Module 7 – the nature of light

 Students are required to follow up these thought experiment with examples of suitable
experimental validation of each phenomenon. Of the suggested examples, the cosmic-
muon observations and Hafele-Keating experiment are sensible choices due to the wide
range of learning resources available for student use.

Other predictions arising from SR are included in this topic (relativistic momentum and
mass-energy equivalence), however, students are not required to analyse evidence that
supports them. Instead, they are required to draw out some of their observed practical
consequences and applications.

Opportunities for extended concepts

Exploring Maxwell’s equations
The mathematics of Maxwell’s equations is beyond what is required in high school,
however, the physics described by each equation is relevant to the Year 12 Physics
course. Activity 3 in the Fields resource, produced by the Perimeter Institute provides a set
of classroom activities that consolidates concepts covered in Module 6. It also explores the
significance of Maxwell’s equations in terms of the unification of electricity and magnetism,
the prediction of a speed for light waves and the subsequent development of Special
Relativity by Einstein. The teacher background section has additional detail in its
discussion of the relevant mathematics.

Where is all the antimatter?

The equation E=m c2is known as the mass-energy equivalence. It has many
interpretations, for example, it could describe the energy required to create a given
quantity of mass, or the equivalent energy stored in a mass. Studying the application of
this equivalence to particle-antiparticle interactions, provides an opportunity to explore an
important open question in physics; Where is all the antimatter?

Cosmological models describing the transformation of radiation into matter following the
‘Big Bang’ predict that the Universe should contain equal quantities of matter and
antimatter.
 Consider applying E=m c2to the transformation of radiation to matter, for example an
electron. If a photon (neutral charge) were to transform into an electron (negatively
charged), it would violate the law of conservation of charge.
 Instead, the process occurs through ‘pair-production’. That is, a photon (or another
neutrally charged boson) transforms by creating a particle-antiparticle pair. In this
case, the photon transforms to produce an electron and its antiparticle, a positron.
Each has equal and opposite charge ensuring that conservation of charge is upheld.

This is true for all such transformations, so we could rewrite the initial equation as

© NSW Department of Education, Aug-2420

 2 2
E=m c +m c ,

where m is the symbol for antimatter. We have not yet found (or are likely to find) any
significant amounts of antimatter in our galaxy or in any other observable galaxy. One
possible explanation for the observed imbalance of matter and antimatter is that their
properties may not be precisely symmetric, for example they may each interact differently
with gravity. This possibility is currently being investigated by researchers at the Antimatter
factory at CERN as described in Entering the Antimatter Factory at CERN by New
Scientist Magazine.

Pair production in bubble chambers is also a key piece of evidence for the existence of
particles other than protons, neutrons and electrons, which is explored further in Module 8.

How to take a photo of a black hole

The TED video How to take a photo of a black hole Katie Bouman (duration 12:51)
describes the capturing of the first image of a black hole in 2019. This topic is a great
example of the application of diffraction limits and interferometry. It is a compelling case for
the importance of models to aid explanation and the application of computer algorithms to
aid scientific observation.

Further explanation of this momentous event can be found at How to understand the black
hole image (duration 9:18) by Veritasium and How scientists captured the first image of a
black hole at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

Investigating polarisation
When investigating polarisation, students could test a range of alternative light sources
including polarised and unpolarised light. Modelling light using the components of its
electric field can be used to explain linear and circular polarisation. The following videos
may provide a useful introduction.
 Circular polarisation (duration 4:39) at UCLAphysicsvideo -using a physical model
and demonstrations
 Polarisation of light (duration 19:50) 3D animations explaining circularly polarised,
linearly polarised and unpolarised light
 Circular polarisation (duration 1:36) - animations of the components of the electric
field

12 Physics Module 7 – the nature of light

 Alternative conceptions and misconceptions
Symmetry in special relativity
When discussing time dilation, students will often make statements such as “time slows
down when you are moving close to the speed of light” or “moving clocks run slow”. Whilst
these statements are commonly used as memory strategies, they can reinforce the false
notion that there is a reference frame in which we can measure the ‘actual time’. This may
lead to some incorrect logic as described below.

Student A is in a spaceship moving at a high velocity relative to student B, who is standing

on an asteroid. Students generally recognise that student B will observe less time to have
passed on a clock moving with student A compared to the time recorded on a clock that is
stationary in their reference frame. However, students holding the conception of an
absolute reference frame may then incorrectly assert that “because moving clocks run
slow, stationary clocks run fast”, and fail to recognise the symmetry between the reference
frames of students A and B.

The concept of ‘actual time’ is based on the notion that there is a preferred or universal
inertial frame to which all time and space measurements can be compared. This of course,
is addressed in Einstein’s second postulate “all inertial frames of reference are equivalent”.
Special relativity requires us to give up on time and space as absolute quantities, but it
allows us to accurately determine how these values are transformed when viewed from a
different inertial frame of reference. In many ways, it validates any inertial frame of
reference as a suitable place to investigate the laws of physics.

Further reading on student conceptions of special relativity, including the presentation of a

concept inventory of the topic, can be sourced from the article The relativity concept
inventory: development, analysis and results is referenced in the resources. It also
contains a short set of quiz questions targeted at identifying specific student conceptions.

