UNIT I

DC GENERATORS

Generators
There are two types of generators, one is ac generator and other is dc generator. Whatever
may be the types of generators, it always converts mechanical power to electrical power. An
ac generator produces alternating power.

A DC generator produces direct power. Both of these generators produce electrical power, based
on same fundamental principle of Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. According to
these law, when an conductor moves in a magnetic field it cuts magnetic lines force, due to
which an emf is induced in the conductor. The magnitude of this induced emf depends upon the
rate of change of flux (magnetic line force) linkage with the conductor. This emf will cause an
current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed. Hence the most basic two essential parts of a
generator are

1. a magnetic field

2. Conductors which move inside that magnetic field.

Constructional Features

A DC generator has the following parts

1. Yoke
2. Pole of generator
3. Field winding
4. Armature of DC generator
5. Brushes of generator
6. Bearing
 Figure: A Cut Away View of Practical DC Generator

Yoke of DC Generator

Yoke of DC generator serves two purposes,

1. It holds the magnetic pole cores of the generator and acts as cover of the generator.

2. It carries the magnetic field flux.

In small generator, yoke are made of cast iron. Cast iron is cheaper in cost but heavier than steel.
But for large construction of DC generator, where weight of the machine is concerned, lighter
cast steel or rolled steel is preferable for constructing yoke of DC generator. Normally larger
yokes are formed by rounding a rectangular steel slab and the edges are welded together at the
bottom. Then feet, terminal box and hangers are welded to the outer periphery of the yoke frame.

Armature Core of DC Generator

The purpose of armature core is to hold the armature winding and provide low reluctance path
for the flux through the armature from N pole to S pole. Although a DC generator provides direct
current but induced current in the armature is alternating in nature. That is why, cylindrical or
drum shaped armature core is build up of circular laminated sheet. In every circular lamination,
slots are either die - cut or punched on the outer periphery and the key way is located on the
inner periphery as shown. Air ducts are also punched of cut on each lamination for circulation
of air through the core for providing better cooling.

Armature Winding of DC Generator

Armature winding are generally formed wound. These are first wound in the form of flat
rectangular coils and are then pulled into their proper shape in a coil puller. Various conductors
of the coils are insulated from each other. The conductors are placed in the armature slots,
which are lined with tough insulating material. This slot insulation is folded over above the
armature conductors placed in it and secured in place by special hard wooden or fiber wedges.

Commutator of DC Generator

The commutator plays a vital role in dc generator. It collects current from armature and sends it
to the load as direct current. It actually takes alternating current from armature and converts it to
direct current and then send it to external load. It is cylindrical structured and is build up of
wedge - shaped segments of high conductivity, hard drawn or drop forged copper. Each segment
is insulated from the shaft by means of insulated commutator segment shown below. Each
commutator segment is connected with corresponding armature conductor through segment riser
or lug.

Brushes of DC Generator

The brushes are made of carbon. These are rectangular block shaped. The only function of these
carbon brushes of DC generator is to collect current from commutator segments. The brushes are
housed in the rectangular box shaped brush holder. As shown in figure, the brush face is placed
on the commutator segment with attached to the brush holder.

Bearing of DC Generator

For small machine, ball bearing is used and for heavy duty dc generator, roller bearing is used.

The bearing must always be lubricated properly for smooth operation and long life of generator.
Emf equation for dc generator

The derivation of EMF equation for DC generator has two parts:

1. Induced EMF of one conductor

2. Induced EMF of the generator

Derivation for Induced EMF of One Armature Conductor

For one revolution of the conductor,

Let,
Φ = Flux produced by each pole in weber (Wb) and P

= number of poles in the DC generator. therefore,

Total flux produced by all the poles = ø*p

And,

Time taken to complete one revolution = 60/N

Where,

N = speed of the armature conductor in rpm.

Now,according to Faraday’s law of induction, the induced emf of the armature conductor is
denoted by “e” which is equal to rate of cutting the flux.

Therefore,

Induced emf of one conductor is

Derivation for Induced EMF for DC Generator

Let us suppose there are Z total numbers of conductor in a generator, and arranged in such a

manner that all parallel paths are always in series. Here,

Z = total numbers of conductor

A = number of parallel paths

Then,

Z/A = number of conductors connected in series

We know that induced emf in each path is same across

the line Therefore,

Induced emf of DC generator

E = emf of one conductor × number of conductor connected in series.

Induced emf of DC generator is

Simple wave wound generator

Numbers of parallel paths are only 2 = A

Therefore,

Induced emf for wave type of winding generator is

Simple lap-wound generator

Here, number of parallel paths is equal to number of conductors in one path i.e. P = A
Therefore,

Induced emf for lap-wound generator is

Methods Of Excitation

An electric generator or electric motor consists of a rotor spinning in a magnetic field. The
magnetic field may be produced by permanent magnets or by field coils. In the case of a machine
with field coils, a current must flow in the coils to generate the field, otherwise no power is
transferred to or from the rotor. The process of generating a magnetic field by means of an
electric current is called excitation.

For a machine using field coils, which is most large generators, the field current must be
supplied, otherwise the generator will be useless. Thus it is important to have a reliable supply.
Although the output of a generator can be used once it starts up, it is also critical to be able to
start the generators reliably. In any case, it is important to be able to control the field since this
will maintain the system voltage.

Types of excitation

(1)seperately excited generator.

(2)self excited generator.

self generator is classified into 3 types.

1.shunt generator.

2.series generator.

3.compound generator.

compoud generator is again classified into 2 types.

1.short shunt generator.

2.long shunt generator.

Separately excited generators.

These kind of generators has provided field exciter terminals which are external DC
voltage source is supplies to produce separately magnetic field winding (shunt field) for
magnetize of the generator as illustrated in figure as below.
 Self excited field generators.

This type of generator has produced a magnetic field by itself without DC sources from an
external. The electromotive force that produced by generator at armature winding is supply to a
field winding (shunt field) instead of DC source from outside of the generator. Therefore, field
winding is necessary connected to the armature winding. They may be further classified as

a) Shunt generator.

This generator, shunt field winding and armature winding are connected in
parallel through commutator and carbon brush as illustrated in the figure below.

Shunt generator

b) Series generator
The field winding and armature winding is connected in series. There is different from shunt
motor due to field winding is directly connected to the electric applications (load).
Therefore, field winding conductor must be sized enough to carry the load current
consumption and the basic circuit as illustrated below
 Series generator

c) Compound generator
The compound generator has provided with magnetic field in combine with excitation of shunt
and series field winding, the shunt field has many turns of fine wire and caries of a small current,
while the series field winding provided with a few turns of heavy wire since it is in series with an
armature winding and caries the load current. There are two kinds of compound generator as
illustrated in figures below.

A short-shunt compound generator

Characteristic of separately excited generator

The generated electromotive force (EMF) is proportional to both of a magnetic density of flux
per pole and the speed of the armature rotated as expression by the relation as following.

Eg = κ φ n
 Where

K = Constant for a specific machine

φ = The density of flux per pole n
= Speed of the armature rotation
Eg = Generator voltage

By holding the armature speed (n) at a constant value it can show that generator voltage (Eg) is
directly proportional to the magnetic flux density. Which, flux density is proportionately to the
amount of field current (If). The relation of field current and generate voltage as impressed by
figure .

From the figure when the field current (If) is become zero a small generate voltage is produce
due to a residual magnetism.

As the field current increases cause to increase generated voltage linearly up to the knee of the
magnetization curve. Beyond this point by increasing the field current still further causes
saturation of the magnetic structure.

Generator voltage (Eg) is also directly to the armature speed. The formula and a magnetization
curve can be both impressed about this relation.

Where

Eg = Generator voltage or the value of EMF at speed n

Eg' = Generator voltage or the value of EMF at speed
n’ n = Speed of the generator armature ( n’ ≠ n )
Voltage Regulation

When we add load on the generator, the terminal voltage will decrease due to

(a) The armature winding resistance is mainly of armature resistance. It is cause

directly decrease in terminal voltage as following relation.

Vt = Eg - Ia Ra

Where,

Vt = Terminal or output voltage

Ia = Armature current or load current

Ra = Armature resistance

(a) Load characteristic o (b) Circuit diagram a separately excited DC

generator

The decrease in magnetic flux due to armature reaction. The armature current establishes a
magneto motive force (MMF), which it distorts to main flux, and makes result in weakened flux.
We can put inter-pole between main field poles to reduce the armature reaction.

To have some measure by how much the terminal voltage change from no-load condition and
on load condition, which is called “voltage regulation”.

Where Vnl = No-load terminal voltage Vfl = Full-load terminal voltage

Remark:

A separately excited generator has disadvantage of requiring an external DC source. It

is therefore used only where a wide range of terminal voltage required.

Example 2

The separately excited generator of example 1 is driven at revolving speed 1000 rpm and the
field current is adjusted to 0.6 Amp. If the armature circuit resistance is 0.28 ohm, plot the output
voltage as the load current is varied from 0 to 60 Amp. Neglect armature reaction effects. If the
full-load current is 60 Amp, what is the voltage regulation?

Solution

From example 1, Eg = 153 volts when the field current is 0.6 Amp, which is the open
circuit terminal voltage. When the generator is loaded, the terminal voltage is decreased by
internal voltage drop,

namely.

Vt = Eg - Ia Ra

For a load current of, say 40 Amp.

Vt = 153 - (40 × 0.28) = 141.80 Volts.

This calculation is for a number of load currents and the external characteristic
can be plotted as show in fig. 10 at full load the terminal voltage.

Vt = 153 - (60 × 0.28) = 136.20 Volts.

Critical Field Resistance And Critical Speed

The critical field resistance is the maximum field circuit resistance for a given speed with
which the shunt generator would excite. The shunt generator will build up voltage only if field
circuit resistance is less than critical field resistance. It is a tangent to the open circuit
characteristics of the generator at a given speed.

Suppose a shunt generator has built up voltage at a certain speed. Now if the speed of the
prime mover is reduced without changing Rf, the developed voltage will be less as because the
O.C.C at lower speed will come down (refer to figure). If speed is further reduced to a certain
critical speed (ncr), the present field resistance line will become tangential to the O.C.C at ncr.
For any speed below ncr, no voltage built up is possible in a shunt generator.

Critical Speed
Load characteristics
Self excited DC shunt generator

A shunt generator has its shunt field winding connected in parallel with the armature so that
the machine provides it own excitation. For voltage to build up, there must be some residual
magnetism in the field poles. There will be a small voltage (Er) generated.

(a) Shunt generator circuit (b) load characteristic of shunt generator

If the connection of the field and armature winding are such that the weak main pole flux aids to
the residual flux, the induced voltage will become larger. Thus more voltage applied to the main
field pole and cause to the terminal voltage increase rapidly to a large value. When we add load
on the generator, the terminal voltage will decrease due to. The armature winding resistance

a) The armature reaction

c) The weakened flux due to the connection of the generator to aids or oppose to the residual

Series Generator
The field winding of a series generator is connect in series with the armature winding. Since it
carries the load current, the series field winding consists of only a few turns of thick wire. At no-
load, the generator voltage is small due to residual field flux only. When a load is added, the
flux increase, and so does the generated voltage.

a) Circuit diagram of series generator (b) load characteristics

Figure shows the load characteristic of a series generator driven at a certain speed. The dash line
indicated the generated EMF of the same machine with the armature opencircuited and the field
separated excited. The different between the two curves is simply the voltage drop (IR) in the
series field and armature winding.

V t = Eg - Ia Ra + Rf

Where

Rf = The series field winding resistance

Ra = The armature winding resistance

The series generators are obviously not suited for applications requiring good voltage regulation.
Therefore, they have been used very little and only in special applications for example, as
voltage booster. The generator is placed in series with a supply line. When the current
consumption is increase, the generated voltage of the series machine goes up because the
magnetic field current is increases.

Compound generator
The compound generator has both a shunt and a series winding. The series field winding usually
wound on the top of a shunt field. The two winding are usually connected such that their ampere-
turns act in the same direction. As such the generator is said to be cumulatively compound.

Simple circuit for compound generator

(a) Curve s is represent the terminal voltage characteristic of shunt field winding alone. Under-
compound, this condition the addition of series field winding too short it is cause the
terminal voltage no rise to certain value and reduce while increasing in load current.
(b) Flat compound by increasing the number of a series field turns. It is cause to rise up in
terminal voltage and when no-load and full load condition a terminal voltage is made
nearly same value or equal.

(c) Over-compound, if the number of series field turns is more than necessary to compensated of
the reduce voltage. In this case while a full load condition a terminal voltage is higher than a
no-load voltage. Therefore over-compound generator may use where load is at some
distance from generator. Voltage drop in the line has compensated by used of an over-
compound generator.

(d) If a reversing the polarity of the series field occur this cause to the relation between series
field and shunt field, the field will oppose to each other more and more as the load current
increase. Therefore terminal voltage will drop, such generator is said to be a differentially
compound.
The compound generator are used more extensively than the other type of dc generator because
its design to have a wide variety of terminal voltage characteristics.

Machine Efficiency
The efficiency of any machine is the ratio of the ratio of the output power to the input power.
The input power is provided by the prime mover to drive the generator. Because part of the
energy delivered to the generator is converted into heat, it represents wasted energy. These losses
are generally minimized in the design stage; however, some of these losses are unavoidable.

Losses of generator
The losses of generators may be classified as

1) Copper losses
The copper losses are present because of the resistance of the windings. Currents flowing
through these windings create ohmic losses. The windings that may be present in addition
to the (I2 R ) armature winding are the field windings, inter-pole and compensate windings.

2) Iron losses
 As the armature rotates in the magnetic field, the iron parts of the armature as well as the
conductors cut the magnetic flux. Since iron is a good conductor of electricity, the EMF s
induced in the iron parts courses to flow through these parts. These are the eddy currents.
Another loss occurring in the iron is due to the Hysteresis loss is present in the armature core.

3) Other rotational losses consist

of
3.1 bearing friction loss

3.2 friction of the rushes riding on the commutator

3.3 windage losses

Windage losses are those associated with overcoming air friction in setting up circulation
currents of air inside the machine for cooling purposes. These losses are usually very small.

Applications Of Dc Generators
Applications of Separately Excited DC Generators

These types of DC generators are generally more expensive than self-excited DC generators
because of their requirement of separate excitation source. Because of that their applications are
restricted. They are generally used where the use of self-excited generators are unsatisfactory.

1. Because of their ability of giving wide range of voltage output, they are generally used for
testing purpose in the laboratories.

2. Separately excited generators operate in a stable condition with any variation in field
excitation. Because of this property they are used as supply source of DC motors, whose
speeds are to be controlled for various applications. Example- Ward Leonard Systems of
speed control.

Applications of Shunt Wound DC Generators

The application of shunt generators are very much restricted for its dropping voltage
characteristic. They are used to supply power to the apparatus situated very close to its position.
These type of DC generators generally give constant terminal voltage for small distance
operation with the help of field regulators from no load to full load.

1. They are used for general lighting.

2. They are used to charge battery because they can be made to give constant output voltage.
3. They are used for giving the excitation to the alternators.
4. They are also used for small power supply.
Applications of Series Wound DC Generators

These types of generators are restricted for the use of power supply because of their
increasing terminal voltage characteristic with the increase in load current from no load to full
load. We can clearly see this characteristic from the characteristic curve of series wound
generator. They give constant current in the dropping portion of the characteristic curve. For this
property they can be used as constant current source and employed for various applications.

1.They are used for supplying field excitation current in DC locomotives for
regenerative breaking.

2.This types of generators are used as boosters to compensate the voltage drop in the feeder
in various types of distribution systems such as railway service.

3.In series arc lightening this type of generators are mainly used.

Applications of Compound Wound DC Generators

Among various types of DC generators, the compound wound DC generators are most
widely used because of its compensating property. We can get desired terminal voltage by
compensating the drop due to armature reaction and ohmic drop in the in the line. Such
generators have various applications.

1. Cumulative compound wound generators are generally used lighting, power supply purpose
and for heavy power services because of their constant voltage property. They are mainly
made over compounded.

2. Cumulative compound wound generators are also used for driving a motor.
3. For small distance operation, such as power supply for hotels, offices, homes and lodges,
the flat compounded generators are generally used.

4. The differential compound wound generators, because of their large demagnetization armature
reaction, are used for arc welding where huge voltage drop and constant current is
required.
At present time the applications of DC generators become very limited because of
technical and economic reasons. Now days the electric power is mainly generated in the form
of alternating current with the help of various power electronics devices.
 UNIT – II

DC MOTORS

Direct Current Motor (DC motor)

DC motor is similar to dc generator; in fact the same machine can act as motor or generator. The
only difference is that in a generator the EMF is greater than terminal voltage, whereas in motor
the generated voltage EMF is less than terminal voltage. Thus the power flow is reversed, that is
the motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. That is the reverse process of
generator.

DC motors are highly versatile machines. For example, dc motors are better suited fore many
processes that demand a high degree of flexibility in the control of speed and torque. The dc
motor can provided high starting torque as well as high decelerating torque for application
requiring quick stop or reversals.

DC motors are suited in speed control with over wide range is easily to achieve compare with
others electromechanical.

DC Motor Basic Principles

(a) Energy Conversion

If electrical energy is supplied to a conductor lying perpendicular to a magnetic

field, the interaction of current flowing in the conductor and the magnetic field will
produce mechanical force (and therefore, mechanical energy).

(b) Value of Mechanical Force

There are two conditions which are necessary to produce a force on the conductor. The
conductor must be carrying current, and must be within a magnetic field. When these two
conditions exist, a force will be applied to the conductor, which will attempt to move the
conductor in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic field. This is the basic theory by
which all DC motors operate.
 The force exerted upon the conductor can be expressed as follows.

F = B i l Newton (1)

where B is the density of the magnetic field, l is the length of conductor, and i the value of
current flowing in the conductor. The direction of motion can be found using Fleming’s Left

Hand Rule.

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

The first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field (first - field), which goes
from the North pole to the South pole. The second finger points in the direction of the current in
the wire (second - current). The thumb then points in the direction the wire is thrust or pushed
while in the magnetic field (thumb - torque or thrust).

Principle of operation
Consider a coil in a magnetic field of flux density B (figure ). When the two ends of the
coil are connected across a DC voltage source, current I flows through it. A force is exerted on
the coil as a result of the interaction of magnetic field and electric current. The force on the two
sides of the coil is such that the coil starts to move in the direction of force.

Fig.1. Torque production in a DC motor

 In an actual DC motor, several such coils are wound on the rotor, all of which
experience force, resulting in rotation. The greater the current in the wire, or the greater the
magnetic field, the faster the wire moves because of the greater force created.

At the same time this torque is being produced, the conductors are moving in a
magnetic field. At /dt) as shown in different positions, the flux linked with it changes, which
causes an emf to be induced (e = d figure 5. This voltage is in opposition to the voltage that
causes current flow through the conductor and is referred to as a counter-voltage or back emf.

Fig.2. Induced voltage in the armature winding of DC motor

The value of current flowing through the armature is dependent upon the difference between the
applied voltage and this counter-voltage. The current due to this counter-voltage tends to oppose
the very cause for its production according to Lenz’s law. It results in the rotor slowing down.

Eventually, the rotor slows just enough so that the force created by the magnetic field (F = Bil)
equals the load force applied on the shaft. Then the system moves at constant velocity.

Construction
DC motors consist of one set of coils, called armature winding, inside another set of coils or a set
of permanent magnets, called the stator. Applying a voltage to the coils produces a torque in the
armature, resulting in motion.

Stator

The stator is the stationary outside part of a motor.

 The stator of a permanent magnet dc motor is composed of two or more permanent magnet
pole pieces.
The magnetic field can alternatively be created by an electromagnet. In this case, a DC coil
(field winding) is wound around a magnetic material that forms part of the stator.
Rotor

The rotor is the inner part which rotates.

The rotor is composed of windings (called armature windings) which are connected to the
external circuit through a mechanical commutator. Both stator and rotor are made of
ferromagnetic materials. The two are separated by air-gap.
Winding

A winding is made up of series or parallel connection of coils.

Armature winding - The winding through which the voltage is applied or induced.
Field winding - The winding through which a current is passed to produce flux

(for the electromagnet)

Windings are usually made of copper.

Torque Developed

The turning or twisting moment of a force about an axis is called torque. It is measured by
the product of the force and the radius at which this force acts.
Consider a pulley of radius meter acted upon by a circumferential force of newton which
causes it to rotate at rpm.

Armature torque of a motor

Shaft torque
Induced Counter-voltage (Back emf):
Due to the rotation of this coil in the magnetic field, the flux linked with it changes at different
positions, which causes an emf to be induced (refer to figure 2).

The induced emf in a single coil, e = døc/dt

Since the flux linking the coil, c= Sin

Induced voltage , e = cos t (4)

Note that equation (4) gives the emf induced in one coil. As there are several coils wound all
around the rotor, each with a different emf depending on the amount of flux change through
it, the total emf can be obtained by summing up the individual emfs.

The total emf induced in the motor by several such coils wound on the rotor can be obtained by
integrating equation (4), and expressed as:

Eb = K m (5)

where K is an armature constant, and is related to the geometry and magnetic properties of
the motor, and m is the speed of rotation.

The electrical power generated by the machine is given by:

Pdev = Eb Ia = K m Ia (6)

DC Motor Equivalent circuit

The schematic diagram for a DC motor is shown below. A DC motor has two distinct
circuits: Field circuit and armature circuit. The input is electrical power and the output is
mechanical power. In this equivalent circuit, the field winding is supplied from a separate DC
voltage source of voltage Vf. Rf and Lf represent the resistance and inductance of the field
winding. The current If produced in the winding establishes the magnetic field necessary for
motor operation. In the armature (rotor) circuit, VT is the voltage applied across the motor
terminals, Ia is the current flowing in the armature circuit, Ra is the resistance of the armature
winding, and Eb is the total voltage induced in the armature.
 Fig.4. DC motor representation

Counter EMF in DC motor

When voltage is applied to dc motor, current will flow into the positive brush through the
commutator into the armature winding. The motor armature winding is identical to the generator
armature winding. Thus the conductors on the north field poles are carry current in one direction,
while all conductors on the south field poles carry the current in opposite direction. When the
armature carry current it will produce a magnetic field around the conductor of it own which
interact with the main field. It is cause to the force developed on all conductors and tending to
turn the armature.

The armature conductors continually cut through this resultant field. So that voltages are
generated in the same conductors that experience force action. When operating the motor is
simultaneously acting as generator. Naturally motor action is stronger than generator action.

Although the counter EMF is opposite with the supplied voltage, but it cannot exceed to applied
voltage. The counter EMF is serves to limit the current in an armature winding. The armature
current will be limited to the value just sufficient to take care of the developed power needed to
drive the load.

In the case of no load is connected to the shaft. The counter EMF will almost equal to the applied
voltage. The power develops by the armature in this case is just the power needed to overcome
the rotational losses. It’s mean that the armature current IA is controlled and limited by counter
EMF therefore
Where:

VL = Line voltage across the armature winding

Ra = Resistance of the armature winding

Ea = Induced EMF or generated voltage

Ia = Armature current

Since, EA is induced or generated voltage it is depend on the flux per pole and the speed of the
armature rotate (n) in rpm.

Therefore
Ea=Kφn

Where:

K = the constant value depending on armature winding and number of pole of

machine.

φ = Rotation of the armature

Where:

Z = Total number of conductor in the armature winding

a = Number of parallel circuit in the armature winding between positive and negative
brushes. For wave wound armature “a” = 2

Lap wound armature “a” = P

Mechanical power develop in dc motor (Pd)

Let,

Pd = Mechanical power develop

T = Torque exerted on the armature

Pd = ωT
DC Machine Classification
DC Machines can be classified according to the electrical connections of the armature
winding and the field windings. The different ways in which these windings are connected lead
to machines operating with different characteristics. The field winding can be either self-excited
or separately-excited, that is, the terminals of the winding can be connected across the input
voltage terminals or fed from a separate voltage source (as in the previous section). Further, in
self-excited motors, the field winding can be connected either in series or in parallel with the
armature winding. These different types of connections give rise to very different types of
machines, as we will study in this section.

(a) Separately excited machines

The armature and field winding are electrically separate from each other.
The field winding is excited by a separate DC source.

Fig.5. Separately excited dc motor

The voltage and power equations for this machine are same as those derived in the
previous section. Note that the total input power = Vf If + VT Ia

(b)Self excited machines

In these machines, instead of a separate voltage source, the field winding is connected
across the main voltage terminals.

1.Shunt machine

The armature and field winding are connected in parallel.

The armature voltage and field voltage are the same.

Fig.6. shunt motor

Total current drawn from the supply, IL = If + Ia

Total input power = VT IL

Voltage, current and power equations are given in equations (7), (8) and (9).

2.Series DC machine

The field winding and armature winding are connected in series.

The field winding carries the same current as the armature winding.
A series wound motor is also called a universal motor. It is universal in the sense that it will

run equally well using either an ac or a dc voltage source.

Reversing the polarity of both the stator and the rotor cancel out. Thus the motor will
always rotate the same direction regardless of the voltage polarity.

Fig.7.Series Motor

Compound DC machine

If both series and shunt field windings are used, the motor is said to be compounded. In
a compound machine, the series field winding is connected in series with the armature, and the
shunt field winding is connected in parallel. Two types of arrangements are possible in
compound motors:

Cumulative compounding - If the magnetic fluxes produced by both series and shunt field
windings are in the same direction (i.e., additive), the machine is called cumulative compound.

Differential compounding - If the two fluxes are in opposition, the machine is differential
compound.

In both these types, the connection can be either short shunt or long shunt.
Speed control of DC motor
Many applications require the speed of a motor to be varied over a wide range. One of
the most attractive features of DC motors in comparison with AC motors is the ease with which
their speed can be varied.

We know that the back emf for a separately excited DC motor:.

From the above equation, it is evident that the speed can be varied by using any of the
following methods:

Armature voltage control (By varying VT)

Field Control (By Varying )
Armature resistance control (By varying Ra)

Armature voltage control

This method is usually applicable to separately excited DC motors. In this method of

speed control, Ra and are kept constant.

In normal operation, the drop across the armature resistance is small compared to Eb and
therefore: EbVT

Since, Eb = Kø ωm

Angular speed can be expressed as:

ωm= VT/ Kø (8)

From this equation, If flux is kept constant, the speed changes linearly with VT.

As the terminal voltage is increased, the speed increases and vice versa.
The relationship between speed and applied voltage is shown in figure 8. This
method provides smooth variation of speed control.

Fig.8.Variation of speed with applied voltage

Field Control , ( )

In this method of speed control, Ra and VT remain fixed.

Therefore, from equation (7):

m I/

Assuming magnetic linearity, If

(OR) m I/IF (9)

i.e., Speed can be controlled by varying field current If.

The field current can be changed by varying an adjustable rheostat in the field circuit (as
shown in figure 9).
By increasing the value of total field resistance, field current can be reduced, and
therefore speed can be increased.

The relationship between the field winding current and angular speed is shown in figure 10

Fig.10: Variation of speed with field current

Armature Resistance Control

The voltage across the armature can be varied by inserting a variable resistance in series with
the armature circuit.

Fig.11. Armature resistance method for speed control

From speed-torque characteristics , we know that:

For a load of constant torque VT and are kept constant, as the armature resistance Ra is

increased, speed decreases. As the actual resistance of the armature winding is fixed for a given
motor, the overall resistance in the armature circuit can be increased by inserting an additional
variable resistance in series with the armature. The variation if speed with respect to change in
this external resistance is shown in figure 12. This method provides smooth control of speed..

Fig. 12: Variation of speed with external armature resistance

DC Shunt Motor speed control

All three methods described above can be used for controlling the speed of DC Shunt Motors.

Series Motor speed control

The speed is usually controlled by changing an external resistance in series with the armature.
The other two methods described above are not applicable to DC series motor speed control.

Applications of dc motors

Types of Losses in a DC Machines

The losses can be divided into three types in a dc machine (Generator or Motor). They are

1. Copper losses
2. Iron or core losses and
3. Mechanical losses.

All these losses seem as heat and therefore increase the temperature of the machine. Further
the efficiency of the machine will reduce.

1. Copper Losses:

This loss generally occurs due to current in the various windings on of the machine. The
different winding losses are;

2
Armature copper loss = I a Ra
Shunt field copper loss = I
2 shRsh
2
Series field copper loss = I se Rse
Note: There’s additionally brush contact loss attributable to brush contact resistance (i.e.,

resistance in the middle of the surface of brush and commutator). This loss is mostly enclosed
in armature copper loss.

2. Iron Losses

This loss occurs within the armature of a d.c. machine and are attributable to the rotation of
armature within the magnetic field of the poles. They’re of 2 sorts viz.,

(i) Hysteresis loss

(ii)eddy current loss.