Relativistic momentum
The 2017 changes to the Stage 6 Physics syllabus have removed the formula for
calculating mass dilation and replaced it with the associated concept of relativistic
momentum. This change is welcomed because in Special Relativity the mass is invariant,
a quantity that never changes. Instead, as an object approaches the speed of light, it is its
momentum that approaches infinity from the perspective of a stationary observer.

Conceptual difficulties
The topic is very abstract and requires the preunderstanding of wave properties including
refraction and superposition. Students require a high level of mathematical competence to

© NSW Department of Education, Aug-2420

 manipulate the formulae used in this topic. Investigations in this topic require the graphing
and evaluation of data along with the manipulation of unfamiliar units.

Light-years and electron volts

The standard unit of energy, the joule (J), has been used throughout the Stage 6 Physics
course to describe the energies involved in mechanical and electrical systems. However,
when describing energies on the atomic and subatomic scales, the electron-volt (eV) is a
far more suitable unit.

An electron-volt is defined as the work done on a single electron as it is accelerated

through a potential difference of 1 volt with 1 eV =1.602 ×10−19 J . Students can verify the
work done by applying the knowledge they developed during the first topic in the
Electromagnetism module. Students will be required to interpret and communicate
energies using the electron-volt and be capable of converting between eV and J.

Additionally, problem solving in the Special relativity topic will often require students to
recognise light-years (ly) as a unit of distance where

1 ly ≈ ( 3 ×108 ) ( 365 ×24 × 60 ×60 ) ≈ 10 trillion km .

Fortunately, it is not generally expected that students make conversions between light-
years and other units of measurement.

Suggested teaching strategies

Suggested order of topics
1. Light: Wave Model
a Newton and Huygens
b Experimental evidence from diffraction and polarisation
2. Light: Quantum Model
a Spectroscopy (from Electromagnetic Spectrum topic)
b Blackbody radiation including Wien’s Law and Planck’s contribution
c Photoelectric effect evidence
d Einstein’s explanation – the photon model of light
3. Electromagnetic Spectrum
a Maxwell’s classical theory of electromagnetism
b Prediction of the absolute speed of light in a vacuum
c Historical and modern methods used to determine the speed of light
experimentally
4. Light and Special Relativity

14 Physics Module 7 – the nature of light

 a Einstein’s postulates
b Thought experiments and subsequent experimental evidence
c Further applications and examples – relativistic momentum and E=mc2

Modules 7 and 8 share concepts in quantum physics and Module 8, IQ8-3 Quantum
Mechanical Nature of Atom can be brought forward and taught with Module 7, IQ7-3 Light:
quantum model. As Module 8 has five topics, this may reduce the pressure experienced
towards the end of Year 12.

Student understanding of the role that historical evidence played in the changing models of
light can be supported by student investigation. A range of sample investigations are
outlined in the Nature of light investigation handbook which is included in the appendix. It
outlines opportunities for students to conduct investigations using first-hand and simulated
data. Skills addressed in these learning activities include conducting investigations,
processing and analysing primary and secondary data, and communicating ideas to a
general audience.

Light: Wave model

During this unit students will explore the wave behaviour of light, diffraction, interference
and polarisation. This topic provides a range of opportunities for students to complete first-
hand investigations and to analyse evidence collected from historical investigations.

Models of light
The Olympus webpage, Light: Particle or a wave? provides a detailed introduction to the
debate over the nature of light, highlighting the division between the models proposed by
Newton and Huygens in the early Eighteenth Century. A sample student activity based on
this resource can be found in the appendix.

Diffraction
The diffraction of light can be demonstrated using purpose-built single and double slit
slides, diffraction gratings, or even using a CD. Comparing the diffraction patterns
produced from a collimated source such as a discharge tube to that from a monochromatic
source like a laser could be a useful starting point for discussions of diffraction. It should
be noted that the distance to the respective maxima is proportional to the wavelength, with
red appearing on the outside of the diffraction pattern.

Possible approaches to investigating the diffraction equation include:

 providing students with the wavelength of a laser and dimensions of diffraction
grating and ask them to predict the spacing between maxima before observing
 predict the wavelength of laser light from observations of the diffraction pattern
produced

© NSW Department of Education, Aug-2420

  modify or repeat either of the above approaches in order to improve accuracy
 change the dimensions and/or orientation of the grating or slit and predict
qualitatively or quantitatively the result
 for a given diffraction pattern, predict and sketch an apparatus likely to have
produced it.

Polarisation
Students can conduct first-hand practical investigations to verify Malus’s Law. Light meters
on mobile phones along with small sheets of polarised film with protractors pinned in the
middle could be used to collect data to verify Malus’s Law. It is an opportunity for students
develop skills in planning investigations and problem solving.

Students could be assigned the task of collecting evidence to verify Malus’s Law. After
plotting their initial data for intensity versus analyser angle, students should identify the
need for increased sampling resolution around the points of maximum intensity in order to
verify the sinusoidal nature of the relationship. More advanced students could be guided in
manipulating variables to produce and linear relationship.

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Maxwell’s equations
Maxwell’s equations represented the unification of our models of electric and magnetic
phenomena into an overarching theory of electromagnetism. His work not only explained
existing phenomena using a common language and mathematical framework, it provided
new insights into the nature and behaviour of light.