Hysteresis loss:

Hysteresis loss happens in the armature winding of the d.c. machine since any given part of the
armature is exposed to magnetic field of reverses as it passes underneath sequence poles. The
above fig shows the 2 pole DC machine of rotating armature. Consider a tiny low piece ab of the
armature winding. Once the piece ab is underneath N-pole, the magnetic lines pass from a to b.
Half a revolution well along, identical piece of iron is underneath S-pole and magnetic lines pass
from b to a in order that magnetism within the iron is overturned. So as to reverse constantly the
molecular magnets within the armature core, particular quantity of power must be spent that is
named hysteresis loss. It’s given by Steinmetz formula.

The steinmetz formula is

Hysteresis loss Ph= ηB16max fV watts

Where,
η = Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient

Bmax = Maximum flux Density in armature winding

 F= Frequency of magnetic reversals

= NP/120 (N is in RPM)
3
V= Volume of armature in m

If you want to cut back this loss in a d.c. machine, armature core is created of such materials that
have an lesser value of Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient e.g., silicon steel.

Eddy current loss:

In addition to the voltages evoked within the armature conductors, some of other voltages
evoked within the armature core. These voltages turn out current currents within the coil core as
shown in Fig. These are referred to as eddy currents and power loss attributable to their flow is
named eddy current loss. This loss seems as heat that increases the temperature of the machine
and efficiency will decrease.

If never-ending cast-iron core is employed, the resistance to eddy current path is tiny attributable
to massive cross-sectional space of the core. Consequently, the magnitude of eddy current and
therefore eddy current loss are massive. The magnitudes of eddy current are often decreased by
creating core resistance as high as sensible. The core resistances are often greatly exaggerated by
making the core of skinny, spherical iron sheets referred to as lamination's shown in the fig. The
lamination's are insulated from one another with a layer of varnish. The insulating layer features
a high resistance, thus only small amount of current flows from one lamination to the opposite.
Also, as a result of every lamination is extremely skinny, the resistance to current passing over
the breadth of a lamination is additionally quite massive. Therefore laminating a core will
increase the core resistance that drops the eddy current and therefore the eddy current loss.

2 22
Eddy Current loss Pe=KeB maxf t V Watts

Where, ke = constant

2
Bmax = Maximum flux density in wb/m

T = Thickness of lamination in m
 3
V = Volume of core in m

Note: Constant (Ke) depend upon the resistance of core and system of unit used.
It may well be noted that eddy current loss be subject to upon the sq. of lamination thickness. For
this reason, lamination thickness ought to be unbroken as tiny as potential.

3.Mechanical Loss

These losses are attributable to friction and windage.

Friction loss occurs due to the friction in bearing, brushes etc.

windage loss occurs due to the air friction of rotating coil.

These losses rely on the speed of the machine. Except for a given speed, they're much constant.

Constant and Variable Losses

The losses in a d.c. machine is also further classified into (i) constant losses (ii) variable losses.

Constant losses

Those losses in a d.c. generator that stay constant at all loads are referred to as constant losses.

The constant losses in a very d.c. generator are:

(a)iron losses

(b)mechanical losses

(c)shunt field losses

Variable losses

Those losses in a d.c. generator that differ with load are referred to as variable losses. The
variable losses in a very d.c. generator are:

2
Copper loss in armature winding (I Ra)
2
Copper loss in series field winding (I seRse)

Total losses = Constant losses + Variable losses.

Generally this copper loss is constant for shunt and compound generators.
Three point starter

The figure above shows that typical representation diagram of a 3 point starter for DC shunt
motors with its protective devices. It contains 3 terminals namely L, Z, & A; hence named 3
point starter. The starter is made up of of starting resistances divided into many section and
which are connected in series within the armature. The each tapping point on the starting
resistances is carried out to a no. of studs. The starter 3 terminals L,Z & A are connected to the
positive terminal of line, shunt field and armature terminal of motor respectively. The remaining
terminal of the shunt and armature are connected to the negative line terminal. The No volt coil
release is connected in series with field winding. The handle one end is connected to the L
terminal by means of over load release coil. Then another end of handle travels against the
twisting spring & make touching base with every single stud in the course of starting operation,
tripping out the starting resistance as it moves above every stud in clockwise.

Armature Reaction in DC Motor

Working:

Initially the DC supply is turned on with the handle is in OFF position.

st
Now the handle is moved towards clockwise direction to the 1 stud. Once it contacts with st
the 1 stud, immediately the shunt field coil is connected to the supply, however the
entire starting resistances is injected with armature circuit in series.
 As the handle moved gradually towards the final stud, so that the starting resistance is cut
out step by step in armature circuit. And finally the handle is detained magnetically by the
No volt coil release since it is energized by the filed winding.
In case if the shunt field winding excitation is cut out by accident or else the supply is
interrupted then the no volt coil release gets demagnetized and handle returned back to
the original position under the influence of spring.

Note: If we were not used No volt coil release; then if the supply is cut off the handle
would remain in the same position, causing an extreme current in armature.

If any fault occurs on motor or overload, it will draw extreme current from the source. This
current raise the ampere turns of OLR coil (over load relay) and pull the armature Coil, in
consequence short circuiting the NVR coil (No volt relay coil). The NVR coil gets
demagnetized and handle comes to the rest position under the influence of spring.
Therefore the motor disconnected from the supply automatically.
Characteristic of DC Shunt Motor

Disadvantage:

In point starter, no volt relay coil is connected in series with field circuit; hence it carries shunt
current in the field. When the speed control of DC motor through field regulator, it may be
weakened the shunt field current to such extent the no volt coil release might not in a position
to hold the starter handle in ON position. This might the motor disconnected from the source
when it is not anticipated. This can be overcome by using the point starter.

Swinburne’s Test for DC Machines

In this technique, the DC Generator or DC Motor is run as a motor at no load; with that losses of
the DC machines are determined. When the losses of DC machine well-known, then we can find
the efficiency of a DC machine in advance at any desired load. In DC machines this test
is applicable only throughout the flux is constant at all load (DC Shunt machine and DC
Compound Machine). This test maintains of two steps;

Determination of Hot Resistance of Windings:

The resistance of armature windings and shunt field windings are measured with the help of a battery,
ammeter and voltmeter. Since these armature and shunt filed resistances are measured while the DC
machine is cold, it should be transformed to values equivalent to the temperature at which the DC
machine would work at full load. These values are measured generally when the
o
room temperature increases above 40 C. Take on the hot resistance of armature winding and

shunt field winding be Ra and Rsh correspondingly.

Determination of Constant Losses:

On no load the DC machine run as a motor with the supply voltage is varied to the normal
rated voltage. With the use of the field regulator R the motor speed is varied to run the rated
speed which is shown in the figure.

Let

V = Supply Voltage

I0 = No load current read by A1

Ish = Shunt Field current ready by A2

No load armature current Iao = I0 – Ish

No load Input power to motor = VI0

No load Input power to motor = VIa0

= V (I0 – Ish)

As the output power is nil, the no loads input power to the armature provides Iron loss, armature
copper loss, friction loss and windage loss.

Constant loss Wc = Input power to Motor – Armature copper loss

2
Wc = VI0 – (I0 – Ish Ra)
As the constant losses are identified, the efficiency of the DC machine at any loads can be
determined. Suppose it is desired to determine the DC machine efficiency at no load current.
Then,

Armature current Ia = I-Ish (For Motoring)

Ia = I+Ish (For Generating)

To find the Efficiency when running as a motor:

Input power to motor = VI

2 2
Armature copper loss =Ia Ra = (I-Ish Ra)

Constant Loss = Wc

Total Loss = (I-Ish2Ra)+Wc

Motor Efficiency η = (Input power – Losses)/ Input
2
η = {VI – (I-I R )} / VI
sh a

To find the Efficiency when running as a Generator:

Output Power of Generator = VI

2 2
Armature copper loss =Ia Ra = (I+Ish Ra)

Constant Loss = Wc
2
Total Loss = (I+Ish Ra)+Wc

Motor Efficiency η= Output power/ (Output power + Losses)

2
η = VI / {VI + (I+Ish Ra) + Wc}

Merits:

Since this test is no load test, power required is less. Hence the cost is economic.
The efficiency of the machine can be found very easily, because the constant losses are
well known.
This test is appropriate.

Demerits:
When the DC machine is loaded, this test does not deliberate the stray load loss that
occurs.
Using this method we cannot check the DC machine performances at full load.
 UNIT – IV

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

TRANSFORMERS
The transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to
another electrical circuit. The two circuits may be operating at different voltage levels but always
work at the same frequency. Basically transformer is an electro-magnetic energy conversion
device. It is commonly used in electrical power system and distribution systems.

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

INTRODUCTION

In its simplest form a single-phase transformer consists of two windings, wound on an

iron core one of the windings is connected to an ac source of supply f. The source supplies a
current to this winding (called primary winding) which in turn produces a flux in the iron core.
This flux is alternating in nature (Refer Figure 4.1). If the supplied voltage has a frequency f, the
flux in the core also alternates at a frequency f. the alternating flux linking with the second
winding, induces a voltage E2 in the second winding (called secondary winding). [Note that this
alternating flux linking with primary winding will also induce a voltage in the primary winding,
denoted as E1. Applied voltage V1 is very nearly equal to E1]. If the number of turns in the
primary and secondary windings is N1 and N2 respectively, we shall see later in this unit that

The load is connected across the secondary winding, between the terminals a1, a2. Thus, the load
can be supplied at a voltage higher or lower than the supply voltage, depending upon the ratio
N1/N2
When a load is connected across the secondary winding it carries a current I2, called load
current. The primary current correspondingly increases to provide for the load current, in
addition to the small no load current. The transfer of power from the primary side (or source) to
the secondary side (or load) is through the mutual flux and core. There is no direct electrical
connection between the primary and secondary sides.

In an actual transformer, when the iron core carries alternating flux, there is a power loss in the
core called core loss, iron loss or no load loss. Further, the primary and secondary windings have
a resistance, and the currents in primary and secondary windings give rise to I 2 R losses in
transformer windings, also called copper losses. The losses lead to production of heat in the
transformers, and a consequent temperature rise. Therefore, in transformer, cooling methods are
adopted to ensure that the temperature remains within limit so that no damage is done to
windings’ insulation and material.

In the Figure 4.1 of a single-phase transformer, the primary winding has been shown connected
to a source of constant sinusoidal voltage of frequency f Hz and the secondary terminals are kept
open. The primary winding of N1 turns draws a small amount of alternating current of
instantaneous value i0, called the exciting current. This current establishes flux φ in the core (+ve
direction marked on diagram). The strong coupling enables all of the flux φ to be confined to the
core (i.e. there is no leakage of flux).

CONSTRUCTION OF A TRANSFORMER
There are two basic parts of a transformer:

1. Magnetic core
2. Winding or coils

MAGNETIC CORE:

The core of a transformer is either square or rectangular in size. It is further divided in

two parts. The vertical portion on which the coils are bound is called limb, while the top and bottom
horizontal portion is called yoke of the core as shown in fig. 2.

Core is made up of laminations. Because of laminated type of construction, eddy current losses get
minimized. Generally high grade silicon steel laminations (0.3 to 0.5 mm thick) are used. These
laminations are insulated from each other by using insulation like varnish. All laminations are
varnished. Laminations are overlapped so that to avoid the airgap at the joints. For this generally
‗L‘ shaped or ‗I‘ shaped laminations are used which are shown in the fig. 3 below.
WINDING:

There are two windings, which are wound on the two limbs of the core, which are
insulated from each other and from the limbs as shown in fig. 4. The windings are made up of
copper, so that, they possess a very small resistance. The winding which is connected to the load
is called secondary winding and the winding which is connected to the supply is called primary
winding. The primary winding has N1 number of turns and the secondary windings have N2
number of turns.

Fig. 4 Single Phase Transformer

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF A SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

A single phase transformer works on the principle of mutual induction between two magnetically
coupled coils. When the primary winding is connected to an alternating voltage of r.m.s value,
V1 volts, an alternating current flows through the primary winding and setup an alternating flux
in the material of the core. This alternating flux ϕ, links not only the primary windings but also
the secondary windings. Therefore, an e.m.f e1 is induced in the primary winding and an e.m.f
e2 is induced in the secondary winding, e1 and e2 are given:

If the induced e.m.f is e1 and e2 are represented by their rms values E1 and E2 respectively, then

K is known as the transformation ratio of the transformer. When a load is connected to the
secondary winding, a current I2 flows through the load, V2 is the terminal voltage across the
load. As the power transfered from the primary winding to the secondary winding is
same, Power input to the primary winding = Power output from the secondary winding.

The directions of emf‘s E1 and E2 induced in the primary and secondary windings are such

that, they always oppose the primary applied voltage V1.

EMF Equation of a transformer:

Consider a transformer having,

N1 =Primary turns

N2 = Secondary turns
Φm = Maximum flux in the core

Φm = Bm × A webers

f= frequency of ac input in hertz (Hz)

The flux in the core will vary sinusoidal as shown in figure, so that it increases from zero
to maximum “ϕm” in one quarter of the cycle i.e, 1/4f second.
i.e, E1 =4.44fφm×N1 = 4.44fB m×A×N1

Similarly;

E2= 4.44 f φm × N2 = 4.44 f Bm × A × N2

Transformation Ratio:
(1) Voltage Transformation Ratio
(2) Current Transformation Ratio

Voltage Transformation Ratio:

Voltage transformation ratio can be defined as the ratio of the secondary voltage to the primary
voltage denoted by K.

Current Transformation Ratio:

Consider an ideal transformer and we have the input voltampere is equal to output
voltampere. Mathematically, Input Voltampere = Output Voltampere
 TRANSFORMER ON NO-LOAD

Theory of Transformer On No-load, and Having No Winding Resistance and No Leakage

Reactance of Transformer

Let us consider one electrical transformer with only core losses, which means, it has only
core losses but no copper loss and no leakage reactance of transformer. When an alternating
source is applied in the primary, the source will supply the current for magnetizing the core of
transformer.

But this current is not the actual magnetizing current, it is little bit greater than actual
magnetizing current. Actually, total current supplied from the source has two components, one
is magnetizing current which is merely utilized for magnetizing the core and other component of
the source current is consumed for compensating the core losses in transformer. Because of this
core loss component, the source current in transformer on no-load condition supplied from the
source as source current is not exactly at 90° lags of supply voltage, but it lags behind an angle θ
is less than 90°. If total current supplied from source is Io, it will have one component in phase
with supply voltage V1 and this component of the current Iw is core loss component. This
component is taken in phase with source voltage, because it is associated with active or working
losses in transformer. Other component of the source current is denoted as Iμ. This component
produces the alternating magnetic flux in the core, so it is watt-less; means it is reactive part of
the transformer source current. Hence Iμ will be in quadrature with V1 and in phase with
alternating flux Φ.

Hence, total primary current in transformer on no-load condition can be represented as

Now you have seen how simple is to explain the theory of transformer in no-load.
 TRANSFORMER ON LOAD

Theory of Transformer On Load But Having No Winding Resistance and Leakage

Reactance

Now we will examine the behavior of above said transformer on load, that means load is
connected to the secondary terminals. Consider, transformer having core loss but no copper loss
and leakage reactance. Whenever load is connected to the secondary winding, load current will
start to flow through the load as well as secondary winding. This load current solely depends
upon the characteristics of the load and also upon secondary voltage of the transformer. This
current is called secondary current or load current, here it is denoted as I2. As I2 is flowing
through the secondary, a self mmf in secondary winding will be produced. Here it is N 2I2, where,
N2 is the number of turns of the secondary winding of transformer.
This mmf or magneto motive force in the secondary winding produces flux φ2. This φ2 will
oppose the main magnetizing flux and momentarily weakens the main flux and tries to reduce
primary self induced emf E1. If E1 falls down below the primary source voltage V1, there will be
an extra current flowing from source to primary winding. This extra primary current I 2′ produces
extra flux φ′ in the core which will neutralize the secondary counter flux φ2. Hence the main
magnetizing flux of core, Φ remains unchanged irrespective of load.

So total current, this transformer draws from source can be divided into two components, first
one is utilized for magnetizing the core and compensating the core loss i.e. Io. It is no-load
component of the primary current. Second one is utilized for compensating the counter flux of
the secondary winding. It is known as load component of the primary current. Hence total no
load primary current I1 of a electrical power transformer having no winding resistance and
leakage reactance can be represented as follows

Where θ2 is the angle between Secondary Voltage and Secondary Current of transformer.

Now we will proceed one further step toward more practical aspect of a transformer.

Transformer On Load, With Resistive Winding, But No Leakage Reactance

Now, consider the winding resistance of transformer but no leakage reactance. So far we have
discussed about the transformer which has ideal windings, means winding with no resistance and
leakage reactance, but now we will consider one transformer which has internal resistance in the
winding but no leakage reactance. As the windings are resistive, there would be a voltage drop
in the windings.
We have proved earlier that, total primary current from the source on load is I1. The voltage drop
in the primary winding with resistance, R1 is R1I1. Obviously, induced emf across primary
winding E1, is not exactly equal to source voltage V1. E1 is less than V1 by voltage drop I1R1.

Again in the case of secondary, the voltage induced across the secondary winding, E 2 does
not totally appear across the load since it also drops by an amount I2R2, where R2 is the
secondary winding resistance and I2 is secondary current or load current.

Similarly, voltage equation of the secondary side of the transformer will be

Theory of Transformer On Load, With Resistance As Well As Leakage Reactance

in Transformer Windings

Now we will consider the condition, when there is leakage reactance of transformer as well
as winding resistance of transformer.

Let leakage reactances of primary and secondary windings of the transformer are X 1 and X2
respectively.

Hence total impedance of primary and secondary winding of transformer with resistance R1
and R2 respectively, can be represented as,
We have already established the voltage equation of a transformer on load, with only
resistances in the windings, where voltage drops in the windings occur only due to resistive
voltage drop. But when we consider leakage reactances of transformer windings, voltage drop
occurs in the winding not only because of resistance, it is because of impedance of transformer
windings. Hence, actual voltage equation of a transformer can easily be determined by just
replacing resistances R1 & R2 in the previously established voltage equations by Z1 and Z2.

Therefore, the voltage equations are,

Resistance drops are in the direction of current vector but, reactive drop will be perpendicular
to the current vector as shown in the above vector diagram of transformer.

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer

Equivalent impedance of transformer is essential to be calculated because the electrical power
transformer is an electrical power system equipment for estimating different parameters of
electrical power system which may be required to calculate total internal impedance of an
electrical power transformer, viewing from primary side or secondary side as per requirement.
This calculation requires equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary or equivalent
circuit of transformer referred to secondary sides respectively. Percentage impedance is also very
essential parameter of transformer. Special attention is to be given to this parameter during
installing a transformer in an existing electrical power system. Percentage impedance of different
power transformers should be properly matched during parallel operation of power transformers.
The percentage impedance can be derived from equivalent impedance of transformer so, it can
be said that equivalent circuit of transformer is also required during calculation of % impedance.
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Primary

For drawing equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary, first we have to establish
general equivalent circuit of transformer then, we will modify it for referring from primary side.
For doing this, first we need to recall the complete vector diagram of a transformer which is
shown in the figure below

Let us consider the transformation ratio be,

In the figure above, the applied voltage to the primary is V1 and voltage across the primary
winding is E1. Total current supplied to primary is I1. So the voltage V1 applied to the primary
is partly dropped by I1Z1 or I1R1 + j.I1X1 before it appears across primary winding. The voltage
appeared across winding is countered by primary induced emf E1. So voltage equation of this
portion of the transformer can be written as,
The equivalent circuit for that equation can be drawn as below,

From the vector diagram above, it is found that the total primary current I1 has two components, one
is no - load component Io and the other is load component I2′. As this primary current have

two components or branches, so there must be a parallel path with primary winding of
transformer. This parallel path of current is known as excitation branch of equivalent circuit of
transformer. The resistive and reactive branches of the excitation circuit can be represented as

The load component I2′ flows through the primary winding of transformer and induced voltage

across the winding is E1 as shown in the figure right. This induced voltage E 1 transforms to
secondary and it is E2 and load component of primary current I2′ is transformed to secondary as

secondary current I2. Current of secondary is I2. So the voltage E2 across secondary winding is
partly dropped by I2 Z2 or I2R2 + j.I2X2 before it appears across load. The load voltage is V2.

The complete equivalent circuit of transformer is shown below.

Now if we see the voltage drop in secondary from primary side, then it would be ′K′ times
greater and would be written as K.Z2.I2. Again I2′.N1 = I2.N2

Therefore,

From above equation, secondary impedance of transformer referred to primary is,

So, the complete equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary is shown in the
figure below,
Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Transformer

Since Io is very small compared to I1, it is less than 5% of full load primary current, Io changes
the voltage drop insignificantly. Hence, it is good approximation to ignore the excitation circuit
in approximate equivalent circuit of transformer. The winding resistance and reactance being in
series can now be combined into equivalent resistance and reactance of transformer, referred to
any particular side. In this case it is side 1 or primary side.

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Secondary

In similar way, approximate equivalent circuit of transformer referred to secondary can be

drawn.

Where equivalent impedance of transformer referred to secondary, can be derived as

Losses in Transformer:

Losses of transformer are divided mainly into two types:

1. Iron Loss
2. Copper Losses

IRON LOSS:

This is the power loss that occurs in the iron part. This loss is due to the alternating frequency of
the emf. Iron loss in further classified into two other losses.

a) Eddy current loss

b) Hysterisis loss

a) Eddy Current Loss:

This power loss is due to the alternating flux linking the core, which will induced an emf in the
core called the eddy emf, due to which a current called the eddy current is being circulated in the
core. As there is some resistance in the core with this eddy current circulation converts into heat
called the eddy current power loss. Eddy current loss is proportional to the square of the supply
frequency.

b) Hysterisis Loss:

This is the loss in the iron core, due to the magnetic reversal of the flux in the core, which
results in the form of heat in the core. This loss is directly proportional to the supply frequency.

Eddy current loss can be minimized by using the core made of thin sheets of silicon steel
material, and each lamination is coated with varnish insulation to suppress the path of the eddy
currents. Hysterisis loss can be minimized by using the core material having high permeability.

COPPER LOSS:

This is the power loss that occurs in the primary and secondary coils when the transformer is on
load. This power is wasted in the form of heat due to the resistance of the coils. This loss is
proportional to the sequence of the load hence it is called the Variable loss where as the Iron
loss is called as the Constant loss as the supply voltage and frequency are constants
EFFICIENCY:
It is the ratio of the output power to the input power of a

transformer Input = Output + Total losses

= Output + Iron loss + Copper loss

where,

Wcopper is the copper loss at full load

2
Wcopper = I R watts

CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY:

In general for the efficiency to be maximum for any device the losses must be minimum.
Between the iron and copper losses the iron loss is the fixed loss and the copper loss is
the variable loss. When these two losses are equal and also minimum the efficiency will
be maximum.

Therefore the condition for maximum efficiency in a transformer

is Copper loss = Iron loss
O.C. and S.C. Tests on Single Phase Transformer

The efficiency and regulation of a transformer on any load condition and at any power
factor condition can be predetermined by indirect loading method. In this method, the actual
load is not used on transformer. But the equivalent circuit parameters of a transformer are
determined by conducting two tests on a transformer which are,

1. Open circuit test (O.C Test)

2. Short circuit test (S.C.Test)

The parameters calculated from these test results are effective in determining the
regulation and efficiency of a transformer at any load and power factor condition, without
actually loading the transformer. The advantage of this method is that without much power loss
the tests can be performed and results can be obtained. Let us discuss in detail how to perform
these tests and how to use the results to calculate equivalent circuit parameters.

Open Circuit Test (O.C. Test)

The experimental circuit to conduct O.C test is shown in the Fig. 1.
 Fig 1. Experimental circuit for O.C. test

The transformer primary is connected to a.c. supply through ammeter, wattmeter and
variac. The secondary of transformer is kept open. Usually low voltage side is used as primary
and high voltage side as secondary to conduct O.C test.

The primary is excited by rated voltage, which is adjusted precisely with the help of a
variac. The wattmeter measures input power. The ammeter measures input current. The
voltemeter gives the value of rated primary voltage applied at rated frequency.

Sometimes a voltmeter may be connected across secondary to measure secondary voltage

which is V2 = E2 when primary is supplied with rated voltage. As voltmeter resistance is very
high, though voltmeter is connected, secondary is treated to be open circuit as voltmeter current
is always negligibly small.

When the primary voltage is adjusted to its rated value with the help of variac, readings of
ammeter and wattmeter are to be recorded.

Let,

Vo = Rated voltage

Wo = Input power

Io = Input current = no load current

As transformer secondary is open, it is on no load. So current drawn by the primary is

no load current Io. The two components of this no load current are,

Im = Io sin Φo

Ic = Io cos Φo

where cos Φo = No load power factor

And hence power input can be written as,

Wo = Vo Io cos Φo
 The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig.

Fig.

As secondary is open, I2 = 0. Thus its reflected current on primary is also zero. So we have

primary current I1 =Io. The transformer no load current is always very small, hardly 2 to 4 % of its
full load value. As I2 = 0, secondary copper losses are zero. And I1 = Io is very low hence copper
losses on primary are also very very low. Thus the total copper losses in O.C. test are negligibly

small. As against this the input voltage is rated at rated frequency hence flux density in the core is at
its maximum value. Hence iron losses are at rated voltage. As output power is zero and copper

losses are very low, the total input power is used to supply iron losses. This power is measured by
the wattmeter i.e. Wo. Hence the wattmeter in O.C. test gives iron losses

which remain constant for all the loads.

...
Wo = Pi = Iron losses

Calculations : We know that,

Wo = Vo Io cos Φ

cos Φo = Wo /(Vo Io ) = no load power factor

Once cos Φo is known we can obtain,

Ic = Io cos Φo
and Im = Io sin Φo

Once Ic and Im are known we can determine exciting circuit parameters as,

Ro = Vo /Ic Ω

and Xo = Vo /Im Ω
Key Point : The no load power factor cos Φo is very low hence wattmeter used must be low

power factor type otherwise there might be error in the results. If the meters are connected on

secondary and primary is kept open then from O.C. test we get Ro'and Xo' with which we can

obtain Ro and Xo knowing the transformation ratio K.

Short Circuit Test (S.C. Test)

In this test, primary is connected to a.c. supply through variac, ammeter and voltmeter as
shown in the Fig. 3.

Experimental circuit for O.C. test

The secondary is short circuited with the help of thick copper wire or solid link. As high
voltage side is always low current side, it is convenient to connect high voltage side to
supply and shorting the low voltage side.

As secondary is shorted, its resistance is very very small and on rated voltage it may
draw very large current. Such large current can cause overheating and burning of the
transformer. To limit this short circuit current, primary is supplied with low voltage which
is just enough to cause rated current to flow through primary which can be observed on an
ammeter. The low voltage can be adjusted with the help of variac. Hence this test is also
called low voltage test or reduced voltage test. The wattmeter reading as well as voltmeter,
ammeter readings are recorded.

Now the current flowing through the windings are rated current hence the total copper loss is
full load copper loss. Now the voltage supplied is low which is a small fraction of the rated
voltage. The iron losses are function of applied voltage. So the iron losses in reduced voltage
test are very small. Hence the wattmeter reading is the power loss which is equal to full load
copper losses as iron losses are very low.
 .
.. Wsc = (Pcu) F.L. = Full load copper loss Calculations :

From S.C. test readings we can write,

Wsc = Vsc Isc cos Φsc

.
.. cos Φsc = Vsc Isc /Wsc = short circuit power factor
2
Wsc = Isc R1e = copper loss
. 2
.. R1e =Wsc /Isc
2 2
while Z1e =Vsc /Isc = √(R1e + X1e )
. 2 2
.. X1e = √(Z1e - R 1e )

Thus we get the equivalent circuit parameters R1e, X1e and Z1e. Knowing the
transformation ratio K, the equivalent circuit parameters referred to secondary also can be
obtained.

Important Note : If the transformer is step up transformer, its primary is L.V. while
secondary is H.V. winding. In S.C. test, supply is given to H.V. winding and L.V is shorted.
In such case we connect meters on H.V. side which is transformer secondary through for
S.C. test purpose H.V side acts as primary. In such case the parameters calculated from S.C.
test readings are referred to secondary which are R2e, Z2e and X2e. So before doing
calculations it is necessary to find out where the readings are recorded on transformer
primary or secondary and accordingly the parameters are to be determined. In step down
transformer, primary is high voltage itself to which supply is given in S.C. test. So in such
case test results give us parameters referred to primary i.e. R1e, Z1e and X1e.

Key point : In short, if meters are connected to primary of transformer in S.C. test,
calculations give us R1e and Z1e if meters are connected to secondary of transformer in
S.C. test calculations give us R2e and Z2e.

Calculation of Efficiency from O.C. and S.C. Tests

We know that,

From O.C. test, Wo = Pi

From S.C. test, Wsc = (Pcu) F.L.

Thus for any p.f. cos Φ2 the efficiency can be predetermined. Similarly at any

load which is fraction of full load then also efficiency can be predetermined as,

where n = fraction of full load

where I2= n (I2) F.L.

Calculation of Regulation

From S.C. test we get the equivalent circuit parameters referred to primary or secondary.

The rated voltages V1, V2 and rated currents (I1) F.L. and (I2) F.L. are known for the
given transformer. Hence the regulation can be determined as,

where I1, I2 are rated currents for full load regulation.

For any other load the currents I1, I2 must be changed by fraction n.

.
. . I1, I2 at any other load = n (I1) F.L., n (I2) F.L.

Key Point : Thus regulation at any load and any power factor can be predetermined, without
actually loading the transformer.
Sumpner's Test Or Back-To-Back Test On Transformer

Sumpner's test or back to back test on transformer is another method for

determining transformer efficiency, voltage regulation and heating under loaded conditions.
Short circuit and open circuit tests on transformer can give us parameters of equivalent
circuit of transformer, but they cannot help us in finding the heating information. Unlike O.C.
and S.C. tests, actual loading is simulated in Sumpner's test. Thus the Sumpner's test give
more accurate results of regulation and efficiency than O.C. and S.C. tests.

Sumpner's Test
Sumpner's test or back to back test can be employed only when two identical transformers
are available. Both transformers are connected to supply such that one transformer is loaded
on another. Primaries of the two identical transformers are connected in parallel across a
supply. Secondaries are connected in series such that emf's of them are opposite to each
other. Another low voltage supply is connected in series with secondaries to get the readings,
as shown in the circuit diagram shown below.

In above diagram, T1 and T2 are identical transformers. Secondaries of them are connected
in voltage opposition, i.e. EEF and EGH. Both the emf's cancel each other, as transformers are
identical. In this case, as per superposition theorem, no current flows through secondary.
And thus the no load test is simulated. The current drawn from V1 is 2I0, where I0 is equal
to no load current of each transformer. Thus input power measured by wattmeter W 1 is
equal to iron losses of both transformers.

i.e. iron loss per transformer Pi = W1/2.

Now, a small voltage V2 is injected into secondary with the help of a low voltage
transformer. The voltage V2 is adjusted so that, the rated current I2 flows through the
secondary. In this case, both primaries and secondaries carry rated current. Thus short
circuit test is simulated and wattmeter W2 shows total full load copper losses of both
transformers.

i.e. copper loss per transformer PCu = W2/2.

From above test results, the full load efficiency of each transformer can be given as –

Predetermination of Voltage Regulation

Modern power systems operate at some standard voltages. The equipments working on these
systems are therefore given input voltages at these standard values, within certain agreed
tolerance limits. In many applications this voltage itself may not be good enough for
obtaining the best operating condition for the loads. A transformer is interposed in between
the load and the supply terminals in such cases. There are additional drops inside the
transformer due to the load currents. While input voltage is the responsibility of the supply
provider, the voltage at the load is the one which the user has to worry about.

If undue voltage drop is permitted to occur inside the transformer the load voltage becomes
too low and affects its performance. It is therefore necessary to quantify the drop that takes
place inside a transformer when certain load current, at any power factor, is drawn from its
output leads. This drop is termed as the voltage regulation and is expressed as a ratio of the
terminal voltage (the absolute value per se is not too important).

The voltage regulation can be defined in two ways - Regulation Down and Regulation up.
These two definitions differ only in the reference voltage as can be seen below. Regulation
down: This is defined as ‖ the change in terminal voltage when a load current at any power
factor is applied, expressed as a fraction of the no-load terminal voltage.

Expressed in symbolic form we have,

Where,

Vnl is the no-load terminal voltage.

Vl is load voltage.

Normally full load regulation is of interest as the part load regulation is going to be lower.

This definition is more commonly used in the case of alternators and power systems as the

user-end voltage is guaranteed by the power supply provider. He has to generate proper no-
load voltage at the generating station to provide the user the voltage he has asked for. In the

expressions for the regulation, only the numerical differences of the voltages are taken and
not vector differences.

In the case of transformers both definitions result in more or less the same value for the
regulation as the transformer impedance is very low and the power factor of operation is quite
high. The power factor of the load is defined with respect to the terminal voltage on load.
Hence a convenient starting point is the load voltage. Also the full load output voltage is
taken from the name plate. Hence regulation up has some advantage when it comes to its
application. Fig. 23 shows the phasor diagram of operation of the transformer under loaded
condition. The no-load current I0 is neglected in view of the large magnitude of I‘2.
Fig. Regulation of Transformer
Fig. Variation of full load regulation with power factor
Predetermination of Efficiency

Transformers which are connected to the power supplies and loads and are in
operation are required to handle load current and power as per the requirements of the load.
An unloaded transformer draws only the magnetization current on the primary side, the
secondary current being zero. As the load is increased the primary and secondary currents
increase as per the load requirements. The volt amperes and wattage handled by the
transformer also increases. Due to the presence of no load losses and I2R losses in the
windings certain amount of electrical energy gets dissipated as heat inside the transformer.
This gives rise to the concept of efficiency.

Efficiency of power equipment is defined at any load as the ratio of the power
output to the power input. Putting in the form of an expression,

While the efficiency tells us the fraction of the input power delivered to the load, the
deficiency focuses our attention on losses taking place inside transformer. As a matter of fact
the losses heat up machine. The temperature rise decides the rating of the equipment.

The temperature rise of the machine is a function of heat generated the structural
configuration, method of cooling and type of loading (or duty cycle of load). The peak
temperature attained directly affects the life of the insulations of the machine for any class of
insulation.
 Fig. Efficiency

A typical curve for the variation of efficiency as a function of output is given in Fig. The
losses that take place inside the machine expressed as a fraction of the input is sometimes
termed as deficiency. Except in the case of an ideal machine, a certain fraction of the input
power gets lost inside the machine while handling the power. Thus the value for the
efficiency is always less than one. In the case of a.c. machines the rating is expressed in
terms of apparent power. It is nothing but the product of the applied voltage and the current
drawn. The actual power delivered is a function of the power factor at which this current is
drawn. As the reactive power shuttles between the source and the load and has a zero average
value over a cycle of the supply wave it does not have any direct effect on the efficiency. The
reactive power however increases the current handled by the machine and the losses resulting
from it. Therefore the losses that take place inside a transformer at any given load play a vital
role in determining the efficiency. The losses taking place inside a transformer can be
enumerated as below:

1. Primary copper loss

2. Secondary copper loss

3. Iron loss

4. Dielectric loss

5. Stray load loss

These are explained in sequence below.

Primary and secondary copper losses take place in the respective winding resistances due to
the flow of the current in them

The primary and secondary resistances differ from their d.c. values due to skin effect
and the temperature rise of the windings. While the average temperature rise can be
approximately used, the skin effect is harder to get analytically. The short circuit test gives
the value of Re taking into account the skin effect.

The iron losses contain two components - Hysteresis loss and Eddy current loss. The
Hysteresis loss is a function of the material used for the core.

For constant voltage and constant frequency operation this can be taken to be constant. The
eddy current loss in the core arises because of the induced emf in the steel lamination sheets
and the eddies of current formed due to it. This again produces a power loss Pe in the
lamination.

where t is the thickness of the steel lamination used. As the lamination thickness is
much smaller than the depth of penetration of the field, the eddy current loss can be reduced
by reducing the thickness of the lamination. Present day laminations are of 0.25 mm
thickness and are capable of operation at 2 Tesla. These reduce the eddy current losses in the
core. This loss also remains constant due to constant voltage and frequency of operation. The
sum of hysteresis and eddy current losses can be obtained by the open circuit test.

The dielectric losses take place in the insulation of the transformer due to the large
electric stress. In the case of low voltage transformers this can be neglected. For constant
voltage operation this can be assumed to be a constant.

The stray load losses arise out of the leakage fluxes of the transformer. These leakage
fluxes link the metallic structural parts, tank etc. and produce eddy current losses in them.
Thus they take place ‘all round‘ the transformer instead of a definite place , hence the name
‘stray‘. Also the leakage flux is directly proportional to the load current unlike the mutual
flux which is proportional to the applied voltage. Hence this loss is called ‘stray load‘ loss.
This can also be estimated experimentally. It can be modeled by another resistance in the
series branch in the equivalent circuit. The stray load losses are very low in air-cored
transformers due to the absence of the metallic tank

Thus, the different losses fall in to two categories Constant losses (mainly voltage dependant) and
Variable losses (current dependant). The expression for the efficiency of the transformer
operating at a fractional load x of its rating, at a load power factor of Ө2, can be written as

Here S in the volt ampere rating of the transformer (V‘2 I‘2 at full load), Pconst being
constant losses and Pvar the variable losses at full load.
 UNIT - V

THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

5.1 Introduction

Electric power is generated in generating stations, using three phase alternators at 11 KV.

This voltage is further stepped up to 66 KV, 110 KV, 230 KV or 400 KV using 3 phase

power transformers and power is transmitted at this high voltage through transmission

lines. At the receiving substations, these high voltages are stepped down by 3 phase

transformers to 11 KV. This is further stepped down to 400 volts at load centers by means

of distribution transformers. For generation, transmission and distribution, 3 phase system

is economical. Therefore 3 phase transformers are very essential for the above purpose.

The sectional view of a 3 phase power transformer is shown in Fig.4.1.

Fig. 4.1 100 KVA oil immersed power transformer

1. Tap-changer switch handle

2. Porcelain-bushing insulator (For high voltage)
3. Bushing insulators (For low voltages)
4. Oil gauge
5. Oil tank
6. Breather plug
7. Cooling pipes
8. Tank front wall
9. Core,
10. High voltage winding
11. Low voltage winding
12. Wheels or rollers.

4.2 Construction of Three phase Transformer

Three phase transformers comprise of three primary and three secondary windings. They

are wound over the laminated core as we have seen in single phase transformers. Three

phase transformers are also of core type or shell type as in single phase transformers. The

basic principle of a three phase transformer is illustrated in fig 4.2 in which the primary

windings and secondary windings of three phases are shown. The primary windings can be

inter connected in star or delta and put across three phase supply.

Fig. 4.2 3-phase core-type Transformer

The three cores are 120° apart and their unwound limbs are shown in contact with each

other. The center core formed by these three limbs, carries the flux produced by the

three phase currents IR, IY and IB. As at any instant IR+Iy+IB=0, the sum of three fluxes

(flux in the center limb) is also zero.

Therefore it will make no difference if the common limb is removed. All the three limbs

are placed in one plane in case of a practical transformer as shown in fig 4.3.
The core type transformers are usually wound with circular cylindrical coils. The

construction and assembly of laminations and yoke of a three phase core type transformer

is shown in fig 4.4 one method of arrangement of windings in a three phase transformer is

shown.

Fig. 4.3 A practical core type three phase transformer

Fig. 4.4 Core type transformer windings and construction

In the other method the primary and secondary windings are wound one over the other in
each limb. The low-tension windings are wound directly over the core but are, of course,
insulated for it. The high tension windings are wound over the low— tension windings and
adequate insulation is provided between the two windings.
The primary and secondary windings of the three phase transformer can also

be interconnected as star or delta.

4.3 Three Phase Transformer connections:-

The identical single phase transformers can be suitably inter-connected and used instead of

a single unit 3—phase transformer. The single unit 3 phase transformer is housed in a

single tank. But the transformer bank is made up of three separate single phase

transformers each with its own, tanks and bushings. This method is preferred in mines and

high altitude power stations because transportation becomes easier. Bank method is

adopted also when the voltage involved is high because it is easier to provide proper

insulation in each single phase transformer.

As compared to a bank of single phase transformers, the main advantages of a single unit

3-phase transformer are that it occupies less floor space for equal rating, less weight costs

about 20% less and further that only one unit is to be handled and connected.

There are various methods available for transforming 3 phase voltages to higher or lower 3

phase voltages. The most common connections are (i) star — star (ii) Delta—Delta (iii)

Star —Delta (iv) Delta — Star.

Fig 4.5 Star-star connection

Fig. 4.6 Delta-delta connection

The star-star connection is most economical for small, high voltage transformers because

the number of turns per phase and the amount of insulation required is minimum (as phase

voltage is only 1/3 of line voltage. In fig. 4.5 a bank of three transformers connected in star

on both the primary and the secondary sides is shown. The ratio of line voltages on the

primary to the secondary sides is the same as a transformation ratio of single phase

transformer.

The delta— delta connection is economical for large capacity, low voltage transformers in

which insulation problem is not a serious one. The transformer connection are as shown in

fig. 4.6.

Fig. 4.7 Star-delta connection

The main use of star-delta connection is at the substation end of the transmission line

where the voltage is to be stepped down. The primary winding is star connected with

grounded neutral as shown in Fig. 4.7. The ratio between the secondary and primary line

voltage is 1/3 times the transformation ratio of each single phase transformer. There is a

30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages which means that a star-delta

transformer bank cannot be paralleled with either a star-star or a delta-delta bank.

Fig. 4.8 Delta-star connection

Delta-Star connection is generally employed where it is necessary to step up the voltage.

The connection is shown in fig. 4.8. The neutral of the secondary is grounded for providing

3-phase, 4-wire service. The connection is very popular because it can be used to serve

both the 3-phase power equipment and single phase lighting circuits.

4.4Vector Group of 3-phase transformer

The secondary voltages of a 3-phase transformer may undergo a phase shift of either +30°

leading or - 30° lagging or 0° i.e, no phase shift or 180° reversal with respective line or

phase to neutral voltages. On the name plate of a three phase transformer, the vector group

is mentioned. Typical representation of the vector group could be Ydl or Dy 11 etc. The

first capital latter Y indicates that the primary is connected in star and the second lower

case latter d indicates delta connection of the secondary side. The third numerical figure

conveys the angle of phase shift based on clock convention. The minute hand is used to

represent the primary phase to neutral voltage and always shown to occupy the position 12.

The hour hand represents the secondary phase to neutral voltage and may, depending upon

phase shift, occupy position other than 12 as shown in the figure 4.9. The angle between

two consecutive numbers on the clock is 30°.

Fig. 4.9 Clock convention representing vector groups

 4.4.1 Delta/delta (Dd0, Dd6) connection

The connection of Dd0 is shown in fig. 4.10 and the voltages on primary and secondary

sides is also shown on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase

voltage of high voltage side and low voltage side is zero degree (0°).

Fig 4.10 Dd0 connection and phasor diagram

The connection of Dd6 is shown in fig. 4.11 and the voltages on primary and secondary

sides is also shown on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase

voltage of high voltage side and low voltage side is 180°.

Fig 4.11 Dd6 connection and phasor diagram

This connection proves to be economical for large low voltage transformers as it

increases number of turns per phase. Primary side line voltage is equal to secondary side

line voltage. Primary side phase voltage is equal to secondary side phase voltage. There is

no phase shift between primary and secondary voltages for Dd0 connection. There is 180°

phase shift between primary and secondary voltages for Dd6 connection.

Advantages

Sinusoidal Voltage at Secondary:

In order to get secondary voltage as sinusoidal, the magnetizing current of

transformer must contain a third harmonic component. The delta connection provides a closed path for circulation of third
harmonic
 component of current. The flux remains sinusoidal which results in sinusoidal

voltages.

Suitable for Unbalanced Load: Even if the load is unbalanced the three phase voltages

remains constant. Thus it suitable for unbalanced loading also.

Carry 58% Load if One Transfer is Faulty in Transformer Bank :

If there is bank of single phase
transformers connected in delta-delta fashion and if one of the transformers is
disabled then the supply can be continued with remaining tow transformers of course
with reduced efficiency.

No Distortion in Secondary Voltage: there is no any phase displacement between primary

and secondary voltages. There is no distortion of flux as the third harmonic component of
magnetizing current can flow in the delta connected primary windings without flowing in
the line wires .there is no distortion in the secondary voltages.

Economical for Low Voltage: Due to delta connection, phase voltage is same as line
voltage hence winding have more number of turns. But phase current is (1/√3)

times the line current. Hence the cross-section of the windings is very less.

This makes the connection economical for low voltages transformers.

Reduce Cross section of Conductor: The conductor is required of smaller Cross section as
the phase current is 1/√3 times of the line current. It increases number of turns per

phase and reduces the necessary cross sectional area of conductors thus insulation

problem is not present.

Absent of Third Harmonic Voltage: Due to closed delta, third harmonic voltages are absent.

The absence of star or neutral point proves to be advantageous in some cases.

Disadvantages

Due to the absence of neutral point it is not suitable for three phase four wire system.

More insulation is required and the voltage appearing between windings and

core will be equal to full line voltage in case of earth fault on one phase.
Application

Suitable for large, low voltage transformers.

This Type of Connection is normally uncommon but used in some

industrial facilities to reduce impact of SLG faults on the primary system

It is generally used in systems where it need to be carry large currents on low

voltages and especially when continuity of service is to be maintained even

though one of the phases develops fault.

4.4.2 Star/star (YyO, Yy6) connection

This is the most economical one for small high voltage transformers. Insulation cost is

highly reduced. Neutral wire can permit mixed loading. Triplen harmonics are absent in

the lines. These triplen harmonic currents cannot flow, unless there is a neutral wire. This

connection produces oscillating neutral. Three phase shell type units have large triplen

harmonic phase voltage. However three phase core type transformers work satisfactorily.

A tertiary mesh connected winding may be required to stabilize the oscillating neutral

due to third harmonics in three phase banks.

The connection of Yy0 is shown in fig. 4.12 and the voltages on primary and secondary

sides is also shown on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase

voltage of high voltage side and low voltage side is zero degree (0°).

Fig .4.12 Yy0 connection and phasor diagram

The connection of Yy6 is shown in fig. 4.13 and the voltages on primary and secondary

sides is also shown on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase

voltage of high voltage side and low voltage side is 180°.

Fig 4.13. Yy6 connection and phasor diagram

In Primary Winding Each Phase is120°electrical degrees out of phase with the
other two phases.

In Secondary Winding Each Phase is120°electrical degrees out of phase with

the other two phases.

Each primary winding is magnetically linked to one secondary winding through a

common core leg. Sets of windings that are magnetically linked are drawn

parallel to each other in the vector diagram. In the Y-Y connection, each primary

and secondary winding is connected to a neutral point.

The neutral point may or may not be brought out to an external physical
connection and the neutral may or may not be grounded.

Advantages of Y-y connection

No Phase Displacement: The primary and secondary circuits are in phase; i.e., there are

no phase angle displacements introduced by the Y-Y connection. This is an

important advantage when transformers are used to interconnect systems of

different voltages in a cascading manner. For example, suppose there are four
systems operating at 800, 440, 220, and 66 kV that need to be interconnected.
Substations can be constructed using Y-Y transformer connections to interconnect
any two of these voltages. The 800 kV systems can be tied with the 66 kV
systems through a single 800 to 66 kV transformation or through a series of
cascading transformations at 440,220 and 66 kV.

Required Few Turns for winding: Due to star connection, phase voltages is (1/√3) times

the line voltage. Hence less number of turns is required. Also the stress on

insulation is less. This makes the connection economical for small high

voltage purposes.

Required Less Insulation Level: If the neutral end of a Y-connected winding is grounded,
then there is an opportunity to use reduced levels of insulation at the neutral end of the
winding. A winding that is connected across the phases requires full insulation
throughout the winding.

Handle Heavy Load:

Due to star connection, phase current is same as line current. Hence windings have to
carry high currents. This makes cross section of the windings high. Thus the windings are mechanically strong and
windings can bear heavy loads and short circuit current.

Use for Three phases Four Wires System: As neutral is available, suitable for three phases four
wiresystem.

Eliminate Distortion in Secondary Phase Voltage: The connection of primary neutral to the
neutral

of generator eliminates distortion in the

secondary phase voltages by giving path to
Sinusoidal voltage on secondary side: triple frequency currents toward to generator.

Neutral give path to flow Triple frequency current to

flow Generator side thus sinusoidal voltage on primary will give sinusoidal voltage

on secondary side.
 Used as Auto Transformer: A Y-Y transformer may be constructed as an
autotransformer, with the possibility of great cost savings compared to the two-
winding transformer construction.

Better Protective Relaying: The protective relay settings will be protecting better on the

line to ground faults when the Y-Y transformer connections with solidly

grounded neutrals are applied.

Disadvantages

The Third harmonic issue:

The voltages in any phase of a Y-Y transformer are 1200 apart from the voltages in any other phase.
However, the third-harmonic components of each phase will be in phase with each other. Nonlinearities in the transformer core always lead to generation of
third harmonic. These components will add up resulting in large (can be even larger than the fundamental component) third harmonic component.

Overvoltage at Lighting Load: The presence of third (and other zero-sequence) harmonics

at an ungrounded neutral can cause overvoltage conditions at light load. When

constructing a Y-Y transformer using single-phase transformers connected in a

bank, the measured line-to-neutral voltages are not 57.7% of the system phase-to-

phase voltage at no load but are about 68% and diminish very rapidly as the bank

is loaded. The effective values of voltages at different frequencies combine by

taking the square root of the sum of the voltages squared. With sinusoidal phase-

to-phase voltage, the third-harmonic component of the phase-to-neutral voltage is

about 60%.

Voltage drop at Unbalance Load: There can be a large voltage drop for unbalanced phase-

to-neutral loads. This is caused by the fact that phase-to-phase loads cause a voltage

drop through the leakage reactance of the transformer whereas phase-to-neutral

loads cause a voltage drop through the magnetizing reactance, which is 100 to 1000

times larger than the leakage reactance.

Overheated Transformer Tank:
Under certain circumstances, a Y-Y connected three-phase trans-can produce severe tank overheating that can quickly destroy the
transformer. This usually occurs with an open phase on the primary circuit and load on the secondary.

Over Excitation of Core in Fault Condition: If a phase-to-ground fault occurs on the primary

circuit with the primary neutral grounded, then the phase-to-neutral voltage on

the un faulted phases increases to 173% of the normal voltage. This would almost

certainly result in over excitation of the core, with greatly increased magnetizing

currents and core losses

If the neutrals of the primary and secondary are both brought out, then a phase-
to-ground fault on the secondary circuit causes neutral fault current to flow in the
primary circuit. Ground protection re- laying in the neutral of the primary circuit
may then operate for faults on the secondary circuit

Neutral Shifting:

If the load on the secondary side unbalanced then the performance of this connection is not
satisfactory then the shifting of neutral point is possible. To prevent this, star point of the primary is required to be
connected to the star point of the generator.

Distortion of Secondary voltage:

Even though the star or neutral point of the primary is

earthed, the third harmonic present in the alternator voltage may appear on

the secondary side. This causes distortion in the secondary phase voltages.

Over Voltage at Light Load: The presence of third (and other zero-sequence) harmonics

at an ungrounded neutral can cause overvoltage conditions at light load.

Difficulty in coordination of Ground Protection: In Y-Y Transformer, a low-side ground fault

causes

primary ground fault current, making coordination more difficult.

 Increase Healthy Phase Voltage under Phase to ground Fault: If a phase-to-ground fault occurs on
the

primary circuit with the primary neutral grounded, then the phase-to-neutral voltage

on the UN faulted phase’s increases to 173% of the normal voltage. If the neutrals

of the primary and secondary are both brought out, then a phase-to-ground fault on

the secondary circuit causes neutral fault current to flow in the primary circuit.

Trip the T/C in Line-Ground Fault: All harmonics will propagate through the transformer,

zero-sequence current path is continuous through the transformer, one line-to-

ground fault will trip the transformer.

Suitable for Core Type Transformer: The third harmonic voltage and current is absent in

such type of connection with three phase wire system or shell type of three phase

units, the third harmonic phase voltage may be high. This type of connection is

more suitable for core type transformers.

Application

This Type of Transformer is rarely used due to problems with unbalanced loads.

It is economical for small high voltage transformers as the number of turns per
phase and the amount of insulation required is less.

4.4.3 Star/Delta connection(Yd1/Yd11)

There is a +30 Degree or -30 Degree Phase Shift between Secondary Phase Voltage to

Primary Phase Voltage. The connection of Yd1 is shown in fig. 4.14 and the voltages on

primary and secondary sides is also shown on the phasor diagram. The phase angle

difference between the phase voltage of high voltage side and low voltage side is -30°.
 Fig 4.14. Yd1 connection and phasor diagram

The connection of Yd11 is shown in fig. 4.15 and the voltages on primary and secondary

sides is also shown on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase

voltage of high voltage side and low voltage side is 30°.

Fig 4.15. Yd11 connection and phasor diagram

Advantages

The primary side is star connected. Hence fewer numbers of turns are required.

This makes the connection economical for large high voltage step down power

transformers.

The neutral available on the primary can be earthed to avoid distortion.

The neutral point allows both types of loads (single phase or three phases) to be met.

Large unbalanced loads can be handled satisfactory.

The Y-D connection has no problem with third harmonic components due to

circulating currents inD. It is also more stable to unbalanced loads since the D

partially redistributes any imbalance that occurs.

 The delta connected winding carries third harmonic current due to which potential

of neutral point is stabilized. Some saving in cost of insulation is achieved if HV

side is star connected. But in practice the HV side is normally connected in delta so

that the three phase loads like motors and single phase loads like lighting loads can

be supplied by LV side using three phase

four wire system.

As Grounding Transformer: In
Power System Mostly grounded Y- ∆ transformer is used

for no other purpose than to provide a good ground source in ungrounded Delta
system.

Disadvantages

In this type of connection, the secondary voltage is not in phase with the primary.

Hence it is not possible to operate this connection in parallel with star-star or

delta-delta connected transformer.

One problem associated with this connection is that the secondary voltage is shifted
by

0
30 with respect to the primary voltage. This can cause problems when paralleling

3-phase transformers since transformers secondary voltages must be in-phase to

be paralleled. Therefore, we must pay attention to these shifts.

If secondary of this transformer should be paralleled with secondary of

another transformer without phase shift, there would be a problem

Application

It is commonly employed for power supply transformers.

 This type of connection is commonly employed at the substation end of the

transmission line. The main use with this connection is to step down the voltage.

The neutral available on the primary side is grounded. It can be seen that there is

phase difference of 30° between primary and secondary line voltages.

Commonly used in a step-down transformer, Y connection on the HV side reduces

insulation costs the neutral point on the HV side can be grounded, stable with

respect to unbalanced loads. As for example, at the end of a transmission line. The

neutral of the primary winding is earthed. In this system, line voltage ratio is 1/√3

Times of transformer turn-ratio and secondary voltage lags behind primary

voltage by 30°. Also third harmonic currents flows in

4.4.4 Delta-star connection (Dy1/Dy11)

In this type of connection, the primary connected in delta fashion while the secondary

current is connected in star. There is s +30 Degree or -30 Degree Phase Shift between

Secondary Phase Voltage to Primary Phase Voltage.

The connection of Dy1 is shown in fig. 4.16 and the voltages on primary and secondary

sides is also shown on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase

voltage of high voltage side and low voltage side is -30°.

Fig 4.16. Dy1 connection and phasor diagram

The connection of Dy11 is shown in fig. 4.17 and the voltages on primary and secondary

sides is also shown on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase

voltage of high voltage side and low voltage side is 30°.

 Fig 4.17. Dy11 connection and phasor diagram

Advantages

Cross section area of winding is less at Primary side: On primary side due to
delta connection winding cross-section required is less.

Used at Three phase four wire System: On secondary side, neutral is

available, due to which it can be used for 3-phase, 4 wire supply system.

No distortion of Secondary Voltage: No distortion due to third harmonic

components.

Handled large unbalanced Load: Large unbalanced loads can be handled without
any difficulty.

Grounding Isolation between Primary and Secondary: Assuming that the

neutral of the Y-connected secondary circuit is grounded, a load connected phase-

to-neutral or a phase-to-ground fault produces two equal and opposite currents in

two phases in the primary circuit without any neutral ground current in the primary

circuit. Therefore, in contrast with the Y-Y connection, phase-to-ground faults or

current unbalance in the secondary circuit will not affect ground protective

relaying applied to the primary circuit. This feature enables proper coordination of

protective devices and is a very important design consideration.

The neutral of the Y grounded is sometimes referred to as a grounding bank,

because it provides a local source of ground current at the secondary that is

isolated from the primary circuit.

 Harmonic Suppression: The magnetizing current must contain odd harmonics for

the induced voltages to be sinusoidal and the third harmonic is the dominant

harmonic component. In a three-phase system the third harmonic currents of all

three phases are in phase with each other because they are zero-sequence currents.

In the Y-Y connection, the only path for third harmonic current is through the

neutral. In the ∆ -Y connection, however, the third harmonic currents, being equal

in amplitude and in phase with each other, are able to circulate around the path

formed by the ∆ connected winding. The same thing is true for the other zero-

sequence harmonics.

Grounding Bank: It provides a local source of ground current at the secondary

that is isolated from the primary circuit. For suppose an ungrounded generator
supplies a simple radial system
through ∆-Y transformer with grounded Neutral at secondary as shown Figure. The

generator can supply a single-phase-to-neutral load through the -grounded Y

transformer.

Disadvantages

In this type of connection, the secondary voltage is not in phase with the primary.

Hence it is not possible to operate this connection in parallel with star-star or

delta-delta connected transformer.