Whilst the mathematics of the four equations is beyond the scope of this course, students
can be encouraged to understand the physical significance of each equation. Using
worded descriptions of each and associating each with a diagram will provide a suitable
depth of understanding for most students. An example of suitable descriptions can be
found on Lumen learning and Fields: Activity 3, from the Perimeter Institute (see
resources).

Measuring the speed of light

Investigating historical and contemporary methods used to determine the speed of light
can be used to build skills in Working Scientifically, particularly in planning investigations
and analysing data and information. This investigation can also be used to highlight the
importance of technologies in ensuring the accuracy of measurements.

Students draw on their prior understanding of measuring speed developed in Module 1 to

analyse Galileo’s method involving two shuttered lanterns separated across hilltops.

16 Physics Module 7 – the nature of light

 Students could:
 make predictions of the time taken for light to travel between hilltops and consider
the limitations imposed by the technologies available at the time
 investigate questions including “How far apart would the lanterns need to be in order
to accurately measure the speed of light using a stopwatch? Using your pulse?”
 plan a thought experiment to determine the speed of light using a stopwatch, mirrors
or other simple technologies.

Subsequent methods, including those used by Roemer, Foucault and Fitzeau could then
be analysed in terms of:
 improvements in technologies used to accurately measure distance and time
 increasing accuracy compared to the accepted value for the speed of light, and in
some cases
 the exploitation of lights wave-like properties for interferometry or the formation of
standing waves.

A sample question, marking guidelines and sample response are included in the appendix
and could be set as a research assignment or as revision. Further reading on these and
other methods is available from Las Cumbres Observatory, PHYSCLIPS and the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).

Spectroscopy
Handheld spectroscopes allow students to clearly observe the spectra from a variety of
sources. Observing reflected sunlight and incandescent filaments (and changing the
supplied voltage) allows students to qualitatively explore the relationship between surface
temperature and the spectrum produced.

Analysing the spectrum of a star to gather information about its properties generally
requires students to identify key features of each spectra and correctly link them to
inferences about the star’s properties. Features include:
 the peak wavelength
 patterns of absorption lines
 doppler shifting and broadening of spectral lines

Further reading, including detailed examples, is provided by Australian Telescope National

Facility and Lumen learning.

Activity 2: The signature of the stars produced by the Perimeter Institute, includes a rich
set of data driven activities for students to explore the information contained in the light
from stars. Students will be guided through the analysis and display of spectral plots and
develop an understanding of the evidence for an expanding Universe provided by the

© NSW Department of Education, Aug-2420

 spectra of distant galaxies and Type 1a supernovas. Consequently, this activity is a
suitable bridge between concepts in Modules 7 and 8.

Extension
A star analyser (typically costing around $250), combined with a telescope or DLSR
camera can be used to capture and analyse the spectra of stars in the night sky. Detailed
spectra can then be quickly processed and analysed using free software.

Light: Quantum model

Black body radiation
To investigate Wien’s Law, students could collect simulated data using the PhET
simulation, Blackbody spectrum. By varying the temperature (T) and measuring the peak
1
wavelength ( λ max), students can plot λ max versus to verify the law.
T

Observations of black body radiation could not be explained using Maxwell’s classical
electromagnetic theory. Students should appreciate that attempts to explain and predict
the shape of the black body radiation curve observed for hot objects were unable to
completely match the experimental observations. Attempts to explain the spectrum,
including Wien’s theory, which was only accurate at short wavelengths and deviated at
longer wavelengths, whilst the Rayleigh-Jeans theory suffered from the opposite problem.
The ultraviolet catastrophe predicted by the Rayleigh-Jeans theory serves as a clear
example to students of the failure of classical theories to explain black body radiation.

Planck proposed an empirical formula (that is, a formula that is supported by experimental
observations but not necessarily supported by theory). The details of his formula are
beyond the scope of this course, however the success of his formula in describing the
black body spectrum led him to make a bold suggestion that changed the direction of
scientific thinking.

He proposed that the energy distributed among the oscillations of atoms within molecules
(which were thought to be the source of the radiation) was not continuous but instead
consist of a finite number of tiny discrete amounts each related to the frequency of
oscillation. His proposal suggested that the energy of any oscillation could only take on a
whole number multiple of some small value, hf , or;

E=nhf

Where h is Planck’s constant ¿ 6.626 ×10−34 Js , f is the frequency, and n=1 ,2 , 3 ,….

Consider using analogies to reinforce the distinction between the continuous and discrete
natures of the respective classical and quantum models of energy. The Cosmos magazine
article, Quantum physics for the terminally confused (accessed 02/04/2020) outlines some

18 Physics Module 7 – the nature of light

 useful examples, including using the placing of a jar of peanut butter on a shelf in the
cupboard, and notably the inability to place it between shelves, to represent the
quantisation of energy.

Photoelectric effect
Definitions and correct terminology relating to the photoelectric effect are outlined in the
core concepts section of this module guide. Explicitly introducing this terminology will
support students in creating concise explanations relating to the photoelectric effect.

Students will apply their knowledge of the behaviour of charged particles in electric fields
to understand how the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons is measured.

Investigations and explanations of the photoelectric effect can be supported with

simulations such as PhET Photoelectric effect . Simulations allow students to visualise the
energies of photoelectrons and the application of a stopping voltage.