One problem associated with this connection is that the secondary voltage is shifted
by

0
30 with respect to the primary voltage. This can cause problems when paralleling

3-phase transformers since transformers secondary voltages must be in-phase to

be paralleled.

Therefore, we must pay attention to these shifts.

 If secondary of this transformer should be paralleled with secondary of
another transformer without phase shift, there would be a problem.

Application

Commonly used in a step-up transformer: As for example, at the beginning of a HT

transmission

line. In this case neutral point is stable and will not float in case of unbalanced

loading. There is no distortion of flux because existence of a -connection allows a

path for the third-harmonic components. The line voltage ratio is √3 times of

transformer turn-ratio and the secondary voltage leads the primary one by 30°. In

recent years, this arrangement has become very popular for distribution system as

it provides 3- Ø, 4-wire system.

Commonly used in commercial, industrial, and high-density residential locations: To supply three-

phase distribution systems. An example would be a distribution transformer with a

delta primary, running on three 11kV phases with no neutral or earth required, and a

star (or wye) secondary providing a 3-phase supply at 400 V, with the domestic

voltage of 230 available between each phase and an earthed neutral point.

Used as Generator Transformer: The ∆-Y transformer connection is used universally for

connecting generators to transmission systems.

Delta-zigzag and Star zigzag connections (Dz0/Dz6 & Yz1/Yz6) –

The connection of Dz0 is shown in fig. 4.18 and the voltages on primary and secondary

sides is also shown on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase

voltage of high voltage side and low voltage side is 0°.

Fig 4.18. Dz0 connection and phasor diagram

The connection of Dz6 is shown in fig. 4.19 and the voltages on primary and secondary

sides is also shown on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase

voltage of high voltage side and low voltage side is 180°.

Fig 4.19. Dz6 connection and phasor diagram

The connection of Yz1 is shown in fig. 4.20 and the voltages on primary and secondary

sides is also shown on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase

voltage of high voltage side and low voltage side is -30°.

Fig 4.20. Yz1 connection and phasor diagram

The connection of Yz11 is shown in fig. 4.21 and the voltages on primary and secondary

sides is also shown on the phasor diagram. The phase angle difference between the phase

voltage of high voltage side and low voltage side is 30°.

Fig 4.22 Yz11 connection and phasor diagram

These connections are employed where delta connections are weak. Interconnection

of phases in zigzag winding effects a reduction of third harmonic voltages and at

the same time permits unbalanced loading.

This connection may be used with either delta connected or star connected winding

either for step-up or step-down transformers. In either case, the zigzag winding

produces the same angular displacement as a delta winding, and at the same time

provides a neutral for earthing purposes.

The amount of copper required from a zigzag winding in 15% more than a

corresponding star or delta winding. This is extensively used for earthing

transformer.

Due to zigzag connection (interconnection between phases), third harmonic

voltages are reduced. It also allows unbalanced loading. The zigzag connection is

employed for LV winding. For a given total voltage per phase, the zigzag side

requires 15% more turns as compared to normal phase connection. In cases

where delta connections are weak due to large number of turns and small cross

sections, then zigzag star connection is preferred. It is also used in rectifiers.

4.5 Scott connection

There are two main reasons for the need to transform from three phases to two phases,

1. To give a supply to an existing two phase system from a three phase supply.

2. To supply two phase furnace transformers from a three phase source.

Two-phase systems can have 3-wire, 4-wire, or 5-wire circuits. It is needed to be

considering that a two-phase system is not 2/3 of a three-phase system. Balanced three-

wire, two-phase circuits have two phase wires, both carrying approximately the same

amount of current, with a neutral wire carrying 1.414 times the currents in the phase

wires. The phase-to-neutral voltages are 90° out of phase with each other.

Two phase 4-wire circuits are essentially just two ungrounded single-phase circuits that

are electrically 90° out of phase with each other. Two phase 5-wire circuits have four

phase wires plus a neutral; the four phase wires are 90° out of phase with each other.

A Scott-T transformer (also called a Scott connection) is a type of circuit used to derive

two-phase power from a three-phase source or vice-versa. The Scott connection evenly

distributes a balanced load between the phases of the source. Scott T Transformers require

a three phase power input and provide two equal single phase outputs called Main and

Teaser. The MAIN and Teaser outputs are 90 degrees out of phase. The MAIN and the

Teaser outputs must not be connected in parallel or in series as it creates a vector current

imbalance on the primary side. MAIN and Teaser outputs are on separate cores. An

external jumper is also required to connect the primary side of the MAIN and Teaser

sections. The schematic of a typical Scott T Transformer is shown below:

 4.23 Connection diagram of Scott-connected transformer and vector relation of input and output

From the phasor diagram it is clear that the secondary voltages are of two phases with

equal magnitude and 90° phase displacement.

Scott T Transformer is built with two single phase transformers of equal power rating.

Assuming the desired voltage is the same on the two and three phase sides, the Scott-T

transformer connection consists of a center-tapped 1:1 ratio main transformer, T1, and an

86.6% (0.5√3) ratio teaser transformer, T2. The center-tapped side of T1 is connected

between two of the phases on the three-phase side. Its center tap then connects to one end

of the lower turn count side of T2, the other end connects to the remaining phase. The

other side of the transformers then connects directly to the two pairs of a two-phase four-

wire system.

If the main transformer has a turn’s ratio of 1: 1, then the teaser transformer requires a turn’s
ratio of

0.866: 1 for balanced operation. The principle of operation of the Scott connection can

be most easily seen by first applying a current to the teaser secondary windings, and then

applying a current to the main secondary winding, calculating the primary currents

separately and superimposing the results.

The primary three-phase currents are balanced; i.e., the phase currents have the same

magnitude and their phase angles are 120° apart. The apparent power supplied by the

main transformer is greater than the apparent power supplied by the teaser transformer.

This is easily verified by observing that the primary currents in both transformers have the

same magnitude; however, the primary voltage of the teaser transformer is only 86.6% as

great as the primary voltage of the main transformer. Therefore, the teaser transforms only

86.6% of the apparent power transformed by the main.

The total real power delivered to the two phase load is equal to the total real power

supplied from the three-phase system, the total apparent power transformed by both

transformers is greater than the total apparent power delivered to the two-phase

load.

The apparent power transformed by the teaser is 0.866 X IH1= 1.0 and the apparent

power transformed by the main is 1.0X IH2 =1.1547 for a total of 2.1547 of

apparent power transformed.

The additional 0.1547 per unit of apparent power is due to parasitic reactive power
owing between the two halves of the primary winding in the main transformer.

Single-phase transformers used in the Scott connection are specialty items that are

virtually impossible to buy ‘‘off the shelf ’’ nowadays. In an emergency, standard

distribution transformers can be used.

If desired, a three phase, two phase, or single phase load may be supplied

simultaneously using scott-connection. The neutral points can be available for grounding

or loading purposes. The Scott T connection in theory would be suitable for supplying a

three, two and single phase load simultaneously, but such loads are not found together in

modern practice.
The Scott T would not be recommended as a connection for 3
phase to 3 phase applications for the following reasons:

The loads of modern buildings and office buildings are inherently unbalanced and contain

equipment that can be sensitive to potential voltage fluctuations that may be caused by

the Scott T design.

A properly sized Scott T transformer will have to be a minimum of 7.75% larger than the

equivalent Delta-Wye transformer. Properly sized, it would be a bulkier and heavier option

and should not be considered a less expensive solution.

4.6 Open Delta or V-Connection

As seen previously in connection of three single phase transformers that if one of the

transformers is unable to operate then the supply to the load can be continued with the

remaining two transformers at the cost of reduced efficiency. The connection that

obtained is called V-V connection or open delta connection.

Consider the Fig. 4.24 in which 3 phase supply is connected to the primaries. At

the secondary side three equal three phase voltages will be available on no load.

The voltages are shown on phasor diagram. The connection is used when the three phase

load is very very small to warrant the installation of full three phase transformer.
 Fig. 4.24 Open delta connection of transformer at noload

If one of the transformers fails in ∆ - ∆ bank and if it is required to continue the supply

even though at reduced capacity until the transformer which is removed from the bank is

repaired or a new one is installed then this type of connection is most suitable.

When it is anticipated that in future the load increase, then it requires closing of open delta.

In such cases open delta connection is preferred. It can be noted here that the removal of

one of the transformers will not give the total load carried by V - V bank as two third of

the capacity of ∆ - ∆ bank.

The load that can be carried by V - V bank is only 57.7% of it.

Fig. 4.25 Delta-delta and V-V connection

It can be seen from the Fig. 4.25 of delta delta connection that

∆ - ∆ capacity = √3 VL IL = √3 VL (√3 Iph )

∆ - ∆ capacity = 3 VL Iph

It can also be noted from the Fig. 4.25 V-V connection that the secondary line current IL

is equal to the phase current Iph.

V- V capacity = √3 VL IL = √3 VL Iph

So, V-V capacity 3VL Iph 1

0.577 58%
capacity 3V I 3
L ph
Thus the three phase load that can be carried without exceeding the ratings of the

transformers is 57.5 percent of the original load. Hence it is not 66.7 % which was

expected otherwise.

The reduction in the rating can be calculated as {(66.67 - 57.735)/(57.735)}x 100 = 15.476

Suppose that we consider three transformers connected in ∆ - ∆ fashion and supplying their

rated load. Now one transformer is removed then each of the remaining two transformers

will be overloaded. The overload on each transformer will be given as,

Total load in V-V 3VL Iph

1.73
32
VA rating of each transformer VI
L ph

This overload can be carried temporarily if provision is made to reduce the load otherwise

overheating and breakdown of the remaining two transformers would take place.

The limitation with V -V connection are given below :

The average p.f. at which V- V bank is operating is less than that with the load .

This power p.f is 86.6 % of the balanced load p.f.

The two transformers in V -V bank operate at different power factor except for

balanced unity p.f .load.

The terminals voltages available on the secondary side become unbalanced.

This may happen even though load is perfectly balanced.

Thus in summary we can say that if tow transformers are connected in V - V

fashion and are loaded to rated capacity and one transformer is added to
increase the total capacity by √3 or

173.2 %. Thus the increase in capacity is 73.2 % when converting from a V - V

system to a ∆-∆ system.

With a bank of tow single phase transformers connected in V-V fashion supplying
a balanced
 3 phase load with cosΦ asp.f., one of the transformer operate at a p.f. of cos (30-Φ)

and other at cos (30+Φ). The powers of tow transformers are given by,

P1 = KVA cos (30-Φ)

P2 = KVA cos (30+Φ)

4.7Oscillating Neutral

In addition to the operation of transformers on the sinusoidal supplies, the harmonic

behavior becomes important as the size and rating of the transformer increases. The effects

of the harmonic currents are

1. Additional copper losses due to harmonic currents

2. Increased core losses

3. Increased electro-magnetic interference with

communication circuits. On the other hand the harmonic voltages

of the transformer cause

1. Increased dielectric stress on insulation

2. Electro static interference with communication circuits.

3. Resonance between winding reactance and feeder capacitance.

In the present times a greater awareness is generated by the problems of harmonic voltages and

currents produced by non-linear loads like the power electronic converters. These combine

with non-linear nature of transformer core and produce severe distortions in

voltages and currents and increase the power loss. Thus the study of harmonics is of great

practical significance in the operation of transformers.

In the case of single phase transformers connected to form three phase bank, each

transformer is magnetically decoupled from the other. The flow of harmonic currents are

decided by the type of the electrical connection used on the primary and secondary sides.

Also, there are three fundamental voltages in the present case each displaced from the

other by 120 electrical degrees. Because of the symmetry of the a.c. wave about the time

axis only odd harmonics need to be considered. The harmonics which are triplen (multiples

of three) behave in a similar manner as they are co-phasal or in phase in the three phases.

The non-triplen harmonics behave in a similar manner to the fundamental and have ±120°

phase displacement between them.

When the connection of the transformer is Yy without neutral wires both primary and

secondary connected in star no closed path exists. As the triplen harmonics are always in

phase, by virtue of the Y connection they get canceled in the line voltages. Non-triplen

harmonics like fundamental, become 0 times phase value and appear in the line voltages.

Line currents remain sinusoidal except for non-triplen harmonic currents. Flux wave in

each transformer will be flat topped and the phase voltages remain peaked. The potential of

the neutral is no longer steady. The star point oscillates due to the third harmonic voltages.

This is termed as "oscillating neutral".

4.8 Tertiary winding

Apart from the Primary & Secondary windings, there sometimes placed a third winding

in power transformers called "Tertiary Winding". Its purpose is to provide a circulating

path for the harmonics (especially third harmonics) produced in the transformers along

with power frequency (50Hz. third harmonic means 150 Hz oscillations). In delta-delta,

delta-star and star-delta transformers

all voltages are balanced and there is no floating of neutral or oscillating neutral. The

floating of neutral is developed in the case star-star connection only. The transformers are

sometimes constructed with three windings. The main windings are connected to form

star-star connection and the third winding known as tertiary winding is used to make a

closed delta connection to stabilize the neutrals of both primary and secondary circuits.

The tertiary winding carries the third-harmonic currents.

4.9 Three Winding Transformers

Thus far we have looked at transformers which have one single primary winding and one

single secondary winding. But the beauty of transformers is that they allow us to have

more than just one winding in either the primary or secondary side. Transformers which

have three winding are known commonly as Three Winding Transformers.

The principal of operation of a three winding transformer is no different from that of an ordinary

transformer. Primary and secondary voltages, currents and turns ratios are all calculated the

same, the difference this time is that we need to pay special attention to the voltage

polarities of each coil winding, the dot convention marking the positive (or negative)

polarity of the winding, when we connect them together.

Three winding transformers, also known as a three-coil, or three-winding transformer,

contain one primary and two secondary coils on a common laminated core. They can be

either a single-phase transformer or a three-phase transformer, (three-winding, three-phase

transformer) the operation is the same.

Three Winding Transformers can also be used to provide either a step-up, a step-down, or a

combination of both between the various windings. In fact a three winding transformers
have two secondary windings on the same core with each one providing a different voltage

or current level output.

As transformers operate on the principal of mutual induction, each individual winding of a

three winding transformer supports the same number of volts per turn, therefore the volt-

NP/NS = VP/VS
ampere product in each winding is the same, that is with any turns ratio

between the individual coil windings being relative to the primary supply.

In electronic circuits, one transformer is often used to supply a variety of lower voltage

levels for different components in the electronic circuitry. A typical application of three

winding transformers is in power supplies and Triac Switching Converters. So a

transformer have two secondary windings, each of which is electrically isolated from the

others, just as it is electrically isolated from the primary. Then each of the secondary coils

will produce a voltage that is proportional to its number of coil turns.

Fig. 4.27 A three winding transformer

The secondary windings can be connected together in various configurations producing a

higher voltage or current supply. It must be noted that connecting together transformer
windings is only possible if the two windings are electrically identical. That is their current

and voltage ratings are the same.

4.10 Parallel operation of three phase transformer

4.10.1Advantages of using transformers in parallel

To maximize electrical power system efficiency: Generally electrical power

transformer gives the maximum efficiency at full load. If we run numbers of
transformers in parallel, we can switch on only those transformers which will give the
total demand by running nearer to its full load rating for that time. When load
increases, we can switch none by one other transformer connected in parallel to fulfill
the total demand. In this way we can run the system with maximum efficiency.

2. To maximize electrical power system availability: If numbers of transformers run

in parallel, we can shut down any one of them for maintenance purpose. Other

parallel transformers in system will serve the load without total interruption of

power.

3. To maximize power system reliability: If any one of the transformers run in

parallel, is tripped due to fault of other parallel transformers is the system will share

the load, hence power supply may not be interrupted if the shared loads do not

make other transformers over loaded.

4. To maximize electrical power system flexibility: There is always a chance of increasing

or decreasing future demand of power system. If it is predicted that power demand

will be increased in future, there must be a provision of connecting transformers in

system in parallel to fulfill the extra demand because, it is not economical from

business point of view to install a bigger rated single transformer by forecasting the

increased future demand as it is unnecessary investment of money. Again if future

demand is decreased, transformers running in parallel can be removed from system to

balance the capital investment and its return.

 4.10.2 Conditions for parallel operation

Certain conditions have to be met before two or more transformers are connected in

parallel and share a common load satisfactorily. They are,

1. The voltage ratio must be the same.

2. The per unit impedance of each machine on its own base must be the same.

3. The polarity must be the same, so that there is no circulating current between
the transformers.

4. The phase sequence must be the same and no phase difference must exist between

the voltages of the two transformers.

Same voltage ratio : Generally the turns ratio and voltage ratio are taken to be the

same. If the ratio is large there can be considerable error in the voltages even if the

turns ratios are the same. When the primaries are connected to same bus bars, if the

secondaries do not show the same voltage, paralleling them would result in a

circulating current between the secondaries. Reflected circulating current will be

there on the primary side also. Thus even without connecting a load considerable

current can be drawn by the transformers and they produce copper losses. In two

identical transformers with percentage impedance of 5 percent, a no-load voltage

difference of one percent will result in a circulating current of 10 percent of full

load current. This circulating current gets added to the load current when the load is

connected resulting in unequal sharing of the load. In such cases the combined full

load of the two transformers can never be met without one transformer getting

overloaded.

Per unit impedance: Transformers of different ratings may be required to operate

in parallel. If they have to share the total load in proportion to their ratings the

larger machine has to draw more current. The voltage drop across each machine has
to be the same by virtue of their connection at the input and the output ends. Thus

the larger machines have smaller impedance and smaller machines must have larger

ohmic impedance. Thus the impedances must be in the inverse ratios of the ratings.

As the voltage drops must be the same the per unit impedance of each transformer

on its own base, must be equal. In addition if active and reactive power are required

to be shared in proportion to the ratings the impedance angles also must be the

same. Thus we have the requirement that per unit resistance and per unit reactance

of both the transformers must be the same for proper load sharing.

Polarity of connection: The polarity of connection in the case of single phase

transformers can be either same or opposite. Inside the loop formed by the two
secondaries the resulting voltage must be zero. If wrong polarity is chosen the two
voltages get added and short circuit results. In the case of polyphase banks it is
possible to have permanent phase error between the phases with substantial
circulating current. Such transformer banks must not be connected in parallel. The
turns ratios in such groups can be adjusted to give very close voltage ratios but
phase errors cannot be compensated. Phase error of 0.6 degree gives rise to one
percent difference in voltage. Hence poly phase transformers belonging to the same
vector group alone must be taken for paralleling.

Transformers having —30° angle can be paralleled to that having +30° angle by

reversing the phase sequence of both primary and secondary terminals of one of the

transformers. This way one can overcome the problem of the phase angle error.

Phase sequence- The phase sequence of operation becomes relevant only in the

case of poly phase systems. The poly phase banks belonging to same vector group

can be connected in parallel. A transformer with +30° phase angle however can be
paralleled with the one with — 30° phase angle, the phase sequence is reversed for

one of them both at primary and secondary terminals. If the phase sequences are

not the same then the two transformers cannot be connected in parallel even if they

belong to same vector group. The phase sequence can be found out by the use of a

phase sequence indicator.

 4.11 Load Sharing

When the transformers have equal voltage ratios, the magnitudes of secondary no-load

voltages are equal. Further if the primary leakage impedance drops due to exciting currents

are also equal, then

Ea Eb and the circulating current at no load is zero.

Fig. 4.28 Circuit modelling of two transformer in parallel

The equivalent circuit of two three phase transformer connected in parallel connected with a
load of

ZL impedance on per phase basis is drawn in fig 4.28. In this figure transformer A and

B are operating in parallel. IA and IB are the load current of the two transformer.

The voltage equation of transformer A is

Ea IaZaVL IZL
Since E aEb ; E b IaZa VL IZL
The voltage equation of transformer B is

Eb IbZbVLIZL
Eb IaZaEb IbZb
IaZaIbZb
According to the voltage drops across the two equivalent leakage impedance Za and Zb
are equal.

According to KCL we can write

I Ia Ib
Ia Z
Ia
a Zb

Zb
Ia
I ZaZb
Za
similarly, I b
IZa Zb
Multiplying both the current equations by terminal voltage we get,

Zb
Sa
S ZaZb
Za
similarly, S b
SZa Zb
Thus the power sharing in between two transformer is given in above equation in VA rating.
 SYLLABUS/ TOPICS COVERED

Three Phase Induction Motors: Types,

Construction and principle of operation, 3 phase
Induction Motor, general phasor diagram,
equivalent circuit, power and torque relations,
condition for maximum torque, circle diagram,
Performance characteristics, effect of rotor
resistance on speed torque characteristics, stable
& unstable region of operation, Operation with
unbalanced supply voltage. Starting: Starting of
3 phase induction motors, high starting torque
motors, speed control, rheostatic method, pole
MODULE-III changing method cascade control of speed,
Double cage induction motor, Cogging and
Crawling of Induction motor, induction
THREE PHASE INDCTION MOTOR generator

[Topics are arranged as per above sequence]

Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e|4

Module-III

3.1 Three Phase Induction Motor

The most common type of AC motor being used throughout the work today is the "Induction
Motor". Applications of three-phase induction motors of size varying from half a kilowatt to
thousands of kilowatts are numerous. They are found everywhere from a small workshop to a large
manufacturing industry.

The advantages of three-phase AC induction motor are listed below:

• Simple design

• Rugged construction

• Reliable operation

• Low initial cost

• Easy operation and simple maintenance

• Simple control gear for starting and speed control

• High efficiency.

Induction motor is originated in the year 1891 with crude construction (The induction machine
principle was invented by NIKOLA TESLA in 1888.). Then an improved construction with
distributed stator windings and a cage rotor was built.

The slip ring rotor was developed after a decade or so. Since then a lot of improvement has taken
place on the design of these two types of induction motors. Lot of research work has been carried
out to improve its power factor and to achieve suitable methods of speed control.

3.2 Types and Construction of Three Phase Induction Motor

Three phase induction motors are constructed into two major types:

1. Squirrel cage Induction Motors

2. Slip ring Induction Motors

3.2.1 Squirrel cage Induction Motors

(a) Stator Construction

The induction motor stator resembles the stator of a revolving field, three phase alternator. The
stator or the stationary part consists of three phase winding held in place in the slots of a laminated
steel core which is enclosed and supported by a cast iron or a steel frame as shown in Fig: 3.1(a).
Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e|5

The phase windings are placed 120 electrical degrees apart and may be connected in either star or
delta externally, for which six leads are brought out to a terminal box mounted on the frame of the
motor. When the stator is energized from a three phase voltage it will produce a rotating magnetic
field in the stator core.

Fig: 3.1

(b) Rotor Construction

The rotor of the squirrel cage motor shown in Fig: 3.1(b) contains no windings. Instead it is a
cylindrical core constructed of steel laminations with conductor bars mounted parallel to the shaft
and embedded near the surface of the rotor core.

These conductor bars are short circuited by an end rings at both end of the rotor core. In large
machines, these conductor bars and the end rings are made up of copper with the bars brazed or
welded to the end rings shown in Fig: 3.1(b).In small machines the conductor bars and end rings
are sometimes made of aluminium with the bars and rings cast in as part of the rotor core. Actually
the entire construction (bars and end-rings) resembles a squirrel cage, from which the name is
derived.

The rotor or rotating part is not connected electrically to the power supply but has voltage induced
in it by transformer action from the stator. For this reason, the stator is sometimes called the
primary and the rotor is referred to as the secondary of the motor since the motor operates on the
principle of induction and as the construction of the rotor with the bars and end rings resembles a
squirrel cage, the squirrel cage induction motor is used.

The rotor bars are not insulated from the rotor core because they are made of metals having less
resistance than the core. The induced current will flow mainly in them. Also the rotor bars are
usually not quite parallel to the rotor shaft but are mounted in a slightly skewed position. This
feature tends to produce a more uniform rotor field and torque. Also it helps to reduce some of the
internal magnetic noise when the motor is running.
Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e|6

(c) End Shields

The function of the two end shields is to support the rotor shaft. They are fitted with bearings and
attached to the stator frame with the help of studs or bolts attention.

3.2.2 Slip ring Induction Motors

(a) Stator Construction

The construction of the slip ring induction motor is exactly similar to the construction of squirrel
cage induction motor. There is no difference between squirrel cage and slip ring motors.

(b) Rotor Construction

The rotor of the slip ring induction motor is also cylindrical or constructed of lamination.

Squirrel cage motors have a rotor with short circuited bars whereas slip ring motors have wound
rotors having "three windings" each connected in star.

The winding is made of copper wire. The terminals of the rotor windings of the slip ring motors
are brought out through slip rings which are in contact with stationary brushes as shown in Fig:
3.2.

Fig: 3.2

THE ADVANTAGES OF THE SLIPRING MOTOR ARE

• It has susceptibility to speed control by regulating rotor resistance.

• High starting torque of 200 to 250% of full load value.

• Low starting current of the order of 250 to 350% of the full load current.

Hence slip ring motors are used where one or more of the above requirements are to be met.
Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e|7

3.2.3 Comparison of Squirrel Cage and Slip Ring Motor

Sl.No. Property Squirrel cage motor Slip ring motor

1. Rotor Bars are used in rotor. Winding wire is to be

Construction Squirrel cage motor is used.
very simple, rugged and
long lasting. No slip Wound rotor required
rings and brushes attention.
Slip ring and brushes
are needed also need
frequent maintenance.

2. Starting Can be started by Rotor resistance starter

D.O.L., star-delta, auto is required.
transformer starters

3. Starting Low Very high

torque

4. Starting High Low

Current

5. Speed variation Not easy, but could be Easy to vary speed.

varied in large steps by
pole changing or Speed change is possible
through smaller by inserting rotor
incremental steps resistance using
through thyristors or by thyristors or by using
frequency variation. frequency variation
injecting emf in the rotor
circuit cascading.

6. Maintenance Almost ZERO Requires frequent

maintenance maintenance

7. Cost Low High

3.3 Principle of Operation

The operation of a 3-phase induction motor is based upon the application of Faraday Law and the
Lorentz force on a conductor. The behaviour can readily be understood by means of the following
example.

Consider a series of conductors of length l, whose extremities are short-circuited by two bars A
and B (Fig.3.3 a). A permanent magnet placed above this conducting ladder, moves rapidly to the
right at a speed v, so that its magnetic field B sweeps across the conductors. The following
sequence of events then takes place:
Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e|8

1. A voltage E = Blv is induced in each conductor while it is being cut by the flux (Faraday
law).
2. The induced voltage immediately produces a current I, which flows down the conductor
underneath the pole face, through the end-bars, and back through the other conductors.
3. Because the current carrying conductor lies in the magnetic field of the permanent magnet,
it experiences a mechanical force (Lorentz force).
4. The force always acts in a direction to drag the conductor along with the magnetic field. If
the conducting ladder is free to move, it will accelerate toward the right. However, as it
picks up speed, the conductors will be cut less rapidly by the moving magnet, with the
result that the induced voltage E and the current I will diminish. Consequently, the force
acting on the conductors wilt also decreases. If the ladder were to move at the same speed
as the magnetic field, the induced voltage E, the current I, and the force dragging the ladder
along would all become zero.

Fig: 3.3

In an induction motor the ladder is closed upon itself to form a squirrel-cage (Fig.3.3b) and the
moving magnet is replaced by a rotating field. The field is produced by the 3-phase currents that
flow in the stator windings.

3.4 Rotating Magnetic Field and Induced Voltages

Consider a simple stator having 6 salient poles, each of which carries a coil having 5 turns
(Fig.3.4). Coils that are diametrically opposite are connected in series by means of three jumpers
Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e|9

that respectively connect terminals a-a, b-b, and c-c. This creates three identical sets of windings
AN, BN, CN, which are mechanically spaced at 120 degrees to each other. The two coils in each
winding produce magneto motive forces that act in the same direction.

The three sets of windings are connected in wye, thus forming a common neutral N. Owing to the
perfectly symmetrical arrangement, the line to neutral impedances are identical. In other words, as
regards terminals A, B, C, the windings constitute a balanced 3-phase system.

For a two-pole machine, rotating in the air gap, the magnetic field (i.e., flux density) being
sinusoidally distributed with the peak along the centre of the magnetic poles. The result is
illustrated in Fig.3.5. The rotating field will induce voltages in the phase coils aa', bb', and cc'.
Expressions for the induced voltages can be obtained by using Faraday laws of induction.

Fig: 3.4 Elementary stator having terminals A, B, C connected to a 3-phase source (not shown).
Currents flowing from line to neutral are considered to be positive.

Fig: 3.5 Air gap flux density distribution.

Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 10

Let us consider that the phase coils are full-pitch coils of N turns (the coil sides of each phase are
180 electrical degrees apart as shown in Fig.3.5). It is obvious that as the rotating field moves (or
the magnetic poles rotate) the flux linkage of a coil will vary. The flux linkage for coil aa' will be
maximum.

Hence,

Where f is the frequency in hertz. Above equation has the same form as that for the induced voltage
in transformers. However, ØP represents the flux per pole of the machine.
 Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 11

The above equation also shows the rms voltage per phase. The N is the total number of series turns
per phase with the turns forming a concentrated full-pitch winding. In an actual AC machine each
phase winding is distributed in a number of slots for better use of the iron and copper and to
improve the waveform. For such a distributed winding, the EMF induced in various coils placed
in different slots are not in time phase, and therefore the phasor sum of the EMF is less than their
numerical sum when they are connected in series for the phase winding. A reduction factor KW,
called the winding factor, must therefore be applied. For most three-phase machine windings KW
is about 0.85 to 0.95.

Therefore, for a distributed phase winding, the rms voltage per phase is

Erms = 4.44fNphφpKW

Where Nph is the number of turns in series per phase.

3.5 Alternate Analysis for Rotating Magnetic Field

When a 3-phase winding is energized from a 3-phase supply, a rotating magnetic field is produced.
This field is such that its poles do no remain in a fixed position on the stator but go on shifting
their positions around the stator. For this reason, it is called a rotating Held. It can be shown that
magnitude of this rotating field is constant and is equal to 1.5 m where m is the maximum flux due
to any phase.

To see how rotating field is produced, consider a 2-pole, 3-phase winding as shown in Fig. 3.6 (i).
The three phases X, Y and Z are energized from a 3-phase source and currents in these phases are
indicated as Ix, Iy and Iz [See Fig. 3.6 (ii)]. Referring to Fig. 3.6 (ii), the fluxes produced by these
currents are given by:

Here m is the maximum flux due to any phase. Above figure shows the phasor diagram of the
three fluxes. We shall now prove that this 3-phase supply produces a rotating field of constant
magnitude equal to 1.5 m.

At instant 1 [See Fig. 3.6 (ii) and Fig. 3.6 (iii)], the current in phase X is zero and currents in phases
Y and Z are equal and opposite. The currents are flowing outward in the top conductors and inward

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

 Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 12

in the bottom conductors. This establishes a resultant flux towards right. The magnitude of the
resultant flux is constant and is equal to 1.5 m as proved under:

So,

At instant 2 [Fig: 3.7 (ii)], the current is maximum (negative) in y phase Y and 0.5 maximum
(positive) in phases X and Y. The magnitude of resultant flux is 1.5 m as proved under:

At instant 2, t = 30°. Therefore, the three fluxes are given by;

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

 Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 13

Fig: 3.6

At instant 3[Fig: 3.7 (iii)], current in phase Z is zero and the currents in phases X and Y are equal
and opposite (currents in phases X and Y arc 0.866  max. value). The magnitude of resultant flux
is 1.5 m as proved under:

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

 Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 14

Fig: 3.7

At instant 4 [Fig: 3.7 (iv)], the current in phase X is maximum (positive) and the currents in phases
V and Z are equal and negative (currents in phases V and Z are 0.5  max. value). This establishes
a resultant flux downward as shown under:

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

 Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 15

It follows from the above discussion that a 3-phase supply produces a rotating field of constant
value (= 1.5 m, where m is the maximum flux due to any phase).

3.5.1 Speed of rotating magnetic field

The speed at which the rotating magnetic field revolves is called the synchronous speed (Ns).
Referring to Fig. 3.6 (ii), the time instant 4 represents the completion of one-quarter cycle of
alternating current Ix from the time instant 1. During this one quarter cycle, the field has rotated
through 90°. At a time instant represented by 13 [Fig. 3.6 (ii)] or one complete cycle of current Ix
from the origin, the field has completed one revolution. Therefore, for a 2-pole stator winding, the
field makes one revolution in one cycle of current. In a 4-pole stator winding, it can be shown that
the rotating field makes one revolution in two cycles of current. In general, fur P poles, the rotating
field makes one revolution in P/2 cycles of current.

The speed of the rotating magnetic field is the same as the speed of the alternator that is supplying
power to the motor if the two have the same number of poles. Hence the magnetic flux is said to
rotate at synchronous speed.

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

 Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 16

3.5.2 Direction of rotating magnetic field

The phase sequence of the three-phase voltage applied to the stator winding in Fig. 3.6 (ii) is X-
Y-Z. If this sequence is changed to X-Z-Y, it is observed that direction of rotation of the field is
reversed i.e., the field rotates counter clockwise rather than clockwise. However, the number of
poles and the speed at which the magnetic field rotates remain unchanged. Thus it is necessary
only to change the phase sequence in order to change the direction of rotation of
the magnetic field. For a three-phase supply, this can be done by interchanging any two of the
three lines. As we shall see, the rotor in a 3-phase induction motor runs in the same direction as
the rotating magnetic field. Therefore, the direction of rotation of a 3-phase induction motor can
be reversed by interchanging any two of the three motor supply lines.

3.5.3 Slip

We have seen above that rotor rapidly accelerates in the direction of rotating field. In practice, the
rotor can never reach the speed of stator flux. If it did, there would be no relative speed between
the stator field and rotor conductors, no induced rotor currents and, therefore, no torque to drive
the rotor. The friction and windage would immediately cause the rotor to slow down. Hence, the
rotor speed (N) is always less than the suitor field speed (Ns). This difference in speed depends
upon load on the motor. The difference between the synchronous speed Ns of the rotating stator
field and the actual rotor speed N is called slip. It is usually expressed as a percentage of
synchronous speed i.e.

3.5.4 Rotor Current Frequency

The frequency of a voltage or current induced due to the relative speed between a vending and a
magnetic field is given by the general formula;

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

 Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 17

(ii) As the rotor picks up speed, the relative speed between the rotating flux and the rotor
decreases. Consequently, the slip s and hence rotor current frequency decreases.

3.6 Phasor Diagram of Three Phase Induction Motor

In a 3-phase induction motor, the stator winding is connected to 3-phase supply and the rotor
winding is short-circuited. The energy is transferred magnetically from the stator winding to the
short-circuited, rotor winding. Therefore, an induction motor may be considered to be a
transformer with a rotating secondary (short-circuited). The stator winding corresponds to
transformer primary and the rotor finding corresponds to transformer secondary. In view of the
similarity of the flux and voltage conditions to those in a transformer, one can expect that the
equivalent circuit of an induction motor will be similar to that of a transformer. Fig. 3.8 shows the
equivalent circuit per phase for an induction motor. Let discuss the stator and rotor circuits
separately.

Fig: 3.8

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

 Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 18

Stator circuit. In the stator, the events are very similar to those in the transformer primary. The
applied voltage per phase to the stator is V1 and R1and X1 are the stator resistance and leakage
reactance per phase respectively. The applied voltage V1 produces a magnetic flux which links
the stator winding (i.e., primary) as well as the rotor winding (i.e., secondary). As a result, self-
induced e.m.f. E1 is induced in the stator winding and mutually induced e.m.f.
E'2(= s E2 = s K E1 where K is transformation ratio) is induced in the rotor winding. The flow of
stator current I1 causes voltage drops in R1 and X1.

 V1 = −E1 + I1 (R1+ j X1) ...phasor sum

When the motor is at no-load, the stator winding draws a current I0. It has two components viz.,
(i) which supplies the no-load motor losses and (ii) magnetizing component Im which sets up
magnetic flux in the core and the air gap. The parallel combination of Rc and Xm, therefore,
represents the no-load motor losses and the production of magnetic flux respectively.

 I0 = Iw + Im

Rotor circuit. Here R2 and X2 represent the rotor resistance and standstill rotor reactance per
phase respectively. At any slip s, the rotor reactance will be X2 .The induced voltage/phase in the
rotor is E'2 = s E2 = s K E1. Since the rotor winding is short-circuited, the whole of e.m.f. E'2 is
used up in circulating the rotor current I'2.

 E'2 = I'2 (R2 + j s X2)

The rotor current I'2 is reflected as I"2 (= K I'2) in the stator. The phasor sum of I"2 and I0 gives the
stator current I1.
It is important to note that input to the primary and output from the secondary of a transformer are
electrical. However, in an induction motor, the inputs to the stator and rotor are electrical but the
output from the rotor is mechanical. To facilitate calculations, it is desirable and necessary to
replace the mechanical load by an equivalent electrical load. We then have the transformer
equivalent circuit of the induction motor.

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

 Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 19

Fig: 3.9

It may be noted that even though the frequencies of stator and rotor currents are different, yet the
magnetic fields due to them rotate at synchronous speed Ns. The stator currents produce a magnetic
flux which rotates at a speed Ns. At slip s, the speed of rotation of the rotor field relative to the
rotor surface in the direction of rotation of the rotor is

But the rotor is revolving at a speed of N relative to the stator core. Therefore, the speed of rotor
field relative to stator core

Thus no matter what the value of slip s, the stator and rotor magnetic fields are synchronous with
each other when seen by an observer stationed in space. Consequently, the 3-phase induction motor
can be regarded as being equivalent to a transformer having an air-gap separating the iron portions
of the magnetic circuit carrying the primary and secondary windings. Fig. 3.9 shows the phasor
diagram of induction motor.

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

 Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 20

3.7 Equivalent Circuit of Three Phase Induction Motor

Fig. 3.10 (i) shows the equivalent circuit per phase of the rotor at slip s. The rotor phase current is
given by;

Mathematically, this value is unaltered by writing it as:

As shown in Fig. 3.10 (ii), we now have a rotor circuit that has a fixed reactance X2 connected in
series with a variable resistance R2/s and supplied with constant voltage E2. Note that Fig. 3.10
(ii) transfers the variable to the resistance without altering power or power factor conditions.

Fig: 3.10

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

 Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 21

Fig. 3.10 (iii) shows the equivalent rotor circuit along with load resistance RL.

Now Fig: 3.11 shows the equivalent circuit per phase of a 3-phase induction motor. Note that
mechanical load on the motor has been replaced by an equivalent electrical resistance R L given
by;

- (i)

The circuit shown in Fig. 3.11 is similar to the equivalent circuit of a transformer with secondary
load equal to R2 given by eq. (i). The rotor e.m.f. in the equivalent circuit now depends only on
the transformation ratio K (= E2/E1).

Fig: 3.11

Therefore; induction motor can be represented as an equivalent transformer connected to a

variable-resistance load RL given by eq. (i). The power delivered to RL represents the total
mechanical power developed in the rotor. Since the equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.11 is that of a
transformer, the secondary (i.e., rotor) values can be transferred to primary (i.e., stator) through
the appropriate use of transformation ratio K. Recall that when shifting resistance/reactance from
secondary to primary, it should be divided by K2 whereas current should be multiplied by K. The
equivalent circuit of an induction motor referred to primary is shown in Fig. 3.12.
EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla
 Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 22

Fig: 3.12

Note that the element (i.e., R'L) enclosed in the dotted box is the equivalent electrical resistance
related to the mechanical load on the motor. The following points may be noted from the equivalent
circuit of the induction motor:

(i) At no-load, the slip is practically zero and the load R'L is infinite. This condition resembles
that in a transformer whose secondary winding is open-circuited.

(ii) At standstill, the slip is unity and the load R'L is zero. This condition resembles that in a
transformer whose secondary winding is short-circuited.

(iii) When the motor is running under load, the value of R'L will depend upon the value of the
slip s. This condition resembles that in a transformer whose secondary is supplying variable and
purely resistive load.

(iv) The equivalent electrical resistance R'L related to mechanical load is slip or speed
dependent. If the slip s increases, the load R'L decreases and the rotor current increases and motor
will develop more mechanical power. This is expected because the slip of the motor increases with
the increase of load on the motor shaft.

3.8 Power and Torque Relations of Three Phase Induction Motor

The transformer equivalent circuit of an induction motor is quite helpful in analyzing the various
power relations in the motor. Fig. 3.13 shows the equivalent circuit per phase of an induction motor
where all values have been referred to primary (i.e., stator).

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

 Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 23

Fig: 3.13

This is quite apparent from the equivalent circuit shown in Fig: 3.13.

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

 Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 24

3.9 Induction Motor Torque

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 Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 25

3.10 Rotor Output

If there were no copper losses in the rotor, the output would equal rotor input and the rotor would
run at synchronous speed Ns.

It is clear that if the input power to rotor is “Pr” then “s.Pr” is lost as rotor Cu loss and the remaining
(1 - s) Pr is converted into mechanical power. Consequently, induction motor operating at high
slip has poor efficiency.

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

 Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 26

3.11.1 Torque Equations

The gross torque Tg developed by an induction motor is given by;

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

 Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 27

3.11.2 Rotor Torque

3.11.3 Starting Torque (Ts)

Let,
E2 = rotor e.m.f. per phase at standstill
X2 = rotor reactance per phase at standstill
R2 = rotor resistance per phase

Generally, the stator supply voltage V is constant so that flux per pole  set up by the stator is also
fixed. This in turn means that e.m.f. E2 induced in the rotor will be constant.

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

 Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 28

3.11.4 Condition for Maximum Starting Torque

It can be proved that starting torque will be maximum when rotor resistance/phase is equal to
standstill rotor reactance/phase.

Hence starting torque will be maximum when:

Rotor resistance/phase = Standstill rotor reactance/phase

Under the condition of maximum starting torque, 2 = 45° and rotor power factor is 0.707 lagging.

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

 Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 29

Fig: 3.14
Fig. 3.14 shows the variation of starting torque with rotor resistance. As the rotor resistance is
increased from a relatively low value, the starting torque increases until it becomes maximum
when R2 = X2. If the rotor resistance is increased beyond this optimum value, the starting torque
will decrease.

3.11.5 Effect of Change of Supply Voltage

Therefore, the starting torque is very sensitive to changes in the value of supply voltage. For
example, a drop of 10% in supply voltage will decrease the starting torque by about 20%. This
could mean the motor failing to start if it cannot produce a torque greater than the load torque plus
friction torque.

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

 Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 30

3.12 Circle Diagram

To analyse the three phase induction motor performance using circle diagram we need to determine
the equivalent circuit parameters of the machine.

3.12.1 Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor

As in case of a transformer, the approximate equivalent circuit of an induction motor is obtained
by shifting the shunt branch (Rc - Xm) to the input terminals as shown in Fig. 3.15. This step has
been taken on the assumption that voltage drop in R1 and X1 is small and the terminal voltage V1
does not appreciably differ from the induced voltage E1. Fig. 3.15 shows the approximate
equivalent circuit per phase of an induction motor where all values have been referred to primary
(i.e., stator).

Fig: 3.15

The above approximate circuit of induction motor is not so readily justified as with the transformer.
This is due to the following reasons:

(i) Unlike that of a power transformer, the magnetic circuit of the induction motor has an air-gap.
Therefore, the exciting current of induction motor (30 to 40% of full-load current) is much higher
than that of the power transformer. Consequently, the exact equivalent circuit must be used for
accurate results.

(ii) The relative values of X1 and X2 in an induction motor are larger than the corresponding ones
to be found in the transformer. This fact does not justify the use of approximate equivalent circuit
(iii) In a transformer, the windings are concentrated whereas in an induction motor, the windings
are distributed. This affects the transformation ratio.

In spite of the above drawbacks of approximate equivalent circuit, it yields results that are
satisfactory for large motors. However, approximate equivalent circuit is not justified for small
motors.

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

 Lecture Notes – Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 31

3.12.2 Tests to Determine the Equivalent Circuit Parameters

In order to find values for the various elements of the equivalent circuit, tests must be conducted
on a particular machine, which is to be represented by the equivalent circuit. In order to do this,
we note the following.

1. When the machine is run on no-load, there is very little torque developed by it. In an ideal case
where there is no mechanical losses, there is no mechanical power developed at no-load. Recalling
the explanations in the section on torque production, the flow of current in the rotor is indicative
of the torque that is produced. If no torque is produced, one may conclude that no current would
be flowing in the rotor either. The rotor branch acts like an open circuit. This conclusion may also
be reached by reasoning that when there is no load, an ideal machine will run up to its synchronous
speed where the slip is zero resulting in an infinite impedance in the rotor branch.

2. When the machine is prevented from rotation, and supply is given, the slip remains at unity. The
elements representing the magnetizing branch Rm & Xm are high impedances much larger than
in series. Thus, in the exact equivalent circuit of the induction machine, the magnetizing
branch may be neglected.

From these considerations, we may reduce the induction machine equivalent circuit of Fig.3.13 &
Fig: 3.15 to those shown in Fig: 3.16.

Fig: 3.16

These two observations and the reduced equivalent circuits are used as the basis for the two most
commonly used tests to find out the equivalent circuit parameters — the blocked rotor test and no
load test. They are also referred to as the short circuit test and open circuit test respectively in
conceptual analogy to the transformer.

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1. No-load test

The behaviour of the machine may be judged from the equivalent circuit of Fig: 3.16 (a). The
current drawn by the machine causes a stator-impedance drop and the balance voltage is applied
across the magnetizing branch. However, since the magnetizing branch impedance is large, the
current drawn is small and hence the stator impedance drop is small compared to the applied
voltage (rated value). This drop and the power dissipated in the stator resistance are therefore
neglected and the total power drawn is assumed to be consumed entirely as core loss. This can also
be seen from the approximate equivalent circuit, the use of which is justified by the foregoing
arguments. This test therefore enables us to compute the resistance and inductance of the
magnetizing branch in the following manner.

Vs, Is and Ps are measured with appropriate meters. With Rm known by above equation, Xm also
can be found. The current drawn is at low power factor and hence a suitable wattmeter should be
used.

2. Blocked-rotor Test

In this test the rotor is prevented from rotation by mechanical means and hence the name. Since
there is no rotation, slip of operation is unity, s = 1. The equivalent circuit valid under these
conditions is shown in Fig: 3.16 (b). Since the current drawn is decided by the resistance and
leakage impedances alone, the magnitude can be very high when rated voltage is applied.
Therefore in this test, only small voltages are applied — just enough to cause rated current to flow.
While the current magnitude depends on the resistance and the reactance, the power drawn depends
on the resistances.

The parameters may then be determined as follows. The source current and power drawn may be
written as -

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In the test Vs, Is and Ps are measured with appropriate meters. Above equation enables us to
compute (Rs + R′r). Once this is known, (Xs + X′r) may be computed from the above equation.

Note that this test only enables us to determine the series combination of the resistance and the
reactance only and not the individual values. Generally, the individual values are assumed to be
equal; the assumption Rs = R′r, and Xs = X′r suffices for most purposes.

In practice, there are differences. If more accurate estimates are required IEEE guidelines may be
followed which depend on the size of the machine.

These two tests determine the equivalent circuit parameters in a ‘Stator-referred’ sense, i.e., the
rotor resistance and leakage inductance are not the actual values but what they ’appear to be’ when
looked at from the stator. This is sufficient for most purposes as interconnections to the external
world are generally done at the stator terminals.

3.12.3 Construction of Circle Diagram

Conduct No load test and blocked rotor test on the induction motor and find out the per phase
values of no load current I0, short circuit current ISC and the corresponding phase angles Φ0 and
ΦSC. Also find short circuit current ISN corresponding to normal supply voltage. With this data, the
circle diagram can be drawn as follows see Fig: 3.17.

1. With suitable scale, draw vector OA with length corresponding to I0 at an angle Φ0 from the
vertical axis. Draw a horizontal line AB.
2. Draw OS equal to ISN at an angle ΦSC and join AS.
3. Draw the perpendicular bisector to AS to meet the horizontal line AB at C.

4. With C as centre, draw a portion of circle passing through A and S. This forms the circle diagram
which is the locus of the input current.
5. From point S, draw a vertical line SL to meet the line AB.

6. Divide SL at point K so that SK : KL = rotor resistance : stator resistance.

7. For a given operating point P, draw a vertical line PEFGD as shown. then PE = output power,
EF = rotor copper loss, FG = stator copper loss, GD = constant loss (iron loss + mechanical loss)
8. To find the operating points corresponding to maximum power and maximum torque, draw
tangents to the circle diagram parallel to the output line and torque line respectively. The points at
which these tangents touch the circle are respectively the maximum power point and maximum
torque point.

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Fig: 3.17 Construction of Circle Diagram

Efficiency line
1. The output line AS is extended backwards to meet the X-axis at O′.
2. From any convenient point on the extended output line, draw a horizontal line QT so as to meet
the vertical from O′. Divide the line QT into 100 equal parts.
3. To find the efficiency corresponding to any operating point P, draw a line from O′ to the
efficiency line through P to meet the efficiency line at T1. Now QT1 is the efficiency.

Slip Line

1. Draw line QR parallel to the torque line, meeting the vertical through A at R. Divide RQ into
100 equal parts.
2. To find the slip corresponding to any operating point P, draw a line from A to the slip line
through P to meet the slip line at R1. Now RR1 is the slip
Power Factor Curve
1. Draw a quadrant of a circle with O as centre and any convenient radius. Divide OCm into 100
equal parts.
2. To find power factor corresponding to P, extend the line OP to meet the power factor curve at
C′. Draw a horizontal line C′C1 to meet the vertical axis at C1. Now OC1 represents power factor.

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3.13 Performance Characteristics of Three phase Induction Motor

The equivalent circuits derived in the preceding section can be used to predict the performance
characteristics of the induction machine. The important performance characteristics in the steady
state are the efficiency, power factor, current, starting torque, maximum (or pull-out) torque.

3.13.1 The complete torque-speed characteristic

In order to estimate the speed torque characteristic let us suppose that a sinusoidal voltage is
impressed on the machine. Recalling that the equivalent circuit is the per-phase representation of
the machine, the current drawn by the circuit is given by

Where, Vs is the phase voltage phasor and Is is the current phasor. The magnetizing current is
neglected. Since this current is flowing through R′r/s, the air-gap power is given by

The mechanical power output was shown to be (1−s)Pg (power dissipated in R′r/s). The torque is
obtained by dividing this by the shaft speed .Thus we have,

where is the synchronous speed in radians per second and s is the slip. Further, this
is the torque produced per phase. Hence the overall torque is given by

The torque may be plotted as a function of ‘s’ and is called the torque-slip (or torque- speed, since
slip indicates speed) characteristic a very important characteristic of the induction machine.
A typical torque-speed characteristic is shown in Fig: 3.18. This plot corresponds to a 3 kW, 4
pole, and 60 Hz machine. The rated operating speed is 1780 rpm.

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Further, this curve is obtained by varying slip with the applied voltage being held constant.
Coupled with the fact that this is an equivalent circuit valid under steady state, it implies that if
this characteristic is to be measured experimentally, we need to look at the torque for a given speed
after all transients have died down. One cannot, for example, try to obtain this curve by directly
starting the motor with full voltage applied to the terminals and measuring the torque and speed
dynamically as it runs up to steady speed.

Fig: 3.18
With respect to the direction of rotation of the air-gap flux, the rotor maybe driven to higher speeds
by a prime mover or may also be rotated in the reverse direction. The torque-speed relation for the
machine under the entire speed range is called the complete speed-torque characteristic. A typical
curve is shown in Fig: 3.19 for a four-pole machine, the synchronous speed being 1500 rpm. Note
that negative speeds correspond to slip values greater than 1, and speeds greater than 1500 rpm
correspond to negative slip. The plot also shows the operating modes of the induction machine in
various regions. The slip axis is also shown for convenience.

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Fig: 3.19

3.13.2 Effect of Rotor Resistance on Speed Torque Characteristic

Restricting ourselves to positive values of slip, we see that the curve has a peak point. This is the
maximum torque that the machine can produce, and is called as stalling torque. If the load torque
is more than this value, the machine stops rotating or stalls. It occurs at a slip ˆs, which for the
machine of Fig: 3.19 is 0.38. At values of slip lower than ˆs, the curve falls steeply down to zero
at s = 0. The torque at synchronous speed is therefore zero. At values of slip higher than s = ˆs, the
curve falls slowly to a minimum value at s = 1. The torque at s = 1 (speed = 0) is called the starting
torque. The value of the stalling torque may be obtained by differentiating the expression for torque
with respect to zero and setting it to zero to find the value of ˆs. Using this method, we can write
–

Substituting ˆs into the expression for torque gives us the value of the stalling torque ˆ Te,

- The negative sign being valid for negative slip.

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The expression shows that ˆ Te is the independent of R′r, while ˆs is directly proportional to R′r.
This fact can be made use of conveniently to alter ˆs. If it is possible to change R′r, then we can
get a whole series of torque-speed characteristics, the maximum torque remaining constant all the
while.
We may note that if R′r is chosen equal to =

The ˆs, becomes unity, which means that the maximum torque occurs at starting. Thus changing
of R′r, wherever possible can serve as a means to control the starting torque Fig: 3.20.

Fig: 3.20

While considering the negative slip range, (generator mode) we note that the maximum torque is
higher than in the positive slip region (motoring mode).

3.13.3 Operating Point and Stable & Unstable region of Operation

Consider a speed torque characteristic shown in fig. 25 for an induction machine, having the load
characteristic also superimposed on it. The load is a constant torque load i.e. the torque required
for operation is fixed irrespective of speed.

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Fig: 3.21

The system consisting of the motor and load will operate at a point where the two characteristics
meet. From the above plot, we note that there are two such points. We therefore need to find out
which of these is the actual operating point. To answer this we must note that, in practice, the
characteristics are never fixed; they change slightly with time. It would be appropriate to consider
a small band around the curve drawn where the actual points of the characteristic will lie. This
being the case let us considers that the system is operating at point 1, and the load torque demand
increases slightly. This is shown in Fig: 3.22, where the change is exaggerated for clarity. This
would shift the point of operation to a point 1′ at which the slip would be less and the developed
torque higher.

The difference in torque developed 𝗈Te, being positive will accelerate the machine. Any overshoot
in speed as it approaches the point 1′ will cause it to further accelerate since the developed torque
is increasing. Similar arguments may be used to show that if for some reason the developed torque
becomes smaller the speed would drop and the effect is cumulative. Therefore we may conclude
that 1 is not a stable operating point.

Let us consider the point 2. If this point shifts to 2′, the slip is now higher (speed is lower) and the
positive difference in torque will accelerate the machine. This behaviour will tend to bring the
operating point towards 2 once again. In other words, disturbances at point 2 will not cause a

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runaway effect. Similar arguments may be given for the case where the load characteristic shifts
down. Therefore we conclude that point 2 is a stable operating point.

Fig: 3.22

From the above discussions, we can say that the entire region of the speed-torque characteristic
from s = 0 to s = ˆs is an unstable region, while the region from s = ˆs to s = 0 is a stable region.
Therefore the machine will always operate between s = 0 and s = ˆs.

3.14 Operation with Unbalanced Supply Voltage on Polyphase Induction Motors

Three phase induction motors are designed and manufactured such that all three phases of the
winding are carefully balanced with respect to the number of turns, placement of the winding, and
winding resistance. When line voltages applied to a polyphase induction motor are not exactly the
same, unbalanced currents will flow in the stator winding, the magnitude depending upon the
amount of unbalance. A small amount of voltage unbalance may increase the current an excessive
amount. The effect on the motor can be severe and the motor may overheat to the point of burnout.

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Unbalance Defined

The voltage unbalance (or negative sequence voltage) in percent may be defined as follows:

Percent Voltage Unbalance = 100 * (Maximum Voltage Deviation/ Average Voltage)

Example:
With voltages of 220, 215 and 210, in three phases respectively then the average is 215, the
maximum deviation from the average is 5, and the percent unbalance = 100 X 5/215 = 2.3 percent.
Effect on performance-

General
The effect of unbalanced voltages on polyphase induction motors is equivalent to the introduction
of a "negative sequence voltage" having a rotation opposite to that occurring with balanced
voltages. This negative sequence voltage produces in the air gap a flux rotating against the rotation
of the rotor, tending to produce high currents. A small negative sequence voltage may produce in
the windings currents considerably in excess of those present under balanced voltage conditions.

Temperature rise and load carrying capacity

A relatively small unbalance in voltage will cause a considerable increase in temperature rise. In
the phase with the highest current, the percentage increase in temperature rise will be
approximately two times the square of the percentage voltage unbalance. The increase in losses
and consequently, the increase in average heating of the whole winding will be slightly lower than
the winding with the highest current.
To illustrate the severity of this condition, an approximate 3.5 percent voltage unbalance will cause
an approximate 25 percent increase in temperature rise.

Torques
The locked-rotor torque and breakdown torque are decreased when the voltage is unbalanced. If
the voltage unbalance should be extremely severe, the torque might not be adequate for the
application.

Full-load speed
The full-load speed is reduced slightly when the motor operates at unbalanced voltages.
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Currents

The locked-rotor current will be unbalanced to the same degree that the voltages are unbalanced
but the locked-rotor KVA will increase only slightly. The currents at normal operating speed with
unbalanced voltages will be greatly unbalanced in the order of approximately 6 to 10 times the
voltage unbalance. This introduces a complex problem in selecting the proper overload protective
devices, particularly since devices selected for one set of unbalanced conditions may be inadequate
for a different set of unbalanced voltages. Increasing the size of the overload protective device is
not the solution in as much as protection against heating from overload and from single phase
operation is lost.

Thus the voltages should be evenly balanced as closely as can be read on the usually available
commercial voltmeter.