Students should be given opportunities to practice analysing plots of maximum kinetic

energy of photoelectrons versus the frequency of incident light. This should include
investigating the significance of the x and y-intercepts and gradient, along with the
interpretation of the scaled units of each axis. Students could be guided in applying the
general formula for a straight line, y=mx+b , to demonstrate the directly proportional
relationship between frequency and photon energy. However, if finding Planck’s constant
using the gradient, consider the units of energy.

Light and special relativity

Students can be introduced to Special relativity and Einstein’s thought experiments using
the hands-on investigation developed by the Perimeter Institute. Activity 4 in the
Contemporary Physics lesson compilation guides students to investigate time using the
models of Newton and Einstein using printed templates, drawing pins and string. A video
guide, along with printable student materials and worked solutions are included in the
lesson compilation.

Paul Hewitt has recorded a series of explanatory videos for physics students, his collection
of Hewitt Drew-It! videos on the Special theory of relativity use diagrams and examples to
introduce this topic including time dilation and length contraction.

Visual physics online’s discussion of evidence for time dilation and length contraction
outlines relevant evidence at a level of depth appropriate for Year 12 students.

When quantitatively introducing the impact of relative motion on measurements of time,

length and momentum, it can be useful to begin by determining the relativistic (or Lorentz)
1
γ=
factor
√ v 2 . Students can explore the magnitude of this factor for different relative
1− 2
c

© NSW Department of Education, Aug-2420

 velocities to develop an appreciation of relativistic speed, that is, the speed at which
relativistic effects become significant or need to be accounted for.

Investigating the mass-energy equivalence, E=m c2, can be used to build connections with
concepts in Module 8. Consider using examples that relate to Module 8 content such as
the transformation of radiation into matter via pair-production (for example, electron-
positron production) and the release of energy from hydrogen fusion in stars. Quantitative
analysis of these processes can support questioning and problem solving such as
estimating stellar lifetimes and will be applied later when studying the properties of the
nucleus topic.

Suggested investigations
A range of suggested investigations for this module, beyond those described in the
teaching strategies have been compiled in the Nature of light investigation handbook,
which has been included as an appendix to this guide.

20 Physics Module 7 – the nature of light

 Appendices
Appendix one: Models of light
The Olympus webpage, Light: Particle or a wave? introduces a debate over the nature of
light, highlighting the division between the models proposed by Newton and Huygens in
the early eighteenth century. Use the information in this website, or gather your own to
complete the following.
1. Outline the models of Newton and Huygens, support your responses with diagrams

Newton’s model Huygen’s model

2. Complete the table below to summarise the evidence supporting and/or

distinguishing between the models of light proposed by Newton and Huygens.

Phenomena Newton’s model Huygens Model Role as evidence

Refraction

Reflection

Diffraction, including
Young’s double slit
experiment

Polarisation

Photoelectric effect
(optional at this stage)

3. Construct a timeline showing the development of ideas and analyse the

relationships between evidence and understanding. Include the publication of their
respective models along with the finding of new experimental evidence. How many
years are there between events?

Appendix two: Sample question

Question 22 is part of the Year 12 Physics problem set published on the Curriculum
website.

© NSW Department of Education, Aug-2420

 Question 22 (6 marks)
In your studies in Physics, you investigated historical and contemporary methods used
to determine the speed of light. Outline two of the methods that you investigated and
compare how each method minimised error and uncertainty to improve the accuracy of
their measurement of the speed of light.

Marking criteria
Criteria Mark

 describes two methods used to determine the speed of light

 demonstrates a thorough understanding of error, uncertainty and
accuracy in first-hand investigations 6
 relates features of each method to the improved accuracy of the
measurement of the speed of light

 describes two methods used to determine the speed of light

 demonstrates an understanding of two of the following: error, un-
certainty and accuracy, in first-hand investigations 5
 relates features of each method to the improved accuracy of the
measurement of the speed of light
 outlines a method used to determine the speed of light
 demonstrates a sound understanding of at least one of the follow-
ing: error, uncertainty and accuracy, in first-hand investigations 3-4
 relates a feature of one of the methods to the improved accuracy of
the measurement of the speed of light
outlines a method used to determine the speed of light
or 2
demonstrates a sound understanding of error, uncertainty OR accuracy in
first-hand investigations
provides a general description of how the speed of light could be meas-
ured
1
or
identifies a basic understanding of error, uncertainty OR accuracy

Sample answer

Errors and uncertainty can limit the accuracy of measurements made in first-hand
investigations. The magnitude of the quantities to be measured, coupled with the
technologies used to measure them will affect the accuracy of the results obtained in an
investigation.

Methods used to measure the speed of light generally involve either:

22 Physics Module 7 – the nature of light

  the simultaneous measurements of distance and time to calculate the speed as
distance
speed= , or
time
 using wave properties of light to create standing waves, requiring measurements of
distance (wavelength) and frequency to calculate speed using the wave equation (
v=fλ ¿

When attempting to measure the speed of light, accuracy can be judged by the extent to
which the measured value for the speed of light agrees with its true value (c=3 × 108 m s−1).

Method 1 1840’s, Fizeau and a rotating cog

Image credit: Mod 5 – Question 15 NESA

In his experiment, intense light was shone at a mirror 8 km away. The light beam was
broken up by a rotating cog, as shown above. The speed of rotation was adjusted until the
reflected light been could no longer be seen returning through the gaps between the teeth
of the cogs. At this point, the cog will have rotated through exactly the angle required for a
tooth to block the part of the returning light in the time it took to travel the 16 km round trip
to the mirror and back.

The rotating cog is the technology used to make precise measurements of time with
relatively low uncertainty. Placing the mirror 8 km away increases the time the light takes
to travel. Together, this reduces the relative error in the time measurement and supports a
reasonably accurate measurement of the speed of light. He measured c≈≈ 3.13 ×108 ms−1,
which is within 5% of its true value.

© NSW Department of Education, Aug-2420

 Method 2 1894 – Hertz and the speed of radio waves using
standing waves

Hertz measured the speed of radio waves (predicted by Maxwell as part of the EM
spectrum that includes light and travels at speed, c, in a vacuum). He created a standing
wave by reflecting radio waves back towards the transmitter, as shown in the diagram. The
distance between adjacent anti-nodes was measured using a ring with a small gap across
which a spark would jump. This distance was equal to ½ the wavelength. The frequency of
waves could not be directly measured and was instead calculated from the transmitter
circuit details. By applying the wave equation, the velocity could then be determined.

The static nature of the node-antinode pattern removed the need to make measurements
at short time intervals, which plagued earlier efforts. Random errors in distance
measurements for determining the wavelength could be minimised by recording the
distance between a larger number of successive anti-nodes and dividing the result
accordingly. His measurement for the speed of radio waves (and therefore light) was
highly accurate and supported Maxwell’s earlier predictions.

Answers could also include:

Galileo’s shuttered lanterns, Roemer’s eclipse patterns, Foucault’s rotating mirror,

Michelson’s octagonal mirror, Michelson-Morley interferometer.

24 Physics Module 7 – the nature of light

 Appendix three: The nature of light investigation
handbook
Teachers Guide
Having an accessible practical equipment list allows you to copy and paste straight into
your school’s software or template for completing risk assessments. The risk assessment
tables included with each investigation have been partially completed to demonstrate their
use. Teachers and students could complete these tables as part of their risk assessment
practice.

It is not a syllabus requirement that these investigations be conducted as practical

investigations. However, simple investigations involving the collection of first-hand (or
simulated) data can improve student engagement and support the development of a
variety of Working Scientifically skills.

Equipment required
Investigation one: measuring the speed of light
 microwave
 ruler
 bar of chocolate
 calculator

Investigation two: spectroscopy

 a compact disc (CD)
 a cardboard tube (30cm long 10cm in diameter)
 two flat circular pieces of cardboard large enough to cover each end of the tube
 razor knife or box-cutter
 tape
 fluorescent light
 saw
 cutting guide (scaled for a 3-inch tube) PDF included
 access to a printer

Investigation three: black body radiation

 PhET simulation: Blackbody spectrum

© NSW Department of Education, Aug-2420

 Investigation four: diffraction of light
 red laser pointer (<1 mW)
 retort stand and clamps
 narrow slit attachment (alternatively, you can make your own with pencils)
 graph paper
 sticky tape
 a very dark room

Investigation five: Young’s double slit experiment

 red laser pointer (<1 mW)
 retort stand and clamps
 double slit attachment (alternatively, you can make your own with pencils)
 graph paper
 sticky tape
 a very dark room

Method
Investigation one: measuring the speed of light
All you need to do this experiment is a microwave, ruler, bar of chocolate and a calculator.
You could also use cheese, marshmallows, or choc drops. Remember to check for food
allergies. Adapted from Shadwick, B., 2020. Surfing NSW Physics Modules 5 & 6: Brian
Shadwick: 9780855837068.

Aim

To measure the speed of light using a microwave

Background knowledge

The typical frequency of a microwave oven is around 2450MHz = 2450000000Hz

Check the service plate on the back of the microwave for the frequency used and adjust
your calculations accordingly

v=fλ

Where:
8 −1
v=3 ×10 m s

26 Physics Module 7 – the nature of light

 9
f =2.45 ×10

Be familiar with Galileo’s experiment of first trying to measure the speed of light and
Roemer who proved that light travels at a finite speed. You could reproduce Galileo’s
experiment in a dark room with torches.

This investigation exploits the wave properties of light to measure its velocity. In this way, it
is like the method employed by Heinrich Hertz in measuring the speed of radio waves.

When waves are reflected back towards their source, the waves interfere to create
standing waves with alternating nodes (positions of zero displacement) and antinodes
(positions which vibrate between maximum positive and negative displacements). The
distance between any two consecutive antinodes, or nodes, is equal to half the wavelength
of component waves.

Draw a diagram of a standing wave pattern in the space below. Label the nodes and
antinodes along with a wavelength.

Risk assessment for investigation one

Identify hazard Evaluate risk Control measure used

Method
1. Remove turntable from microwave. The chocolate must be stationary when heated.
2. Put a plate upside down over the rotor to ensure chocolate remains stationary.
3. Place a bar of chocolate upside down, ensuring the middle of the chocolate is as
close as possible to the centre of the microwave.
4. Set the timer for 30 seconds. Note: This is too long, but you can open manually to
stop.
5. Start the microwave and heat chocolate until it starts to melt in two or three places-
usually around 20 seconds.
6. Open the door as soon as you see the melted hot spots form on the chocolate
7. Carefully take the chocolate out of the microwave.