3.15 Starting of Three Phase Induction Motor

The induction motor is fundamentally a transformer in which the stator is the primary and the rotor
is short-circuited secondary. At starting, the voltage induced in the induction motor rotor is
maximum (s = 1). Since the rotor impedance is low, the rotor current is excessively large. This
large rotor current is reflected in the stator because of transformer action. This results in high
starting current (4 to 10 times the full-load current) in the stator at low power factor and
consequently the value of starting torque is low. Because of the short duration, this value of large
current does not harm the motor if the motor accelerates normally.

However, this large starting current will produce large line-voltage drop. This will adversely affect
the operation of other electrical equipment connected to the same lines. Therefore, it is desirable
and necessary to reduce the magnitude of stator current at starting and several methods are
available for this purpose.

3.15.1 Methods of Starting Three Phase Induction Motors

The method to be employed in starting a given induction motor depends upon the size of the motor
and the type of the motor. The common methods used to start induction motors are:

(i) Direct-on-line starting

(ii) Stator resistance starting
(iii) Autotransformer starting
(iv) Star-delta starting
(v) Rotor resistance starting

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Methods (i) to (iv) are applicable to both squirrel-cage and slip ring motors. However, method (v)
is applicable only to slip ring motors. In practice, any one of the first four methods is used for
starting squirrel cage motors, depending upon, the size of the motor. But slip ring motors are
invariably started by rotor resistance starting.

Except direct-on-line starting, all other methods of starting squirrel-cage motors employ reduced
voltage across motor terminals at starting.

(i) Direct-on-line starting

This method of starting in just what the name implies—the motor is started by connecting it
directly to 3-phase supply. The impedance of the motor at standstill is relatively low and when it
is directly connected to the supply system, the starting current will be high (4 to 10 times the full-
load current) and at a low power factor. Consequently, this method of starting is suitable for
relatively small (up to 7.5 kW) machines.

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Note that starting current is as large as five times the full-load current but starting torque is just
equal to the full-load torque. Therefore, starting current is very high and the starting torque is
comparatively low. If this large starting current flows for a long time, it may overheat the motor
and damage the insulation.

(ii) Stator resistance starting

In this method, external resistances are connected in series with each phase of stator winding
during starting. This causes voltage drop across the resistances so that voltage available across
motor terminals is reduced and hence the starting current. The starting resistances are gradually
cut out in steps (two or more steps) from the stator circuit as the motor picks up speed. When the
motor attains rated speed, the resistances are completely cut out and full line voltage is applied to
the rotor see Fig: 3.23.
This method suffers from two drawbacks. First, the reduced voltage applied to the motor during
the starting period lowers the starting torque and hence increases the accelerating time. Secondly,
a lot of power is wasted in the starting resistances.

Fig: 3.23
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Relation between starting and F.L. torques.

Let V be the rated voltage/phase. If the voltage is reduced by a fraction x by the insertion of
resistors in the line, then voltage applied to the motor per phase will be xV.
So,

Thus while the starting current reduces by a fraction x of the rated-voltage starting current (Isc),
the starting torque is reduced by a fraction x2 of that obtained by direct switching. The reduced
voltage applied to the motor during the starting period lowers the starting current but at the same
time increases the accelerating time because of the reduced value of the starting torque. Therefore,
this method is used for starting small motors only.

(iii) Autotransformer starting

This method also aims at connecting the induction motor to a reduced supply at starting and then
connecting it to the full voltage as the motor picks up sufficient speed. Fig: 3.24 shows the circuit
arrangement for autotransformer starting. The tapping on the autotransformer is so set that when
it is in the circuit, 65% to 80% of line voltage is applied to the motor.
At the instant of starting, the change-over switch is thrown to “start” position. This puts the
autotransformer in the circuit and thus reduced voltage is applied to the circuit. Consequently,
starting current is limited to safe value. When the motor attains about 80% of normal speed, the
changeover switch is thrown to “run” position. This takes out the autotransformer from the circuit
and puts the motor to full line voltage. Autotransformer starting has several advantages viz low
power loss, low starting current and less radiated heat. For large machines (over 25 H.P.), this
method of starting is often used. This method can be used for both star and delta connected motors.

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Fig: 3.24

Fig: 3.25

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The current taken from the supply or by autotransformer is I1 = KI2 = K2Isc. Note that motor current
is K times, the supply line current is K2 times and the starting torque is K2 times the value it would
have been on direct-on-line starting.

(iv) Star-delta starting

The stator winding of the motor is designed for delta operation and is connected in star during
the starting period. When the machine is up to speed, the connections are changed to delta. The
circuit arrangement for star-delta starting is shown in Fig: 3.26.
The six leads of the stator windings are connected to the changeover switch as shown. At the
instant of starting, the changeover switch is thrown to “Start” position which connects the stator
windings in star. Therefore, each stator phase gets 𝑉/√3 volts where V is the line voltage. This
reduces the starting current. When the motor picks up speed, the changeover switch is thrown to
“Run” position which connects the stator windings in delta. Now each stator phase gets full line
voltage V. The disadvantages of this method are:

(b) The reduction in voltage is fixed.

This method of starting is used for medium-size machines (upto about 25 H.P.).

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Fig: 3.26

Note that in star-delta starting, the starting line current is reduced to one-third as compared to
starting with the winding delta connected. Further, starting torque is reduced to one-third of that
obtainable by direct delta starting. This method is cheap but limited to applications where high
starting torque is not necessary e.g., machine tools, pumps etc.

3.15.2 Starting of Slip-Ring Induction Motors

Slip-ring motors are invariably started by rotor resistance starting. In this method, a variable star-
connected rheostat is connected in the rotor circuit through slip rings and full voltage is applied
to the stator winding as shown in Fig: 3.27.

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Fig: 3.27

(i) At starting, the handle of rheostat is set in the OFF position so that maximum resistance
is placed in each phase of the rotor circuit. This reduces the starting current and at the same time
starting torque is increased.

(ii) As the motor picks up speed, the handle of rheostat is gradually moved in clockwise
direction and cuts out the external resistance in each phase of the rotor circuit. When the
motor attains normal speed, the change-over switch is in the ON position and the whole
external resistance is cut out from the rotor circuit.

3.16 Speed control of Three Phase Induction Motors

The induction machine, when operating from mains is essentially a constant speed machine.
Many industrial drives, typically for fan or pump applications, have typically constant speed
requirements and hence the induction machine is ideally suited for these. However, the induction
machine, especially the squirrel cage type, is quite rugged and has a simple construction.
Therefore it is good candidate for variable speed applications if it can be achieved.

3.16.1 Speed control by changing applied voltage

From the torque equation of the induction machine we can see that the torque depends on the
square of the applied voltage. The variation of speed torque curves with respect to the applied
voltage is shown in Fig: 3.28. These curves show that the slip at maximum torque 𝑆^ remains
same, while the value of stall torque comes down with decrease in applied voltage. The speed
range for stable operation remains the same.

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Further, we also note that the starting torque is also lower at lower voltages. Thus, even if a given
voltage level is sufficient for achieving the running torque, the machine may not start. This
method of trying to control the speed is best suited for loads that require very little starting torque,
but their torque requirement may increase with speed.

Fig: 3.28 also shows a load torque characteristic — one that is typical of a fan type of load. In a
fan (blower) type of load, the variation of torque with speed is such that 𝑇 𝖺 𝜔2.
Here one can see that it may be possible to run the motor to lower speeds within the range n s to
(1 − ˆs) ns. Further, since the load torque at zero speed is zero, the machine can start even at
reduced voltages. This will not be possible with constant torque type of loads.

Fig: 3.28

One may note that if the applied voltage is reduced, the voltage across the magnetising branch
also comes down. This in turn means that the magnetizing current and hence flux level are
reduced. Reduction in the flux level in the machine impairs torque production which is primarily
the explanation for Fig: 3.28. If, however, the machine is running under lightly loaded
conditions, then operating under rated flux levels is not required. Under such conditions,

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reduction in magnetizing current improves the power factor of operation. Some amount of energy
saving may also be achieved.

Voltage control may be achieved by adding series resistors (a lossy, inefficient proposition), or
a series inductor / autotransformer (a bulky solution) or a more modern solution using
semiconductor devices. A typical solid state circuit used for this purpose is the AC voltage
controller or AC chopper.

3.16.2 Rotor resistance control

The expression for the torque of the induction machine is dependent on the rotor resistance.
Further the maximum value is independent of the rotor resistance. The slip at maximum torque
is dependent on the rotor resistance. Therefore, we may expect that if the rotor resistance is
changed, the maximum torque point shifts to higher slip values, while retaining a constant torque.
Fig: 3.29 shows a family of torque-speed characteristic obtained by changing the rotor resistance.

Note that while the maximum torque and synchronous speed remain constant, the slip at which
maximum torque occurs increases with increase in rotor resistance, and so does the starting
torque. Whether the load is of constant torque type or fan-type, it is evident that the speed control
range is more with this method. Further, rotor resistance control could also be used as a means
of generating high starting torque.

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Fig: 3.29

For all its advantages, the scheme has two serious drawbacks. Firstly, in order to vary the rotor
resistance, it is necessary to connect external variable resistors (winding resistance itself cannot
be changed). This, therefore necessitates a slip-ring machine, since only in that case rotor
terminals are available outside. For cage rotor machines, there are no rotor terminals. Secondly,
the method is not very efficient since the additional resistance and operation at high slips entails
dissipation.

The resistors connected to the slip-ring brushes should have good power dissipation capability.
Water based rheostats may be used for this. A ‘solid-state’ alternative to a rheostat is a chopper
controlled resistance where the duty ratio control of the chopper presents a variable resistance
load to the rotor of the induction machine.

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3.16.3 Cascade control

The power drawn from the rotor terminals could be spent more usefully. Apart from using the
heat generated in meaning full ways, the slip ring output could be connected to another induction
machine. The stator of the second machine would carry slip frequency currents of
the first machine which would generate some useful mechanical power. A still better option
would be to mechanically couple the shafts of the two machines together. This sort of a
connection is called cascade connection and it gives some measure of speed control.

Let the frequency of supply given to the first machine be f1, its number poles be p1, and its slip
of operation be S1. Let f2, p2 and S2 be the corresponding quantities for the second machine. The
frequency of currents flowing in the rotor of the first machine and hence in the stator of the
second machine is S1 f1. Therefore f2 = S1 f1. Since the machines are coupled at the shaft, the
speed of the rotor is common for both. Hence, if n is the speed of the rotor in radians,

Note that while giving the rotor output of the first machine to the stator of the second, the
resultant stator mmf of the second machine may set up an air-gap flux which rotates in the same
direction as that of the rotor, or opposes it. This results in values for speed as –

The latter expression is for the case where the second machine is connected in opposite phase
sequence to the first. The cascade connected system can therefore run at two possible speeds.
Speed control through rotor terminals can be considered in a much more general way. Consider
the induction machine equivalent circuit of Fig: 3.30, where the rotor circuit has been terminated
with a voltage source Er.

Fig; 3.30

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If the rotor terminals are shorted, it behaves like a normal induction machine. This is equivalent
to saying that across the rotor terminals a voltage source of zero magnitude is connected.
Different situations could then be considered if this voltage source Er had a non-zero magnitude.
Let the power consumed by that source be Pr. Then considering the rotor side circuit power
dissipation per phase

Clearly now, the value of s can be changed by the value of Pr. for Pr = 0, the machine is like a
normal machine with a short circuited rotor. As Pr becomes positive, for all other circuit
conditions remaining constant, s increases or in the other words, speed reduces. As Pr becomes
negative, the right hand side of the equation and hence the slip decreases. The physical
interpretation is that we now have an active source connected on the rotor side which is able to
supply part of the rotor copper losses. When Pr = −I′22 R2 the entire copper loss is supplied by
the external source. The RHS and hence the slip is zero. This corresponds to operation at
synchronous speed. In general the circuitry connected to the rotor may not be a simple resistor
or a machine but a power electronic circuit which can process this power requirement. This
circuit may drive a machine or recover power back to the mains. Such circuits are called static
Kramer drives.

3.16.4 Pole changing method

Sometimes induction machines have a special stator winding capable of being externally
connected to form two different number of pole numbers. Since the synchronous speed of the
induction machine is given by ns = fs/p (in rev. /s) where p is the number of pole pairs, this would
correspond to changing the synchronous speed. With the slip now corresponding to the new
synchronous speed, the operating speed is changed. This method of speed control is a stepped
variation and generally restricted to two steps.

If the changes in stator winding connections are made so that the air gap flux remains constant,
then at any winding connection, the same maximum torque is achievable. Such winding
arrangements are therefore referred to as constant-torque connections. If however such
connection changes result in air gap flux changes that are inversely proportional to the
synchronous speeds, then such connections are called constant-horsepower type.

The following figure serves to illustrate the basic principle. Consider a magnetic pole structure
consisting of four pole faces A, B, C, D as shown in Fig: 3.31.

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Fig: 3.31

Coils are wound on A & C in the directions shown. The two coils on A & C may be connected
in series in two different ways — A2 may be connected to C1 or C2. A1 with the

Other terminal at C then form the terminals of the overall combination. Thus two connections
result as shown in Fig: 3.32 (a) & (b).

Now, for a given direction of current flow at terminal A1, say into terminal A1, the flux
directions within the poles are shown in the figures. In case (a), the flux lines are out of the pole
A (seen from the rotor) for and into pole C, thus establishing a two-pole structure. In case (b)
however, the flux lines are out of the poles in A & C. The flux lines will be then have to complete
the circuit by flowing into the pole structures on the sides. If, when seen from the rotor, the pole
emanating flux lines is considered as North Pole and the pole into which they enter is termed as
south, then the pole configurations produced by these connections is a two-pole arrangement in
Fig: 3.32(a) and a four-pole arrangement in Fig: 3.32 (b).

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Fig: 3.32

Thus by changing the terminal connections we get either a two pole air-gap field or a four- pole
field. In an induction machine this would correspond to a synchronous speed reduction
in half from case (a) to case (b). Further note that irrespective of the connection, the applied
voltage is balanced by the series addition of induced emf s in two coils. Therefore the air-gap
flux in both cases is the same. Cases (a) and (b) therefore form a pair of constant torque
connections.

Consider, on the other hand a connection as shown in the Fig: 3.32 (c). The terminals T1 and T2
are where the input excitation is given. Note that current direction in the coils now resembles
that of case (b), and hence this would result in a four-pole structure. However, in Fig: 3.32 (c),
there is only one coil induced emf to balance the applied voltage. Therefore flux in case (c)
would therefore be halved compared to that of case (b) or case (a), for that matter). Cases (a) and
(c) therefore form a pair of constant horse-power connections.

It is important to note that in generating a different pole numbers, the current through one coil
(out of two, coil C in this case) is reversed. In the case of a three phase machine, the following
example serves to explain this. Let the machine have coils connected as shown [C1 − C6] as
shown in Fig: 3.33.

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The current directions shown in C1 & C2 correspond to the case where T1, T2, T3 are supplied
with three phase excitation and Ta, Tb & Tc are shorted to each other (STAR point). The applied
voltage must be balanced by induced emf in one coil only (C1 & C2 are
parallel). If however the excitation is given to Ta, Tb & Tc with T1, T2, T3 open, then current
through one of the coils (C1 & C2) would reverse. Thus the effective number of poles would
increase, thereby bringing down the speed. The other coils also face similar conditions.

Fig: 3.33

3.16.5 Stator frequency control

The expression for the synchronous speed indicates that by changing the stator frequency also it
can be changed. This can be achieved by using power electronic circuits called inverters which
convert dc to ac of desired frequency. Depending on the type of control scheme of the inverter,
the ac generated may be variable-frequency-fixed-amplitude or variable-frequency-variable-
amplitude type. Power electronic control achieves smooth variation of voltage and frequency of
the ac output. This when fed to the machine is capable of running at a controlled speed. However,
consider the equation for the induced emf in the induction machine.

Where, N is the number of the turns per phase, 𝜑𝑚 is the peak flux in the air gap and f is the
frequency.

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Note that in order to reduce the speed, frequency has to be reduced. If the frequency is reduced
while the voltage is kept constant, thereby requiring the amplitude of induced emf to remain the
same, flux has to increase. This is not advisable since the machine likely to enter deep saturation.
If this is to be avoided, then flux level must be maintained constant which implies that voltage
must be reduced along with frequency. The ratio is held constant in order to maintain the flux
level for maximum torque capability.

Actually, it is the voltage across the magnetizing branch of the exact equivalent circuit that must
be maintained constant, for it is that which determines the induced emf. Under conditions where
the stator voltage drop is negligible compared the applied voltage. In this mode of operation, the
voltage across the magnetizing inductance in the ’exact’ equivalent circuit reduces in amplitude
with reduction in frequency and so does the inductive reactance. This implies that the current
through the inductance and the flux in the machine remains constant. The speed torque
characteristics at any frequency may be estimated as before. There is one curve for every
excitation frequency considered corresponding to every
value of synchronous speed. The curves are shown below. It may be seen that the maximum
torque remains constant.

Fig: 3.34

This may be seen mathematically as follows. If E is the voltage across the magnetizing branch
and f is the frequency of excitation, then E = kf, where k is the constant of proportionality. If =
2π𝑓𝑓 , the developed torque is given by

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If this equation is differentiated with respect to s and equated to zero to find the slip at maximum
torque ˆs, we get ˆs = ±R′r/(𝜔L′lr). The maximum torque is obtained by substituting this value
into above equation,

It shows that this maximum value is independent of the frequency. Further 𝑠� 𝜔 is independent
of frequency. This means that the maximum torque always occurs at a speed lower than
synchronous speed by a fixed difference, independent of frequency. The overall effect is an
apparent shift of the torque-speed characteristic as shown in Fig: 3.34.

Though this is the aim, E is an internal voltage which is not accessible. It is only the terminal
voltage V which we have access to and can control. For a fixed V, E changes with operating slip
(rotor branch impedance changes) and further due to the stator impedance drop. Thus if we
approximate E/f as V/f, the resulting torque-speed characteristic shown in Fig: 3.35 is far from
desirable.

Fig: 3.35

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At low frequencies and hence low voltages the curves show a considerable reduction in peak
torque. At low frequencies (and hence at low voltages) the drop across the stator impedance
prevents sufficient voltage availability. Therefore, in order to maintain sufficient
torque at low frequencies, a voltage more than proportional needs to be given at low speeds.
Another component of compensation that needs to be given is due to operating slip. With these
two components, therefore, the ratio of applied voltage to frequency is not a constant but is a
curve such as that shown in Fig: 3.36

Fig: 3.36

With this kind of control, it is possible to get a good starting torque and steady state performance.
However, under dynamic conditions, this control is insufficient. Advanced control techniques
such as field- oriented control (vector control) or direct torque control (DTC) are necessary.

3.17 Power Stages in an Induction Motor

The input electric power fed to the stator of the motor is converted into mechanical power at the
shaft of the motor. The various losses during the energy conversion are:

1. Fixed losses
(i) Stator iron loss

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(ii) Friction and windage loss

The rotor iron loss is negligible because the frequency of rotor currents under normal running
condition is small.

2. Variable losses
(i) Stator copper loss
(ii) Rotor copper loss

Fig: 3.37 shows how electric power fed to the stator of an induction motor suffers losses and
finally converted into mechanical power.

Fig: 3.37

The following points may be noted from the above diagram:

(i) Stator input, Pi = Stator output + Stator losses

= Stator output + Stator Iron loss + Stator Cu loss

(ii) Rotor input, Pr = Stator output

It is because stator output is entirely transferred to the rotor through air-gap by electromagnetic
induction.
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(iii) Mechanical power available, Pm = Pr - Rotor Cu loss

This mechanical power available is the gross rotor output and will produce a gross torque Tg.
(iv) Mechanical power at shaft, Pout = Pm - Friction and windage loss
Mechanical power available at the shaft produces a shaft torque Tsh.

Clearly, Pm - Pout = Friction and windage loss.

3.18 Double Cage Induction Motor

One of the advantages of the slip-ring motor is that resistance may be inserted in the rotor circuit
to obtain high starting torque (at low starting current) and then cut out to obtain optimum running
conditions. However, such a procedure cannot be adopted for a squirrel cage motor because its
cage is permanently short-circuited. In order to provide high starting torque at low starting
current, double-cage construction is used.

Construction

As the name suggests, the rotor of this motor has two squirrel-cage windings located one above
the other as shown in Fig: 3.38(i).

The outer winding consists of bars of smaller cross-section short-circuited by end rings.
Therefore, the resistance of this winding is high. Since the outer winding has relatively open slots
and a poorer flux path around its bars [See Fig: 3.38(ii)], it has a low inductance. Thus the
resistance of the outer squirrel-cage winding is high and its inductance is low.

The inner winding consists of bars of greater cross-section short-circuited by end rings.
Therefore, the resistance of this winding is low. Since the bars of the inner winding are
thoroughly buried in iron, it has a high inductance [See Fig: 3.38(ii)].Thus the resistance of the
inner squirrel cage winding is low and its inductance is high.

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Fig: 3.38

Working
When a rotating magnetic field sweeps across the two windings, equal e.m.f.s are induced in
each.

(i) At starting, the rotor frequency is the same as that of the line (i.e., 50 Hz), making the
reactance of the lower winding much higher than that of the upper winding. Because of the high
reactance of the lower winding, nearly all the rotor current flows in the high-resistance outer
cage winding. This provides the good starting characteristics of a high-resistance cage winding.
Thus the outer winding gives high starting torque at low starting current.

(ii) As the motor accelerates, the rotor frequency decreases, thereby lowering the reactance of
the inner winding, allowing it to carry a larger proportion of the total rotor current At the normal
operating speed of the motor, the rotor frequency is so low (2 to 3 Hz) that nearly all the rotor
current flows in the low-resistance inner cage winding. This results in good operating efficiency
and speed regulation.

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Fig: 3.39

Fig: 3.39 shows the operating characteristics of double squirrel-cage motor. The starting torque
of this motor ranges from 200 to 250 percent of full-load torque with a starting current of 4 to 6
times the full-load value. It is classed as a high-torque, low starting current motor.

3.19 Cogging and Crawling of Induction Motor

Crawling of induction motor

Sometimes, squirrel cage induction motors exhibits a tendency to run at very slow speeds (as
low as one-seventh of their synchronous speed). This phenomenon is called as crawling of an
induction motor.

This action is due to the fact that, flux wave produced by a stator winding is not purely sine
wave. Instead, it is a complex wave consisting a fundamental wave and odd harmonics like 3rd,
5th, 7th etc. The fundamental wave revolves synchronously at synchronous speed Ns whereas
3rd, 5th, 7th harmonics may rotate in forward or backward direction at Ns/3, Ns/5, Ns/7 speeds
respectively. Hence, harmonic torques are also developed in addition with fundamental torque.

3rd harmonics are absent in a balanced 3-phase system. Hence 3rdd harmonics do not produce
rotating field and torque. The total motor torque now consist three components as: (i) the
fundamental torque with synchronous speed Ns, (ii) 5th harmonic torque with synchronous speed

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Ns/5, (iv) 7th harmonic torque with synchronous speed Ns/7 (provided that higher harmonics
are neglected).
Now, 5th harmonic currents will have phase difference of
5 X 120 = 600° =2 X 360 - 120 = -120°.
Hence the revolving speed set up will be in reverse direction with speed Ns/5. The small amount
of 5th harmonic torque produces breaking action and can be neglected.
The 7th harmonic currents will have phase difference of
7 X 120 = 840° = 2 X 360 +120 = + 120°.
Hence they will set up rotating field in forward direction with synchronous speed equal to Ns/7.
If we neglect all the higher harmonics, the resultant torque will be equal to sum of fundamental
torque and 7th harmonic torque. 7th harmonic torque reaches its maximum positive value just
before1/7th of Ns. If the mechanical load on the shaft involves constant load torque, the torque
developed by the motor may fall below this load torque. In this case, motor will not accelerate
up to its normal speed, but it will run at a speed which is nearly 1/7th of its normal speed as
shown in Fig: 3.40. This phenomenon is called as crawling of induction motors.

Fig: 3.40

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Cogging (Magnetic Locking or Teeth Locking) of induction motor

Sometimes, the rotor of a squirrel cage induction motor refuses to start at all, particularly if the
supply voltage is low. This happens especially when number of rotor teeth is equal to number of
stator teeth, because of magnetic locking between the stator teeth and the rotor teeth. When the
rotor teeth and stator teeth face each other, the reluctance of the magnetic path is minimum that
is why the rotor tends to remain fixed. This phenomenon is called cogging or magnetic locking
of induction motor.

3.20 Induction Generator

When a squirrel cage induction motor is energized from a three phase power system and is
mechanically driven above its synchronous speed it will deliver power to the system. An
induction generator receives its excitation (magnetizing current) from the system to which it is
connected. It consumes rather than supplies reactive power (KVAR) and supplies only real
power (KW) to the system. The KVAR required by the induction generator plus the KVAR
requirements of all other loads on the system must be supplied from synchronous generators or
static capacitors on the system.

Operating as a generator at a given percentage slip above synchronous speed, the torque, current,
efficiency and power factor will not differ greatly from that when operating as a motor. The same
slip below synchronous speed, the shaft torque and electric power flow is reversed. Typical speed
torque characteristic of induction generator is shown in Fig: 3.41.

Fig: 3.41

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Now for example, a 3600 RPM squirrel cage induction motor which delivers full load output at
3550 RPM as a motor will deliver full rated power as a generator at 3650 RPM. If the half-load
motor speed is 3570 RPM, the output as a generator will be one-half of rated value when driven
at 3630 RPM, etc. Since the induction generator is actually an induction motor being driven by
a prime mover, it has several advantages.

1. It is less expensive and more readily available than a synchronous generator.

2. It does not require a DC field excitation voltage.
3. It automatically synchronizes with the power system, so its controls are simpler and less
expensive.

The principal disadvantages of an induction generator are listed below

1. It is not suitable for separate, isolated operation

2. It consumes rather than supplies magnetizing KVAR

3. It cannot contribute to the maintenance of system voltage levels (this is left entirely to the
synchronous generators or capacitors)
4. In general it has a lower efficiency.

Induction Generator Application

As energy costs so high, energy recovery became an important part of the economics of most
industrial processes. The induction generator is ideal for such applications because it requires
very little in the way of control system or maintenance.

Because of their simplicity and small size per kilowatt of output power, induction generators are
also favoured very strongly for small windmills. Many commercial windmills are designed to
operate in parallel with large power systems, supplying a fraction of the customer’s total power
needs. In such operation, the power system can be relied on for voltage & frequency control, and
static capacitors can be used for power-factor correction.

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

 SYLLABUS/ TOPICS COVERED

Three Phase Induction Motors: Types,

Construction and principle of operation, 3 phase
Induction Motor, general phasor diagram,
equivalent circuit, power and torque relations,
condition for maximum torque, circle diagram,
Performance characteristics, effect of rotor
resistance on speed torque characteristics, stable
& unstable region of operation, Operation with
unbalanced supply voltage. Starting: Starting of
3 phase induction motors, high starting torque
motors, speed control, rheostatic method, pole

MODULE-IV changing method cascade control of speed,

Double cage induction motor, Cogging and
Crawling of Induction motor, induction
generator
SINGLE PHASE MOTORS
[Topics are arranged as per above sequence]
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Module -IV

4. Single Phase Induction Motors

Single phase Induction motors perform a great variety of useful services at home, office, farm,
factory and in business establishments. Single phase motors are generally manufactured in
fractional HP ratings below 1 HP for economic reasons. Hence, those motors are generally
referred to as fractional horsepower motors with a rating of less than 1 HP. Most single phase
motors fall into this category. Single phase Induction motors are also manufactured in the range
of 1.5, 2, 3 and up to 10 HP as a special requirement.

Fig: 4.1(a) Stator Fig: 4.1(b) Squirrel cage rotor

4.1 Theory of Operation

A single phase induction motor is similar in construction to that of a polyphase induction motor
with difference that its stator has only one winding. If such a stator is supplied with single
phase alternating current, the field produced by it changes in magnitude and direction
sinusoidally. Thus the magnetic field produced in the air gap is alternating one but not rotating
as a result these kind of motors are NOT SELF STARTING. Fig: 4.2 (a) shows the torque-speed
characteristic of single phase induction motor.

Fig: 4.2 (a)

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Such an alternating filed is equivalent to two fields of equal magnitude rotating in opposite
directions at equal speed as explained below:

4.1.1 Double Revolving Field Theory of Single Phase Induction Motor

Consider two magnetic fields represented by quantities OA and OB of equal magnitude

revolving in opposite directions as shown in fig: 4.1.

Fig: 4.2 (b)

The resultant of the two fields of equal magnitude rotating in opposite directions is alternating.
Therefore an alternating current can be considered as having two components which are of
equal in magnitude and rotating in opposite directions.

From the above, it is clear that when a single phase alternating current is supplied to the stator
of a single phase motor, the field produced will be of alternating in nature which can be divided
into two components of equal magnitude one revolving in clockwise and other in counter
clockwise direction.

If a stationary squirrel cage rotor is kept in such a field equal forces in opposite direction will
act and the rotor will simply vibrate and there will be no rotation.