© NSW Department of Education, Aug-2420

 8. Measure the distance between the centre of the melted spots, as accurately as you
can.
9. This distance represents half the wavelength of the microwaves (Note: remember to
change to metres).
10. Repeat the experiment 3 times and calculate the average wavelength of the
microwaves.

Results
 apply the formula v=fλ , and your measured wavelength to determine the speed of
microwaves
 compare your answers to the accepted value (3.00 ×10 8 m s−1)
 calculate your percentage error in your experiment from
[ measured value ] −[accepted value ] 100
 % Error= ×
[accepted value] 1
 write a brief discussion of your results including suggestions of how you could
improve the accuracy of the investigation.

Investigation two: CD Spectrometry

A spectroscope splits light up so that the different components are spread out allowing the
intensity of light at different waves to be observed.

Adapted from Exploratorium. 2020. CD Spectroscope. [online] Available at:

exploratorium.edu/snacks/cd-spectroscope [Accessed 25 March 2020].

Aim

Observe light at different wavelengths by turning an old CD into a spectroscope to analyse

light. You may be surprised by what you see.

Background knowledge

Visible light is composed of a spectrum of electromagnetic waves, each component having

its own wavelength. A spectroscope disperses the component wavelengths, separating
and displaying them so that they can be studied. CD’s can be used to build a spectroscope
as the circular tracks that information is recorded on are so close together that they can
act as a diffraction grating for light.

When the light enters the tube, its spectrum is spread out perpendicular to the CD tracks.
Therefore, the slit and the viewing hole are located at right angles. Each component is
diffracted according to its wavelength which spreads out the colours. For you to see the
spectrum, the light must diffract off the CD and be directed at your eye. Adjusting the tilt of
the CD allows you to align the spectrum so that it can be viewed.

Watch exploratorium.edu/snacks/cd-spectroscope (duration 2:17)

28 Physics Module 7 – the nature of light

 Risk assessment for investigation two
Identify hazard Evaluate risk Control measure used

Bright lights may cause eye

Light source
damage if viewed directly
Hot light globes may cause
Light source
burns

Cutting tools

Method
1. Print the cutting guide and wrap it around your tube. If needed, you can scale the
guide to ensure it wraps around your tube without a gap or overlap.
2. Use a saw to cut the tube at an angle along the curved line on the cutting guide. The
cut will make the CD tilt at an angle approximately 30 degrees from the end of the
tube.
3. Use a razor knife or box-cutter to cut the rectangular viewing hole—the black square
on the cutting guide. You can remove the cutting guide now.
4. Next, cut a clean slit less than 1 mm wide and 5 cm long in one of pieces of flat
cardboard (or plastic tube cap). Tape the flat cardboard onto the end of the tube
furthest from the CD—the top of the tube. Hold the tube as shown below and align
the slit horizontally.
5. Tape the second flat piece of cardboard (or plastic tube cap) over the bottom end of
the tube, behind the CD, to exclude any stray light.
6. Insert the CD into the CD slot, so that it reflects the light coming through the top slit
into your eye.
7. Hold the tube upright and point the top slit at a fluorescent light and press your eye
to the viewing hole.
8. On the CD, look for a clear, solid line of light broken up into coloured bands: this is
the spectrum of light reflected from fluorescent light onto the CD.

You may need to adjust the angle at which you look through the viewing hole at the CD to
find the best view of the light spectrum. Notice that the fluorescent light produces bright
lines. The bright lines are the spectrum of mercury gas inside the tube. An incandescent
light, by comparison, makes a continuous spectrum.

Note: consider trying to photograph the spectrum using a smartphone if you have one
available. This will allow you to describe, analyse and compare spectra without the need to

© NSW Department of Education, Aug-2420

 keep the light source and tube aligned. You could also share your best image with one of
your peers or class.

Results
 Sketch the spectra produced by a range of light sources, labelling any key features,
similarities or differences.
 Use the internet to find a picture of the emission spectra of common elements, that
is, bright line spectra. Then try and identify the elements present in the spectra of
the discharge tube you observed.
 Create a table to organise and share your results.

Investigation three: blackbody radiation

A blackbody is an idealised object that is a perfect absorber and emitter of radiation. That
is, it is capable of absorbing and emitting all wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation,
thus not reflecting any incident light. As it absorbs energy it heats up and re-radiates the
energy, producing a spectrum of light that is dependent only on its temperature.

Aim

Use the PhET black body simulation to reproduce a blackbody radiation curve for a range
of temperatures.

Background knowledge

The visible part of the spectrum contains electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths
ranging from 400 nm (violet) to 700 nm (red).

Wien’s Law;

b
λ max=
T

describes the relationship between the temperature, T, of an object and the peak
wavelength (the wavelength with the highest intensity), λ max. For hotter objects, the peak
wavelength occurs at a shorter wavelength. The constant, b, known as Wien’s
displacement constant, has a value of 2.898 ×10−3 m K .

Note: the unit of Wien’s constant is metres kelvin.

30 Physics Module 7 – the nature of light

 Risk assessment for investigation three
Identify hazard Evaluate risk Control measure used

Method

Open the PhET simulation – Blackbody spectrum.

Section one - the black body spectrum of an incandescent light globe

 set the temperature of the black body to 3000 K. This is approximately the
temperature of the tungsten filament of an incandescent light globe which behaves
like a blackbody. Use the zoom tools so that you can observe a large peak.
 turn on “Graph Values” to assist in reading values from the blackbody spectrum.
 complete questions 1-4 in the results section

Section two - comparing spectra of different objects

 set the temperature to 650 K, which is approximately the temperature of a very hot
oven. Notice that the RED line is the radiation emitted by the oven. The line may
appear flat, but it is not.
 use the zoom tools to enlarge the blackbody curve so that it can be viewed easily.
 complete question 5
 set the temperature to about 5800 K. This is approximately the surface temperature
of the sun. You may again need to adjust the zoom.
 complete questions 6-8

Section three - the relationship between peak wavelength and temperature

 this section explores the relationship between the peak wavelength and
temperature. For the following temperatures find the peak wavelength using the ruler
tool to help line up the peak with the x-axis. Enter your wavelengths in μm, that is
10-6 m.
 complete questions 9-13

Results

Section one
1. Does the light globe produce X-rays? Explain your answer.

© NSW Department of Education, Aug-2420

 2. Which wavelength is most intense and what colour is it?
3. Is an incandescent light globe an efficient light source? Explain and suggest
alternatives which would be better.
4. From the shape of the graph, would you expect the light globe to emit radio waves?
Explain your answer.

Section two
1. Compare the spectrum produced by the light bulb to that produced by the oven?
2. Compare the most intense wavelength (peak wavelength) produced by the light
globe to the most intense produced by the sun.
3. Explain the relationship you see between the radiation emitted by the sun and the
visible spectrum.
4. Is there evidence from the black body curve that the sun is producing ultraviolet
radiation? Explain your answer.

Section three

Note - you cannot fill in the 3rd column until after you have graphed your data

Results table for section 3

1 −4 −1
Temperature (K) Peak wavelength ¿) (×10 K )
T

500 20
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000

1. Plot a graph of wavelength against temperature on the grid below. Make sure your
axis starts at (0,0) and place temperature (the independent variable in our
investigation) on the x-axis.

32 Physics Module 7 – the nature of light

 2. Do you get a straight line? If not, you will need to process your data by manipulating
one of the variables to create a straight-line relationship. Complete the last column
in the table above by calculating the inverse of the temperature values. Represent
your calculated values for 1/T using the units described in the table as demonstrated
in the following example.

For the first row;

T =500

1 1 −4 −1
= =0.002=20× 10 K
T 500

Therefore, the first row of the last column would be 20.

Now redraw your graph with 1/T on the x-axis using the following grid.

© NSW Department of Education, Aug-2420

 1
3. What kind of relationship do you find between wavelength and ?
T
4. Write an equation including the value of the gradient for your straight-line graph.
5. The straight-line relationship you find is Wien’s law. Find the constant in this law and
compare your value with the accepted value provided in the background knowledge.

Investigation four: diffraction of light waves

All waves can exhibit diffraction. Diffraction is the spreading out of light as it passes around
the edge of an obstacle or through a narrow slit. Early observations of the diffraction of
light provided key evidence to support the wave model of light proposed by Huygens over
Newton’s particle model.

Aim

Observe the change in direction of the travel of waves as they pass through an opening.

Background knowledge

Simply stated, Huygen’s (pronounced HOY-guns) model of light is based on the proposal
that:

Each point of a wavefront acts as a source of secondary wavelets that expand forward
from that point.

Huygen’s model of light video (duration 6:42) successfully explains reflection, refraction
and diffraction.

34 Physics Module 7 – the nature of light

 Some key features of diffraction patterns produced by single slit diffraction are described
below.

The width of the central band is double the width of the band on either side of it. The
intensity of the maxima, that is the brightness, diminishes quickly with increased distance
from the centre of the screen. As the width of the slit is reduced the diffraction effect is
increased. This means that the bands are spread further apart as the width of the slit
decreases.

Risk assessment for investigation four

Identify hazard Evaluate risk Control measure used

Laser pointer Laser light can cause serious Keep laser at waist height to
eye damage prevent stray light entering
eyes
Post a warning sign on each
entrance to laboratory

Method

Note: As an alternative to this investigation watch the video Laser diffraction and
interference (duration 2:25) taking notes and sketching the different diffraction patterns
produced.
 Attach a red laser pointer (less than 1 mW) to a retort stand to hold the laser steady.
 Use narrow slit, your school may have these or you can make one. Sticky tape two
pencils together with one of the pencils having a few extra layers of sticky tape
placed over one end. This should make a very narrow gap through which the laser
light can be passed.
 A dark room.
 A screen to make observations, this could be a sheet of graph paper stuck on the
wall.
 Sticky tape to keep the laser switched on.
 Measure the width of the central fringe.
 Next change the width of the slit and observe how this changes the diffraction
pattern

Results

© NSW Department of Education, Aug-2420

 Draw and describe your diffraction pattern. You can also take a photograph. You may find
a different camera app than that which is installed by default on your smartphone will give
better results especially one which allows a longer exposure. A DSLR camera on manual
settings is an excellent alternative.