But if the rotor is given a small jerk in any direction in this condition, it will go on revolving
and will develop torque in that particular direction. It is clear from the above that a single phase
induction motor when having only one winding is not a self-starting. To make it a self-starting
anyone of the following can be adopted.

(i) Split phase starting.

(ii) Repulsion starting.
(iii) Shaded pole starting.

4.2 EQUVALENT CIRCUIT OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The equivalent circuit of single phase induction motor is shown below (Fig: 4.3)
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Fig: 4.3

4.2.1 Determination of Equivalent Circuit Parameters of Single Phase Induction motor

It is possible to find the parameters of the equivalent circuit of the single phase induction motor
experimentally as shown in Fig.4.4. For this purpose, three tests should be conducted:

1- The DC Test:

The DC resistance of the stator can be measured by applying DC current to the terminals of the
main winding and taking the reading of the voltage and the current (or using ohmmeter) and
determine the DC resistance as follows:

Then, the AC resistance is given by:

2-The Blocked Rotor Test:

When the rotor is locked (i.e. prevented from running), Sb = Sf = 1. The secondary impedances
become much less than the magnetizing branches and the corresponding equivalent circuit
becomes that of Fig: 4.5.

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Fig: 4.4 Equivalent circuit of single phase induction motor.

Fig: 4.5(a) Approximate equivalent circuit of the single phase induction motor at standstill.

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The circuit in Fig: 4.5 (a) can be rearranged to the equivalent circuit that is shown in Fig:
4.5(b).

Fig: 4.5(b) Rearranged approximate equivalent circuit of the single phase induction motor at
standstill.

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3-The No Load Test:

When the induction motor is allowed to run freely at no load, the forward slip Sf approaches
zero and the backward slip Sb approaches 2 (Sf = s, Sb = 2-s). The secondary forward impedance
becomes very large with respect to the magnetizing branch, while the secondary backward
impedance becomes very small if compared with the magnetizing branch. Accordingly, the
equivalent circuit corresponding to these operating conditions can be approximated by that of
Fig: 4.6.

Fig: 4.6 (a) Approximate equivalent circuit of the single phase induction motor at no load.

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The circuit in Fig: 4.6 (a) can be rearranged to the equivalent circuit that is shown in Fig: 4.6
(b)

Fig: 4.6 (b) Rearranged approximate equivalent circuit of the single phase induction motor at
no load

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4.3 Methods of Starting

It is clear from previous discussion that a single phase induction motor when having only one
winding and it is not self-starting. To make it a self-starting anyone of the following can be
adopted.

(1) Split phase starting.

(2) Repulsion starting.

(3) Shaded pole starting.

4.3.1 PRINCIPLE OF SPLIT PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The basic principle of operation of a split phase induction motor is similar to that of a polyphase
induction motor. The main difference is that the single phase motor does not produce a rotating
magnetic field but produces only a pulsating filed.

Hence, to produce the rotating magnetic field for self-starting, phase splitting is to be done to
make the motor to work as a two phase motor for starting.

4.3.1 Working of Split Phase Motor

In split phase motor two windings named as main winding and starting winding are provided.
At the time of starting, both the main and starting windings should be connected across the
supply to produce the rotating magnetic field.

The rotor is of a squirrel cage type and the revolving magnetic field sweeps part the stationary
rotor, inducing emf in the rotor. As the rotor bars are short-circuited, a current flows through
them producing a magnetic field.

This magnetic field opposes the revolving magnetic field and will combine with the main filed
to produce a revolving filed. By this action, the rotor starts revolving in the same direction of
the rotating magnetic field as in the case of a squirrel cage induction motor.

Hence, once the rotor starts rotating, the starting winding can be disconnected from the supply
by some mechanical means as the rotor and stator fields from a revolving magnetic field. There
are several types of split phase motors.

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4.3.2 TYPES OF SPLIT-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

1. Resistance-start, induction-run motors

2. Capacitor-start, induction-run motors

3. Capacitor-start, capacitor-run motors

4. Shaded pole motors.

1. RESISTANCE-START, INDUCTION-RUN MOTORS

As the starting torque of this type of motor is relatively small and its starting current is high,
these motors are most commonly used for rating up to 0.5 HP where the load could be started
easily. The essential parts are shown in Fig: 4.7.

• Main winding or running winding.

• Auxiliary winding or starting winding

• Squirrel cage type rotor.

• Centrifugal switch.

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

The starting winding is designed to have a higher resistance and lower reactance than the main
winding. This is achieved by using small conductors in the auxiliary winding than in the main
winding. The main winding will have higher inductance when surrounded by more iron, which
could be made possible by placing it deeper into the stator slots, it is obvious that the current
would split as shown in Fig: 4.7(b).

Fig: 4.7

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The starting current "I" start will lag the main supply voltage "V" line by 15 degree and the
main winding current. "I" main lags the main voltage by about 80 degree. Therefore, these
currents will differ in time phase and their magnetic fields will combine to produce a rotating
magnetic field.

When the motor has come upto about 75 to 80% of synchronous speed, the starting winding is
opened by a centrifugal switch and the motor will continue to operate as a single phase motor.

CHARACTERISTICS

At the point where the starting winding is disconnected, the motor develops nearly as much
torque with the main winding alone as with both windings connected. This can be observed
from, the typical torque-speed characteristics of this motor, as shown in Fig: 4.8.

Fig: 4.8

The direction of rotating of a split-phase motor is determined by the way the main and auxiliary
windings are connected. Hence, either by changing the main winding terminals or by changing
the starting winding terminals, the reversal of direction of rotating could be obtained.

APPLICATIONS

These motors are used for driving fans, grinders, washing machines.

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2. CAPACITOR-START, INDUCTION-RUN MOTOR

A drive which requires a large starting torque may be fitted with a capacitor-start, induction-
run motor as it has excellence starting torque as compared to the resistance-start, induction-run
motor.

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

Fig: 4.9(a) shows the schematic diagram of a capacitor-start, induction-run motor. As shown,
the main winding is directly connected across the main supply whereas the starting winding is
connected across the main supply through a capacitor and centrifugal switch.

Both these windings are placed in a stator slot at 90 degree electrical apart, and a squirrel cage
type rotor is used.

As shown in Fig: 4.9(b), at the time of starting the current in the main winding lags the supply
voltages by 90 degrees, depending upon its inductance and resistance. On the other hand, the
current in the starting winding due to its capacitor will lead the applied voltage, by say 20
degrees.

Hence, the phase difference between the main and starting winding becomes near to 90 degrees.
This in turn makes the line current to be more or less in phase with its applied voltage, making
the power factor to be high, thereby creating an excellent starting torque.

However, after attaining 75% of the rated speed, the centrifugal switch operates opening the
starting winding and the motor then operates as an induction motor, with only the main winding
connected to the supply.

Fig: 4.9

As shown in Fig: 4.9(b), the displacement of current in the main and starting winding is about
80/90 degrees, and the power factor angle between the applied voltage and line current is very
small. This results in producing a high power factor and an excellent starting torque, several
times higher than the normal running torque as shown in Fig: 4.10.

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CHARACTERISTICS

The torque-speed characteristics of this motor is shown in Fig: 4.10.

Fig: 4.10

In order to reverse the direction of rotation of the capacitor-start, induction-run motor, either
the starting or the main winding terminals should be changed.

This is due to the fact that the direction of rotation depends upon the instantaneous polarities
of the main field flux and the flux produced by the starting winding. Therefore, reversing the
polarity of one of the field will reverse the torque.

APPLICATIONS

Due to the excellent starting torque and easy direction-reversal characteristics,

• Used in belted fans,

• Used in blowers dryers,
• Used in washing machines,
• Used in pumps and compressors.

3. CAPACITOR-START, CAPACITOR-RUN MOTORS

As discussed earlier, one capacitor-start, induction-run motors have excellent starting torque,
say about 300% of the full load torque and their power factor during starting in high.

However, their running torque is not good, and their power factor, while running is low. They
also have lesser efficiency and cannot take overloads.

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

The aforementioned problems are eliminated by the use of a two valve capacitor motor in which
one large capacitor of electrolytic (short duty) type is used for starting whereas a smaller

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capacitor of oil filled (continuous duty) type is used for running, by connecting them with the
starting winding as shown in Fig:4.11. A general view of such a two valve capacitor motor is
shown in Fig: 4.11.

Fig: 4.11

This motor also works in the same way as a capacitor-start, induction-run motor, with
exception, that the capacitor C1 is always in the circuit, altering the running performance to a
great extent.

The starting capacitor which is of short duty rating will be disconnected from the starting
winding with the help of a centrifugal switch, when the starting speed attains about 75% of the
rated speed.

CHARACTERISTICS

The torque-speed characteristics of this motor is shown in Fig: 4.12.

Fig: 4.12

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This motor has the following advantages:

• The starting torque is 300% of the full load torque

• The starting current is low, say 2 to 3 times of the running current.

• Starting and running power factor are good.

• Highly efficient running.

• Extremely noiseless operation.

• Can be loaded upto 125% of the full load capacity.

APPLICATIONS

• Used for compressors, refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc.

• Higher starting torque.

• High efficiency, higher power factor and overloading.

• Costlier than the capacitor-start — Induction run motors of the same capacity.

4.3.2 REPULSION STARTING

This type of starting need a wound rotor with brush and commutator arrangement like a dc
armature Fig 4.13(a). The starting operation is based on the principle of repulsion and hence
the name.

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

Repulsion starting, though complicated in construction and higher in cost, are still used in
certain industries due to their excellent starting torque, low starting current, ability to withstand
long spell of starting currents to drive heavy loads and their easy method of reversal of
direction.

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Now there is a condition that the rotor north pole will be repelled by the main north pole and
the rotor south pole is repelled by the main south pole, so that a torque could be developed in
the rotor. Now due to the repulsion action between the stator and the rotor poles, the rotor will
start rotating in a clockwise direction. As the motor torque is due to repulsion action, this
starting method is named as repulsion starting.

Fig: 4.13

To change the direction of rotation of this motor, the brush axis needs to be shifted from the
right side as shown in Fig:4.13(b) to the left side of the main axis in a counter clockwise
direction as shown in Fig:4.13(b).

CHARACTERISTICS

The torque developed in a repulsion motor will depend upon the amount of brush shaft as
shown in Fig: 4.13 (b), whereas the direction of shift decides the direction of rotation.

Further, the speed depends upon the amount of brush shift and the magnitude of the load also
on the relationship between the torque and brush-position angle.

Though the starting torque from 250 to 400% of the full load torque, the speed will be
dangerously high during light loads. This is due to the fact that the speed of the repulsion motor
start does not depend on frequency or number of poles but depends upon the repulsion
principle.

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Further, there is a tendency of sparking in the brushes at heavy loads, and the PF will be poor
at low speeds. Hence the conventional repulsion motor start is not much popular.

4.3.3 SHAPED POLE STARTING

The motor consists of a yoke to which salient poles are fitted as shown in Fig: 4.14(a) and it
has a squirrel cage type rotor.

Fig: 4.14

A shaded pole made of laminated sheets has a slot cut across the lamination at about one third
the distance from the edge of the pole.

Around the smaller portion of the pole, a short-circuited copper ring is placed which is called
the shading coil, and this part of the pole is known as the shaded part of the pole. The remaining
part of the pole is called the unshaded part which is clearly shown in Fig: 4.14(b).

Around the poles, exciting coils are placed to which an AC supply is connected. When AC
supply is effected to the exciting coil, the magnetic axis shifts from the unshaded part of the
pole to the shaded part as will be explained in details in the next paragraph. This shifting of
axis is equivalent to the physical movement of the pole.

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This magnetic axis, which is moving, cuts the rotor conductors and hence, a rotational torque
is developed in the rotor.

By this torque the rotor starts rotating in the direction of the shifting of the magnetic axis that
is from the unshaded part to the shaded part.

THE MAGNETIC FLUX SHIFTING

As the shaded coil is of thick copper, it will have very low resistance but as it is embedded in
the iron case, it will have high inductance. When the exciting winding is connected to an AC
supply, a sine wave current passes through it.

Let us consider the positive half cycle of the AC current as shown in Fig: 4.15.

Fig: 4.15 Shifting of magnetic flux

When the current raises from "Zero" Value of point "0" to a point "a" the change in current is
very rapid (Fast). Hence, it reduces an emf in the shaded coil on the basis of Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction.

The induced emf in the shaded coil produces a current which, in turn, produces a flux in
accordance with Lenz Law. This induced flux opposes the main flux in the shaded portion and
reduces the main flux in that area to a minimum value as shown in Fig: 4.15.

This makes the magnetic axis to be in the centre of the unshaded portion as shown by the arrow
in part of Fig: 4.15. On the other hand as shown in part 2 of 3 when the current raises from
point "a" to point "b" the change in current is slow the induced emf and resulting current in the
shading coil is minimum and the main flux is able to pass through the shade portion.

This makes the magnetic axis to be shifted to the centre of the whole pole as shown in by the
arrow in part 2 of Fig: 4.15.
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In the next instant, as shown in part 3 of Fig: 4.15. When the current falls from "b" to "c" the
change in current is fast but the change of current is from maximum to minimum.

Hence a large current is induced in the shading ring which opposes the diminishing main flux,
thereby increasing the flux density in the area of the shaded part. This makes the magnetic axis
to shift to the right portion of the shaded part as shown by the arrow in part.

From the above explanation it is clear the magnetic axis shifts from the unshaded part to the
shaded part which is more or less a physical rotary movement of the poles.

Simple motors of this type cannot be reversed. Specially designed shaded pole motors have
been constructed for reversing operations. Two such types:

a. The double set of shading coils method

b. The double set of exciting winding method.

Shaded pole motors are built commercially in very small sizes, varying approximately from
1/250 HP to 1/6 HP. Although such motors are simple in construction and cheap, there are
certain disadvantages with these motor as stated below:

• Low starting torque.

• Very little overload capacity.

• Low efficiency.

APPLICATIONS

• Record players

• Fans

• Hair driers.

4.4 Single Phase Series Motor

The single-phase series motor is a commutator-type motor. If the polarity of the line terminals
of a dc series motor is reversed, the motor will continue to run in the same direction. Thus, it
might be expected that a dc series motor would operate on alternating current also. The
direction of the torque developed in a dc series motor is determined by both filed polarity and
the direction of current through the armature[𝑇 𝖺 𝜙𝜙𝐼𝑎 ].

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4.4.1 Operation

Let a dc series motor be connected across a single-phase ac supply. Since the same current
flows through the field winding and the armature, it follows that ac reversals from positive to
negative, or from negative to positive, will simultaneously affect both the field flux polarity
and the current direction through the armature. This means that the direction of the developed
torque will remain positive, and rotation will continue in the same direction. Thus, a series
motor can run both on dc and ac.

However, a series motor which is specifically designed for dc operation suffers from the
following drawbacks when it is used on single-phase ac supply:

1. Its efficiency is low due to hysteresis and eddy-current losses.

2. The power factor is low due to the large reactance of the field and the armature winding.
3. The sparking at the brushes is excessive.

In order to overcome these difficulties, the following modifications are made in a D.C. series
motor that is to operate satisfactorily on alternating current:

1. The field core is constructed of a material having low hysteresis loss. It is laminated to
reduce eddy-current loss.
2. The field winding is provided with small number of turns. The field-pole areas is
increased so that the flux density is reduced. This reduces the iron loss and the reactive
voltage drop.
3. The number of armature conductors is increased in order to get the required torque with
the low flux.
4. In order to reduce the effect of armature reaction, thereby improving commutation and
reducing armature reactance, a compensating winding is used.

The compensating winding is put in the stator slots. The axis of the compensating winding is
90 (electrical) with the main field axis. It may be connected in series with both the armature
and field as shown in Fig: 4.16. In such a case the motor is conductively compensated.

The compensating winding may be short circuited on itself, in which case the motor is said to
be inductively compensated shown in Fig: 4.17.

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Fig: 4.16

Fig: 4.17

The characteristics of single-phase series motor are very much similar to those of D.C. series
motors, but the series motor develops less torque when operating from an a.c. supply than when
working from an equivalent D.C. supply [Fig: 4.18]. The direction of rotation can be changed
by interchanging connections to the field with respect to the armature as in D.C. series motor.

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Fig: 4.18

Speed control of universal motors is best obtained by solid-state devices. Since the speed of
these is not limited by the supply frequency and may be as high as 20,000 r.p.m. (greater than
the maximum synchronous speed of 3000 r.p.m. at 50 Hz), they are most suitable for
applications requiring high speeds.

4.4.2 Phasor Diagram of A.C Series Motor

The schematic diagram and phasor diagram for the conductively coupled single-phase ac series
motor are shown in Fig: 4.19 and Fig: 4.20 respectively.

Fig: 4.19

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Fig: 4.20

The resistance IaRse, IaRi, IaRc and IaRa drops are due to resistances of series field, interpole
winding, compensating winding and of armature respectively are in phase with armature
current Ia. The reactance drops IaXse, IaXi, IaXc and IaXa are due to reactance of series field,
interpole winding, compensating winding and of armature respectively lead current Ia by 900.
The generated armature counter emf is Eg. The terminal phase voltage VP is equal to the phasor
sum of Eg and all the impedance drops in series.

The power factor angle between VP and Ia is .

4.4.3 Applications

There are numerous applications where single-phase ac series motors are used, such as hair
dryers, grinders, table-fans, blowers, polishers, kitchen appliances etc. They are also used for

many other purposes where speed control and high values of speed are necessary.

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4.5 Schrage Motor

Schrage motor is basically an inverted polyphase induction motor, with primary winding on
the rotor and secondary winding on the stator. The primary winding on the rotor is fed through
three slip rings and brushes at line frequency; secondary winding on the stator has slip
frequency voltages induced in it.

The speed and power factor of slip ring induction motor can be controlled by injecting slip
frequency voltage in the rotor circuit. If resultant rotor voltage increases, current increases,
torque increases and speed increases. Depending on the phase angle of injected voltage, power
factor can be improved. In 1911, K. H. Schrage of Sweden combined elegantly a SRIM
(WRIM) and a frequency converter into a single unit.

4.5.1 Construction and Operation

Fig: 4.21

Schrage motor has three windings- Two in Rotor and One in Stator.

Primary winding: Placed on the lower part of the slots of the Rotor. Three phase supply at
line frequency is fed through slip rings and brushes which generates working flux in the
machine.

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Regulating winding: Placed on the upper part of the slots of the Rotor. These are connected to
commutator segments in a manner similar to that of D.C. machine. Regulating windings are
also known as tertiary winding / auxiliary winding / commutator winding.

Secondary winding: Same is phase wound & located on stator. Each winding is connected to
a pair of brushes arranged on the commutator. Brushes are mounted on brush rockers. These
are designed to move in opposite directions, relative to the centre line of its stator phase.

Brushes A1, B1 & C1 move together and are 1200 apart.

Brushes A2, B2 & C2 also move together and are 1200 apart.

Now the primary energized with line frequency voltage. Transformer action occurs between
primary and regulating winding. Induction motor action occurs between primary and secondary
windings. Commutator acting as a frequency converter converts line frequency voltage of
regulating winding to slip frequency voltage and feeds the same to secondary winding on the
stator.

Voltage across the brush pairs A1 - A2, B1 - B2 & C1 - C2 increases as brushes are separated.

Magnitude of voltage injected into the secondary winding depends on the angle of separation
‘θ’ of the brushes A1 & A2, B1 & B2, C1 & C2. (‘θ’ – Brush separation angle).

When primary is energized synchronously rotating field in clockwise direction is set up in the
rotor core. Assume that the brushes are short circuited through commutator segment i.e. the
secondary is short circuited. Rotor still at rest, the rotating field cuts the stationary secondary
winding, induces an e.m.f. The stator current produce its own field. This stator field reacts with
the rotor field thus a clockwise torque produced in the stator. Since the stator cannot rotate, as
a reaction, it makes the rotor rotate in the counter clockwise direction.

Suppose that the rotor speed is Nr rpm. Rotor flux is rotating with NS relative to primary &
regulating winding. Thus the rotor flux will rotate at slip speed (NS - Nr) relative to secondary
winding in stator with reference to space.

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4.5.2 Speed Control

Speed of Schrage Motor can be obtained above and below Synchronous speed by changing the
Brush position i.e. changing “θ” (‘θ’ – Brush separation angle).

In Fig: 4.22 (a) Brush pair on the same commutator segment.i.e. the secondary winding short
circuited. Thus the Injected voltage Ej = 0 and the machine operates as an Inverted Induction
Motor so here Nr < NS.

Fig: 4.22 (a) ,(b) & (c)

In Fig: 4.22 (b) Brushes parted in one direction which produces sub-synchronous speed.
Injected voltage Ej, is obtained from the section of the regulating winding between them. If the
centre line of this group of conductors is coincident with the centre line of the corresponding
secondary phase, then E2 and Ej are in phase opposition.

Neglecting impedance drop, sE2 must be equal and opposite of Ej.

“β” is the angle between E2 and Ej. β=1800 and so here also Nr < NS.

In Fig: 4.22 (c) Brushes parted in opposite direction which produces super-synchronous speed.
Here Ej is reversed relative to E2 i.e. β=00 & sE2 must also be reversed.

This is occurring only because ‘s’ becoming negative i.e. The speed is thus above synchronous
speed so Nr > NS .

The commutator provides maximum voltage when the brushes are separated by one pole pitch.
i.e. ‘θ’ = 1800.

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4.5.3 Power Factor Improvement

This can be obtained by changing the phase angle of the injected voltage into the secondary
winding. In this case one set of brushes is advanced more rapidly than the other set. Now the
two centre lines do not coincide, have an angle ‘ρ’ between them. (“ρ” – Brush shift angle).

In Fig: 4.22 (d) Brush set is moved against the direction of rotation of rotor. In this case Speed
decreases and the p.f. is improved.

Fig: 4.22 (d) & (e)

In Fig: 4.22 (e) Brush set is moved in the same direction of rotation of rotor. In this case Speed
increases, the p.f. is also improved.

Both p.f. and speed can be controlled by varying ‘θ’ & ‘ρ’.

Thus ‘Ej Cos ρ’ and ‘Ej Sin ρ’ effect the speed and p.f. respectively. Fig: 4.23 show Variation
of no load speed with Brush Separation.

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Fig: 4.23

4.5.4 Speed Torque Characteristics

Above discussion reveals that the Schrage Motor is almost a constant speed motor i.e. it has
D.C Shunt motor characteristics. Figure 4.23 shows the typical speed-torque characteristics of
Schrage motor.

Fig: 4.23

4.5.5 Advantages & Shortcomings

Advantages:

(i) Good Speed Regulation.

(ii) High p.f. for high speed setting.

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(iii) High efficiency at all speeds except NS

Shortcomings:

(i) Operating voltage has to be limited to 700V because the power is to be supplied
through slip rings.
(ii) Low p.f. at low speed settings.
(iii) Poor commutation.
(iv) High Cost.

4.5.6 Applications

Can be applied to any individual drive requiring variable speed, especially in knitting & Ring
spinning applications, Cranes & Hoists Fans & Centrifugal Pumps, printing Machinery
Conveyors, Packing machinery & Paper Mills etc.

4.6 Universal Motors

It is also commutator type motor. A universal motor is one which operates both on AC and DC
supplies. It develops more horsepower per Kg. weight than any other AC motor mainly due to
its high speed.

The principle of operation is the same as that of a DC motor. Though a universal motor
resembles a DC series motor, it required suitable modification in the construction, winding and
brush grade to achieve sparkles commutation and reduced heating when operated on AC
supply, due to increased inductance and armature reaction.

A universal motor could therefore be defined as a series or a compensated series motor [Fig:
4.24 & Fig: 4.25 (a), (b)]designed to operate at approximately the same speed and output at
either direct current or single phase alternating current of a frequency not greater than 50HZ,
and of approximately the same RMS voltage. Universal motor is also named as AC single
phase series motor.

Fig: 4.24

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(a) (b)

Fig: 4.25

The main parts of a universal motor are an armature, field winding, stator stampings, frame
and plates and brushed. The increased sparking at the brush position in AC operation is reduced
by the following means:

Providing commutating inter poles in the stator and connecting the interpole winding in series
with the armature winding. Providing high contact resistance brushed to reduce sparking at
brush positions.

4.6.1 Operation

A universal motor works on the same principles as a DC motor i.e. force is created on the
armature conductors due to the interaction between the main field flux and the flux created by
the current carrying armature conductors. A universal motor develops unidirectional torque
regardless of whether it operated on AC or DC supply.

Fig: 4.25 (a),(b) & Fig: 4.26 shows the operation of a universal motor on AC supply. In AC
operation, both field and armature currents change their polarities, at the same time resulting
in unidirectional torque.

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Fig: 4.26

4.6.2 Characteristic

The speed of a universal motor inversely proportional to the load i.e. speed is low at full load
and high, on no load.

Fig: 4.27
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The speed reaches a dangerously high value due to low field flux at no loads in fact the no load
speed is limited only by its own friction and windage losses. As such these motors are
connected with permanent loads or gear trains to avoid running at no load thereby avoiding
high speeds.

Fig: 4.27 shows the typical torque-speed relation of a universal motor, both for AC and DC
operations. This motor develops about 450 % of full load torque at starting, as such higher than
any other type of single phase motor.

4.6.3 Applications

There are numerous applications where universal motors are used, such as hand drills, hair
dryers, grinders, blowers, polishers, and kitchen appliances etc. They are also used for many
other purposes where speed control and high values of speed are necessary like in vaccum
cleaners, food mixers, portable drills and domestic sewage machines. Universal motors of a
given horse power rating are significantly smaller than other kinds of a.c. motors operating at
the same frequency.

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Acknowledgement
The committee members gratefully acknowledge google, scribd, NPTEL, openoffice, sumatra
pdf, scilab for myriad suggestions and help for preparing this lecture note. The committee
members also wants to express their gratitude to the persons out there who think knowledge
should be free and be accessible and sharable without any restrictions so that every single
person on this planet has the same opportunity to explore, expand and become enlightened by
the collective gifts of humankind.
However apart from this lecture note students/readers are strongly recommended to follow the
below mentioned books and above all confer with the concern faculty for thorough knowledge
of this authoritative subject of electrical engineering.

Text / Reference Books

1. Electrical Machinery [7th Ed.] 8. Electric Machinery and Transformers [2nd Ed.]
by P. S. Bimbhra by Irving Kosow

Publisher- Khanna Publisher Publisher- Pearson India

2. Generalized Theory of Electrical Machines [2nd 9. Analysis of Electric Machine [2nd Ed.]
Ed.] by P.S. Bimbhra by Kraus, P.C.

Publisher- Khanna Publisher Publisher- McGraw Hill Education (India)

Private Limited
3. The Performance and Design of Alternating
Current Machines [3rd Ed.] by M. G. Say 10. A Course in Electrical Engineering Vol.-I &
Vol.-II by Chester L. Dawes, S. B.
Publisher- CBS Publisher
Publisher- McGraw Hill Book Company Inc.
4. Electric Machinery [6th Ed.]
by A. E. Fitzgerald, Stephen D. Umans, Charles 11. Principles of Alternating-Current Machinery
Kingsley Jr. [4th Ed.] by R R Lawrence & H.E Richards

Publisher- McGraw Hill Education (India) Publisher- McGraw Hill Book Company Inc.
Private Limited
12. Electrical Machines [2nd Ed.]
th
5. Electric Machinery Fundamentals [5 Ed.] by P. K. Mukherjee & S. Chakravorty
by Stephen J. Chapman
Publisher- Dhanpat Rai Publications
Publisher- McGraw Hill Education (India)
Private Limited 13. Electrical Machines [4th Ed.]
by I.J Nagrath & D.P Kothari
6. Theory of Alternating Current Machinery [2nd
Ed.] by Alexander S Langsdorf Publisher- McGraw Hill Education (India)
Private Limited
Publisher- McGraw Hill Education (India)
Private Limited 14. Problems in Electrical Engineering [9th Ed.]
by N. N. Parker Smith
7. Alternating- Current Machines [3rd Ed.]
by T.C. Lloyd and A.G. Conrad Puchstein A.F. Publisher- CBS Publisher

Publisher- John Wiley & Sons

Wish you all the best

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

Lecture Notes–Electrical Machine-II P ag e | 1

SYLLABUS/ TOPICS COVERED

Fundamental Principles of A.C. Machines: E.M.F.

equation of an elementary alternator, Single &three Phase,
relation between speed & frequency, factors affecting the
induced e.m.f., full pitch &fractional pitch windings,
winding factors, armature reaction, the rotating field
leakage reactance. Concept of time phasor & space phasor.
Synchronous Generator: Various types & construction,
cylindrical rotor theory, phasor diagram, open circuit &
short circuit characteristics, armature reaction reactance,
synchronous reactance, SCR, load characteristics, potier
reactance, voltage regulation, EMF method, MMF method,
modified MMF method, ZPF method, power angle
MODULE-I characteristics.
[Topics are arranged as per above sequence]
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
Lecture Notes–Electrical Machine-II P ag e | 2

1.1 Fundamental Principles of A.C. Machines:

AC rotating machines can be classified mainly in two categories Synchronous Machines and
Asynchronous Machines. They are defined as-

• Synchronous Machines:
•Synchronous Generators: A primary source of electrical energy.