If you need reassurance that you are observing a diffraction pattern, then search the
internet for images of single slit diffraction and compare them your observations.

Investigation five: Young’s double slit experiment

Young carried out his experiment in the early 1800s. Young’s experimental findings played
a major role in the general acceptance of the wave theory model of light.

Aim

To show the interference of light passing through two narrow slits

Background knowledge

The waves that interfere with each other can be considered as both constructively and
destructively. Constructive interference lines produce bright bands and are also known as
anti-nodal lines. Whilst destructive interference produces dark bands and are also known
as nodal lines. When the light passing through the narrow slits strikes a screen, a
distinctive diffraction pattern of light and dark bands is observed. The position of the bright
bands on the screen can be determined using the following equation.

d sin θ=mλ

For further details on Young’s double slit experiment and on applying the above equation,
OpenStax College and sample problems with answers can be found on the Physics
Classroom.

Risk assessment for investigation five

Identify hazard Evaluate risk Control measure used

Laser pointer Laser light can cause serious Keep laser at waist height to
eye damage prevent stray light entering
eyes

Method

36 Physics Module 7 – the nature of light

  attach a red laser pointer (less than 1mW) to a retort stand to hold the laser steady.
 place a double slit in front of lasers path. Your school may have these, or you can
make you own. Instructions are available at How To Make Your Own Double Slit
Experiment.
 attach a screen to the wall you will be directing the laser light. Graph paper or a
piece of white paper will be suitable. Apply sticky tape to keep the laser switched on
 mark and measure the width of the central fringe.
 change the width of the slit and observe how this changes the diffraction pattern.

Note: The room may need to be very dark in order to clearly observe the interference
pattern.

Results

Construct a table of your results, along with a diagram showing how your equipment was
setup.

© NSW Department of Education, Aug-2420

 Resources
 VISUAL PHYSICS ONLINE Ian Cooper, School of Physics, University of Sydney

This website offers a comprehensive range of pdf’s that are tailored to support the Stage 6
Physics course in NSW. Each resource includes clear explanations, activities and makes
good use of diagrams to support understanding. Most resources also included
differentiated levels of explanation that can be tailored to suit the needs of your students.
 PHYSCLIPS Light

This site has a range of animations and recorded practical demonstrations to support
concepts covered in module 7. This includes a detailed demonstration of a modern method
for measuring the speed of light using a laser, a beam splitter and a CRO.
 compadre.org/physlets

This collection of interactive illustrations, explorations and problems for introductory

physics contains interactive activities based on a wide range of physics topics. The ‘Before
you start’ section contains explanations of how they can be used to support learning, with
a focus on developing deep learning through experimentation along with critical thinking
and problem-solving skills. Each activity contains detailed notes to guide learning and
exploration.
 A sample set of interactives relevant to this module include:
o Single slit diffraction (illustration)
o Modelling diffraction from a slit (exploration)
o Wavelength of light through a single slit (problem)

The Perimeter Institute

Each of the resources provided by the Perimeter Institute includes a video, lesson notes,
classroom worksheets and assessments with worked responses. They can be downloaded
for free from the Perimeter Institute website after registering for a free account. They have
an extensive collection of resources available to support learning and teaching of concepts
relevant to the Stage 6 Physics course. Specific examples relevant to this module are
listed below.
 Fields The resource contains a set of five activities. Activity 3: Maxwell’s equations,
explores the significance of each equation and scaffolds student understanding
through questioning, diagrams and hands-on activities.
 The expanding Universe Activity 2: The signature of the stars contains data driven
activities for students to explore the information contained in the light from stars.
Students will be guided through the analysis and display of spectral plots and
develop an understanding of the evidence for an expanding Universe provided by
the spectra of distant galaxies and Type 1a supernovas.

38 Physics Module 7 – the nature of light

  Contemporary Physics Activity 4: How does motion affect time, guides students to
investigate time using the models of Newton and Einstein using printed templates,
drawing pins and string.
 The challenge of quantum reality Activity 1: Video summary. Watching the video
provided in this package and completing the question included in activity 1 will
introduce students to the core principles of the wave-particle duality relevant to
Module 7. It would be suitable as a segue between the wave and quantum model
topics. The other activities in this lesson compilation could be set as extension work
for more advanced students.
 Year 12 Physics problem set – NSW Department of Education
This document contains questions to probe students’ understanding of various
concepts in the Year 12 course of the Stage 6 Physics syllabus. The questions have
been designed by NSW Physics teachers who attended the ‘Teaching the Year 12
modules in Stage 6 Science’ workshops in 2019, as well as the science curriculum
support officers at the Learning and Teaching Directorate. The problem set may be
used as classroom activities or in assessments to evaluate student understanding.
Teachers are free to adapt or modify the questions in this problem set to suit the
learning needs of their students.

J. S. Aslanides and C. M. Savage. (9 May 2013). Relativity concept inventory:

Development, analysis, and results. Phys. Rev. ST Phys. Educ. Res. 9, 010118.
DOI:https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevSTPER.9.010118

© NSW Department of Education, Aug-2420