•Synchronous Motors: Used as motors as well as power factor compensators (synchronous condensers).

• Asynchronous (Induction) Machines:

• Induction Motors: Most widely used electrical motors in both domestic and industrial applications.

• Induction Generators: This generator runs at asynchronous speed and variable frequency voltage

generated. Due to lack of a separate field excitation, these machines are rarely used as generators.

1.2 E.M.F. equation of an elementary alternator single phase

Let us assume that this generator has an armature winding consisting of a total number of full pitched
concentrated coils C, each coil having a given number of turns Nc. Then the total number of turns in
any given phase of a single-phase generator armature is

N p = CNc
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction the average voltage induced in a single turn
of two coil sides is


Eav =
t

The voltage induced in one conductor is 2ϕ/(1/n) = 2ϕs, where n=speed of rotation in r.p.s, for a 2 pole
generator. Furthermore, when a coil consisting of Nc turns rotates in a uniform magnetic field, at a
uniform speed, the average voltage induced in an armature coil is

E av = 4Ncn volts
coil
where ϕ is the number of lines of flux (in Webers) per pole, Nc is number of turns per coil, n is the
relative speed in revolutions/second (rps) between the coil of Nc turns and the magnetic field ϕ.
Lecture Notes–Electrical Machine-II P ag e | 3

A speed n of 1 rps will produce a frequency f of 1 Hz. Since f is directly proportional and equivalent to
n, (for a 2-pole generator) for all the series turns in any phase,

E av = 4  N p f volts
phase

The effective rms value of a sinusoidal ac voltage is 1.11 times the average value. The effective ac
voltage per phase is

Eeff = 4.44Np f volts

1.3 E.M.F. equation of an elementary alternator three phase

Let us assume that this generator has an armature winding consisting of a total number of full pitched
concentrated coils C, each coil having a given number of turns Nc. Then the total number of turns in
any given phase of a 3-phase generator armature is

CNc
Np =
3

Voltage equation per phase will be similar in to the single phase alternator

Eph = 4.44Np f
The value of line voltage will be different from phase voltage in case of star connected generator. The
line value of the emf in case of three phase alternator connected in star will be-

EL = 3Eph
The value of line voltage will be same with phase voltage in case of delta connected generator. The line
value of the emf in case of three phase alternator connected in delta will be-

EL = Eph

1.4 Relation between speed and frequency

One complete revolution will produce one complete positive and negative pulse each cycle when the
number of pole is two. The frequency in cycles per second (Hz) will depend directly on the speed or
number of revolutions per second (rpm/60) of the rotating field.
Lecture Notes–Electrical Machine-II P ag e | 4

If the ac synchronous generator has multiple poles (having, say, two, four, six, or eight poles...), then
for a speed of one revolution per second (1 rpm/60), the frequency per revolution will be one, two,
three, or four ..., cycles per revolution, respectively. The frequency per revolution, is therefore, equal
to the number of pairs of poles. Since the frequency depends directly on the speed (rpm/60) and also on
the number of pairs of poles (P/2), then these two may be combined together into a single equation in
which

P rpm PN
f = * =
2 60 120

2*  * N
m =
60
m * 60
N=
2
P m e
f = * =
2 2 2

Where

P is the number of poles

N is the speed in rpm (rev/min)

f is. the frequency in hertz

ωm is the speed in radians per second (rad/s)

ωe is the speed electrical radians per second.

1.5 Factors affecting the induced emf (Coil Pitch and Distributed Windings)

The emf equation derived in art 1.2 and art 1.3 is applicable when the alternator is having full pitch coil
and concentrated winding. But when the alternator armature winding is distributed and short pitched
then the per phase emf equation will change and become-
Lecture Notes–Electrical Machine-II P ag e | 5

Eg = 4.44Np f k pk d
Where Kp is called pitch factor and Kd is called distribution factor.

1.5.1 Pitch Factor or Coil Pitch

The ratio of phasor (vector) sum of induced emfs per coil to the arithmetic sum of induced emfs per
coil is known as pitch factor (Kp) or coil span factor (Kc) which is always less than unity.

Let the coil have a pitch short by angle θ electrical space degrees from full pitch and induced emf in
each coil side be E,

Fig: 1(a) Voltage phasor for short-pitch coil

• If the coil would have been full pitched, then total induced emf in the coil would have been
2E.

• when the coil is short pitched by θ electrical space degrees the resultant induced emf, ER

in the coil is phasor sum of two voltages, θ apart


E = 2E cos
R
2

2E cos
Phasor sum of coil side emfs 2 = cos 
Pitch Factor, K = =
p Arithmatic sum of coil side emfs 2E 2

The pitch factor of the coil at the nth harmonic frequency can be expressed as

n
kpn = cos where n is the order of harmonic
2
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1.5.2 Distribution Factor

The ratio of the phasor sum of the emfs induced in all the coils distributed in a number of slots under
one pole to the arithmetic sum of the emfs induced(or to the resultant of emfs induced in all coils
concentrated in one slot under one pole) is known as breadth factor (Kb) or distribution factor (Kd)

The distribution factor is always less than unity.

Let no. of slots per pole = Q and no. of slots per pole per phase = q

Induced emf in each coil side = Ec

o
Angular displacement between the slots, γ

The emf induced in different coils of one phase under one pole are represented by side AC, CD, DE,
o
EF… Which are equal in magnitude (say each equal Ec) and differ in phase (say by γ ) from each

other.

Fig: 1(b)

If bisectors are drawn on AC, CD, DE, EF… they would meet at common point (O). The point O would
be the center of the circle having AC, CD, DE, EF…as the chords and representing the emfs induced
in the coils in different slots.

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
EMF induced in each coil side, Ec = AC = 2OAsin
2


Arithmatic sum = q  2  OAsin
2

AOB
The resultant emf, ER = AB = 2  OAsin & distribution factor,
2

The distribution factor for nth order harmonic component is given as

nq
sin
2 , where n is the order of harmonic
kdn = n
q sin
2

1.5.3 Harmonic Effect

• The flux distribution along the air gaps of alternators usually is non- sinusoidal so that the emf
in the individual armature conductor likewise is non-sinusoidal

• The sources of harmonics in the output voltage waveform are the non- sinusoidal waveform of
the field flux.

• Fourier showed that any periodic wave may be expressed as the sum of a d-c component (zero
frequency) and sine (or cosine) waves having fundamental and multiple or higher frequencies,
the higher frequencies being called harmonics.

• All the odd harmonics(third, fifth, seventh, night, etc.) are present in the phase voltage to some
extent and need to be dealt with in the design of ac machines.

• Because the resulting voltage waveform is symmetric about the center of the rotor flux, no even
harmonics are present in the phase voltage.

• In Y- connected, the third-harmonic voltage between any two terminals will be zero. This result
applies not only to third-harmonic components but also to any multiple of a third-harmonic
component (such as the ninth harmonic). Such special harmonic frequencies are called triplen
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harmonics

Elimination or Suppression of Harmonics

Field flux waveform can be made as much sinusoidal as possible by the following methods:

1. Small air gap at the pole centre and large air gap towards the pole ends

2. Skewing: skew the pole faces if possible

3. Distribution: distribution of the armature winding along the air-gap periphery

4. Chording: with coil-span less than pole pitch

5. Fractional slot winding

6. Alternator connections: star or delta connections of alternators suppress triplen harmonics from
appearing across the lines

1.5.4 Winding Factor

Both distribution factor (Kd) and pitch factor Kp together is known as winding factor Kw.

kw = kpkd
Eg = 4.44Np f kw

1.6 Armature Reaction

When an alternator is running at no-load, there will be no current flowing through the armature winding.
The flux produced in the air-gap will be only due to the rotor ampere turns. When the alternator is
loaded, the three-phase currents will produce a totaling magnetic field in the air-gap. Consequently, the
air-gap flux is changed from the no-load condition.

The effect of armature flux on the flux produced by field ampere turns (i. e., rotor ampere turns) is
called armature reaction.

Two things are worth noting about the armature reaction in an alternator. First, the armature flux and

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the flux produced by rotor ampere-turns rotate at the same speed (synchronous speed) in the same
direction and, therefore, the two fluxes are fixed in space relative to each other.

Secondly, the modification of flux in the air-gap due to armature flux depends on the magnitude of
stator current and on the power factor of the load. It is the load power factor which determines whether
the armature flux distorts, opposes or helps the flux produced by rotor ampere-turns.

To illustrate this important point, we shall consider the following three cases:

1. When load p.f. is unity

2. When load p.f. is zero lagging

3. When load p.f. is zero leading

When load p.f. is unity

Fig: 1 (c)

Above Fig: 1 (c) shows an elementary alternator on no load. Since the armature is on open-circuit, there
is no stator current and the flux due to rotor current is distributed symmetrically in the air-gap as shown
in Fig: 1 (d). Since the direction of the rotor is assumed clockwise, the generated e.m.f. in phase R1R2
is at its maximum and is towards the paper in the conductor R1 and outwards in conductor R2. No
armature flux is produced since no current flows in the armature winding.

Fig (ii) shows the effect when a resistive load (unity p.f.) is connected across the terminals of the
alternator. According to right-hand rule, the current is “in” in the conductors under N-pole and “out” in
the conductors under S-pole. Therefore, the armature flux is clockwise due to currents in the top
conductors and anti-clockwise due to currents in the bottom conductors. Note that armature flux is at

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90° to the main flux (due to rotor current) and is behind the main flux.
In this case, the flux in the air-gap is distorted but not weakened. Therefore, at unity p.f., the effect of
armature reaction is merely to distort the main field; there is no weakening of the main field and the
average flux practically remains the same. Since the magnetic flux due to stator currents (i.e., armature
flux) rotate; synchronously with the rotor, the flux distortion remains the same for all positions of the
rotor.
When load Power Factor is Zero lagging

When a pure inductive load (zero p.f. lagging) is connected across the terminals of the alternator, current
Fig: 1 (c) shows the condition when the alternator is supplying resistive load. Note that e.m.f. as well
as current in phase R1R2 is maximum in the position shown. When the alternator is supplying a pure
inductive load, the current in phase R1R2 will not reach its maximum value until N-pole advanced 90°
electrical as shown in Fig: 1 (d). Now the armature flux is from right to left and field flux is from left
to right All the flux produced by armature current (i.e., armature flux) opposes be field flux and,
therefore, weakens it. In other words, armature reaction is directly demagnetizing. Hence at zero
p.f. lagging, the armature reaction weakens the main flux. This causes a reduction in the generated
e.m.f.

When load Power Factor is Zero leading

When a pure capacitive load (zero p.f. leading) is connected across the terminals of the alternator, the
current in armature windings will lead the induced e.m.f. by 90°.

Fig: 1 (d)

Obviously, the effect of armature reaction will be the reverse that for pure inductive load. Thus armature

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flux now aids the main flux and the generated e.m.f. is increased. Fig: 1 (c) shows the condition when
alternator is supplying resistive load.

Note that e.m.f. as well as current in phase R1R2 is maximum in the position shown. When the alternator
is supplying a pure capacitive load, the maximum current in R1R2 will occur 90° electrical before the
occurrence of maximum induced e.m.f. Therefore, maximum current in phase R1R2 will occur if the

position of the rotor remains 90° behind as compared to its position under resistive load. This is
illustrated in Fig: 1 (d). It is clear that armature flux is now in the same direction as the field flux and,
therefore, strengthens it. This causes an increase in the generated voltage. Hence at zero p.f. leading,
the armature reaction strengthens the main flux.

For intermediate values of p.f, the effect of armature reaction is partly distorting and partly weakening
for inductive loads. For capacitive loads, the effect of armature reaction is partly distorting and partly
strengthening. Note that in practice, loads are generally inductive.

1.7 Synchronous Generators

Synchronous machines are principally used as alternating current (AC) generators.

- They supply the electric power used by all sectors of modern societies: industrial, commercial,
agricultural, and domestic. They

- usually operate together (or in parallel), forming a

large power system supplying electrical energy to the loads or consumers.

- are built in large units, their rating ranging from tens to hundreds of megawatts.

- converts mechanical power to ac electric power. The source of mechanical power, the prime
mover, may be a diesel engine, a steam turbine, a water turbine, or any similar device.

For high-speed machines, the prime movers are usually steam turbines employing fossil or nuclear
energy resources.

Low-speed machines are often driven by hydro-turbines that employ water power for generation.
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Smaller synchronous machines are sometimes used for private generation and as standby units, with
diesel engines or gas turbines as prime movers.

1.7.1 Various Types of Synchronous Machine & Construction

According to the arrangement of the field and armature windings, synchronous machines may be
classified as rotating-armature type or rotating-field type.

1.7.2 Rotating-Armature Type:

The armature winding is on the rotor and the field system is on the stator.

1.7.3 Rotating-Field Type:

The armature winding is on the stator and the field system is on the rotor.

According to the shape of the field, synchronous machines may be classified as cylindrical-rotor (non-
salient pole) machines and salient-pole machines

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AC winding design
The windings used in rotating electrical machines can be classified as

Concentrated Windings
• All the winding turns are wound together in series to form one multi-turn coil

• All the turns have the same magnetic axis

• Examples of concentrated winding are

- field windings for salient-pole synchronous machines

- D.C. machines

- Primary and secondary windings of a transformer

Distributed Windings
• All the winding turns are arranged in several full-pitch or fractional-pitch coils

• These coils are then housed in the slots spread around the air-gap periphery to form phase or
commutator winding

• Examples of distributed winding are

- Stator and rotor of induction machines

- The armatures of both synchronous and D.C. machines

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Some of the terms common to armature windings are described below:

Conductor. A length of wire which takes active part in the energy- conversion process is a
called a conductor.

Turn. One turn consists of two conductors.

Coil. One coil may consist of any number of turns.

Coil –side. One coil with any number of turns has two coil-sides.

The number of conductors (C) in any coil-side is equal to the number of turns (N) in that coil.

Fig: 1.1

Pole – pitch:- A pole pitch is defined as the peripheral distance between identical points on two
o
adjacent poles. Pole pitch is always equal to 180 electrical.

Coil–span or coil-pitch:- The distance between the two coil-sides of a coil is called coil-span or coil-
pitch. It is usually measured in terms of teeth, slots or electrical degrees.

Chorded-coil

- If the coil-span (or coil-pitch) is equal to the pole-pitch, then the coil is termed a full-pitch
coil.

- in case the coil-pitch is less than pole-pitch, then it is called chorded, short-pitch or
fractional-pitch coil
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Fractional-pitch coil

Fig: 1.2

In AC armature windings, the separate coils may be connected in several different manners, but the two
most common methods are lap and wave.

1.7.2 Cylindrical Rotor Theory

Similar to the case of DC generator, the behavior of a Synchronous generator connected to an external
load is different than that at no-load. In order to understand the performance of the Synchronous generator
when it is loaded, consider the flux distributions in the machine when the armature also carries a current.
Unlike in the DC machine in alternators the emf peak and the current peak will not occur in the same coil
due to the effect of the power factor of the load. The current and the induced emf will be at their peaks in
the same coil only for upf loads. For zero power factor lagging loads, the current reaches its peak in a coil
which falls behind that coil wherein the induced emf is at its peak by 90 electrical degrees or half a pole-
pitch. Likewise for zero power factor leading loads, the current reaches its peak in a coil which is ahead
of that coil wherein the induced emf is at its peak by 90 electrical degrees or half a pole-pitch. For
simplicity, assume the resistance and leakage reactance of the stator windings to be negligible. Also
assume the magnetic circuit to be linear i.e. the flux in the magnetic circuit is deemed to be proportional

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to the resultant ampere-turns - in other words the machine is operating in the linear portion of the
magnetization characteristics. Thus the emf induced is the same as the terminal voltage, and the phase-
angle between current and emf is determined only by the power factor (pf) of the external load connected
to the synchronous generator.

Fig: 1.3 Equivalent circuit of synchronous generator

For synchronous generator the terminal voltage Vt can be written as

Vt = Eg − jIa Xal − jIa Xar − Ia Ra

Vt = Eg − jIa X s − Ia Ra
Vt = Eg − Ia (Ra + jXs ) = Eg − Ia Zs
Where Eg is the generator induced emf,

Ia is the armature current,

Ra is the armature resistance,

Xal is the leakage reactance,

Xar is the armature reaction reactance,

Xs is the synchronous reactance

Zs is the synchronous impedance

1.7.3 Phasor Diagrams

The complete phasor diagram of an alternator at different load conditions are shown below.

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1.7.3.1 For Inductive Load

The alternator is connected with a R-L load then the current lags terminal voltage by an angle θ. The
phasor diagram is shown below in Fig: 1.4.

Fig: 1.4
Phasor diagram of an alternator with lagging power factor load
1.7.3.2 For Resistive Load
The alternator is connected with a resistive load then the current remains in same phase with the terminal
voltage. The phasor diagram is shown below in Fig: 1.5.

Fig: 1. 5 Phasor diagram of an alternator with unity power factor load

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1.7.3.3 For Capacitive Load

When the terminals of the armature of alternator is connected with a R-C load then the current Ia leads the
terminal voltage Vt by an angle θ. The complete phasor diagram for leading power factor load is shown
below in Fig: 1. 6.

Fig: 1. 6 Phasor diagram of an alternator with leading power factor load

δ is called load angle
θ is load power factor angle
ψ is internal power factor angle

1.8 Open-circuit characteristic (OCC) of a generator

With the armature terminals open, Ia=0, so Eg = Vt It is thus possible to construct a plot of Eg or Vt vs If
graph. This plot is called open-circuit characteristic (OCC) of a generator. With this characteristic, it is
possible to find the internal generated voltage of the generator for any given field current.

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Fig: 1. 7 Open-circuit characteristic of alternator

Initially OCC follows a straight-line relation with the field current as long as the magnetic circuit of the
synchronous generator does not saturate. This straight line is appropriately called the air-gap line.
Practically due to saturation induced emf bend from the straight line.

1.9 Short Circuit Characteristics (SCC)

Fig: 1.8 Short-circuit characteristic of alternator

For getting SCC generator is rotated at rated speed with armature terminals short circuited. The field
current is adjusted to 0. The armature current is measured as the field current is increased.
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1.10 Armature Reaction Reactance

Armature reaction refers to the influence of the armature flux on the field flux in the air gap when the
stator windings are connected across a load.

If Ff is the field mmf in the generator under no load, then the generated voltage Eg must lag Ff by 90o. Per
phase armature current Ia produces armature mmf Fa which is in phase with Ia . The effective mmf is Fr.

Fig : 1.9 Phasor diagram of an alternator at unity power factor

The armature mmf Fa will induced an emf Ear in the armature winding. Ear is called the armature reaction
emf. This emf will lag its mmf by 90o. Hence the resultant armature voltage is the vector sum of the no-
load voltage Eg and armature reaction emf Ear .

Er = Eg + Ear

Fig: 1.10 Phasor diagram of an alternator at lagging power factor

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Fig: 1.11 Phasor diagram of an alternator at leading power factor

From the observations of the phasor diagrams for lagging and leading power factors, that the resultant
mmf Fr is smaller or larger depending on the power factor. As a result the terminal voltage Vt is larger or
smaller than the no-load induced emf when the power factor is leading or lagging.

Since the armature reaction emf Ear lags the armature mmf Fa or Ia by 90o, so it can be expressed as

Ear = − jIa Xar

Where Xar is called armature reaction reactance.

1.11 Synchronous reactance

Both the armature reaction reactance and the leakage reactance are present at the same time. The two
raeactances are combined together and the sum is called the Synchronous reactance (Xs).

Xs = Xal + Xar
The combined result of the Synchronous reactance and armature resistance is called Synchronous
Impedance (Zs).

Zs = R a + jXs

1.12 Short Circuit Ratio (SCR)

Ratio of the field current required for the rated voltage at open circuit to the field current required for rated
armature current at short circuit.

I f ,oc
SCR =
I f ,sc
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1
SCR =
So, X
S

1.13 Load Characteristics

Consider a synchronous generator driven at constant speed and with constant excitation. On open circuit

the terminal voltage Vt is the same as the open circuit e.m.f. Eg. Suppose a unity-power-factor load be
connected to the machine. The flow of load current produces a voltage drop IaZs in the synchronous
impedance, and terminal voltage Vt is reduced. Fig. 1.12 shows the phasor diagram for three types of load.

It will be seen that the angle σ between Eg and Vt increases with load, indicating a shift of the flux across

the pole faces due to cross- magnetization. The terminal voltage is obtained from the complex summation

Vt + Ia Zs =Eg

Vt =Eg -Ia Zs

Algebraically this can be written as-

For non-inductive load since ra is negligible compared to Xs

Vt 2 +Ia 2Xs2  E2g = Constant

so that the V/I curve, Fig. 1.13, is nearly an ellipse with semi-axes Eg and Isc. The current Isc is that which

flows when the load resistance is reduced to zero. The voltage Vt falls to zero also and the machine is on
short-circuit with Vt = 0 and

Ia =Isc =Eg /Zs  Eg /Xs

For a lagging load of zero power-factor, diagram is given in Fig. 1.13. The voltage is given as before and
since the resistance in normal machines is small compared with the synchronous reactance, the voltage is
given approximately by

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Vt  Et -Ia Xs

1.12 (i) Phasor diagram for different R loads

(i)

(ii)

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(iii)

Fig: 1.13 Variation of voltage with load at constant Excitation

which is the straight line marked for cos φ = 0 lagging in Fig.1.14. A leading load of zero power factor

Fig. 1.14 will have the voltage

Vt  Et +Ia Xs

another straight line for which, by reason of the direct magnetizing effect of leading currents, the voltage
increases with load.

Intermediate load power factors produce voltage/current characteristics resembling those in Fig: 1.13 The
voltage-drop with load (i.e. the regulation) is clearly dependent upon the power factor of the load. The
short-circuit current Isc at which the load terminal voltage falls to zero may be about 150 per cent (1.5 per
unit) of normal current in large modern machines.

Fig: 1.14 Load characteristics of Alternator

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1. 14Potier Reactance

For obtaining potier reactance Zero Power Factor test is conducted by connecting the alternator to ZPF
load and exciting the alternator in such way that the alternator supplies the rated current at rated voltage
running at rated speed. To plot ZPF characteristics only two points are required. One point is
corresponding to the zero voltage and rated current that can be obtained from scc and the other at rated
voltage and rated current under zpf load. This zero power factor curve appears like OCC but shifted by a
factor IaXL vertically and horizontally by armature reaction mmf as shown below in Fig: 1.15. Following
are the steps to draw ZPF characteristics.

Fig: 1.15
By suitable tests plot OCC and SCC. Draw air gap line. Conduct ZPF test at full load for rated voltage
and fix the point B. Draw the line BH with length equal to field current required to produce full load
current on short circuit. Draw HD parallel to the air gap line so as to cut the OCC. Draw DE perpendicular
to HB or parallel to voltage axis. Now, DE represents voltage drop IXL and BE represents the field current
required to overcome the effect of armature reaction.

Triangle BDE is called Potier triangle and XL is the Potier reactance.

1.15 Voltage Regulation

When an alternator is subjected to a varying load, the voltage at the armature terminals varies to a certain
extent, and the amount of this variation determines the regulation of the machine. When the alternator is
loaded the terminal voltage decreases as the drops in the machine stars increasing and hence it will always
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be different than the induced emf.

Voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in terminal voltage from no load to full load
expressed as a percentage of rated voltage when the load at a given power factor is removed without
change in speed and excitation. Or the numerical value of the regulation is defined as the percentage rise
in voltage when full load at the specified power-factor is switched off with speed and field current
remaining unchanged expressed as a percentage of rated voltage.

Hence regulation can be expressed as

 E0 −Vt 
% Regulation = 100
 
 Vt 

where E0 = No-load induced emf /phase, Vt = Rated terminal voltage/phase at load

1.16 Methods of finding Voltage Regulation:

The voltage regulation of an alternator can be determined by different methods. In case of small generators
it can be determined by direct loading whereas in case of large generators it cannot determined by direct
loading but will be usually predetermined by different methods. Following are the different methods used
for predetermination of regulation of alternators.

1. Direct loading method

2. EMF method or Synchronous impedance method

3. MMF method or Ampere turns method

4. ASA modified MMF method

5. ZPF method or Potier triangle method

All the above methods other than direct loading are valid for non-salient pole machines only. As the
alternators are manufactured in large capacity direct loading of alternators is not employed for
determination of regulation. Other methods can be employed for predetermination of regulation. Hence
the other methods of determination of regulations will be discussed in the following sections.

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1.16.1 EMF method:

This method is also known as synchronous impedance method. Here the magnetic circuit is assumed to
be unsaturated. In this method the MMFs (fluxes) produced by rotor and stator are replaced by their
equivalent emf, and hence called emf method.

To predetermine the regulation by this method the following informations are to be determined. Armature
resistance /phase of the alternator, open circuit and short circuit characteristics of the alternator.

Determination of synchronous impedance Zs:

Fig: 1.16 OCC and SCC of alternator

As the terminals of the stator are short circuited in SC test, the short circuit current is circulated against
the impedance of the stator called the synchronous impedance. This impedance can be estimated form the
oc and sc characteristics.

The ratio of open circuit voltage to the short circuit current at a particular field current, or at a field current
responsible for circulating the rated current is called the synchronous impedance.

Synchronous impedance Zs = (open circuit voltage per phase)/(short circuit current per phase) for same If

Hence Zs = (Voc) / (Isc) for same If

From Fig: 1.16 synchronous impedance Zs = V/Isc

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Armature resistance Ra of the stator can be measured using Voltmeter – Ammeter method. Using
synchronous impedance and armature resistance synchronous reactance and hence regulation can be
calculated as follows using emf method.

Fig: 1.17

Zs = √[(Ra)2 + (XS)2]and Synchronous reactance Xs = √[( Zs)2 - (Ra)2]

Hence induced emf per phase can be found as Eg = √[ (Vt cosθ + IaRa)2+ (Vt sinθ ± IaXS)2]

where Vt = phase voltage per phase = Vph , Ia = load current per phase

In the above expression in second term + sign is for lagging power factor and – sign is for leading power
factor.
 Eg −Vt 
% Regulation = 100
 
 Vt 

where Eg = no-load induced emf /phase, Vt = rated terminal voltage/phase

Synchronous impedance method is easy but it gives approximate results. This method gives the value of
regulation which is greater (poor) than the actual value and hence this method is called pessimistic method.
The complete phasor diagram for the emf method is shown in Fig 1.18.

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Fig: 1.18

1.13.2 MMF method

This method is also known as amp - turns method. In this method the all the emfs produced by rotor and
stator are replaced by their equivalent MMFs (fluxes), and hence called mmf method. In this method also
it is assumed that the magnetic circuit is unsaturated. In this method both the reactance drops are replaced
by their equivalent mmfs. Fig: 1.19 shows the complete phasor diagram for the mmf method. Similar to
emf method OC and SC characteristics are used for the determination of regulation by mmf method. The
details are shown in Fig: 1.19. Using the details it is possible determine the regulation at different power
factors.

Fa+Fal

Ff Fr1
Eg

VT IaXs
Iara
Ia E1

Fig: 1.19

From the phasor diagram it can be seen that the mmf required to produce the emf E1= (V + IR a) is
FR1.In large machines resistance drop may neglected. The mmf required to overcome the reactance
drops is (Fa+Fal) as shown in phasor diagram. The mmf (Fa+Fal) can be found from SC characteristic
as under SC condition both reactance drops will be present.
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Following procedure can be used for determination of regulation by mmf method.

1. By conducting OC and SC test plot OCC and SCC.

2. From the OCC find the field current If1 required to produce the voltage, E1= (V + IRa).

3. From SCC find the magnitude of field current If2 (≈Fa+Fal) to produce the required armature
current. Fa+Fal can also found from ZPF characteristics.

4. Draw If2 at angle (90+Φ) from If1, where Φ is the phase angle of current w. r. t voltage. If
current is leading, take the angle of If2 as (90-Φ).

5. Determine the resultant field current, If and mark its magnitude on the field current axis.

6. From OCC. find the voltage corresponding to If, which will be E0 and hence find the
regulation.

Because of the assumption of unsaturated magnetic circuit the regulation computed by this method
will be less than the actual and hence this method of regulation is called optimistic method.

1.13.3 ASA Modified MMF Method:

ASA or modified mmf method consider saturation effect for calculation of regulation. In the mmf
method the total mmf F computed is based on the assumption of unsaturated magnetic circuit which
is unrealistic. In order to account for the partial saturation of the magnetic circuit it must be increased
by a certain amount FF2 which can be computed from occ, scc and air gap lines as explained below
referring to Fig: 1.20 (i) and (ii).

(i)

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(ii)

Fig: 1.20

If1 is the field current required to induce the rated voltage on open circuit. Draw If2 with length equal
to field current required to circulate rated current during short circuit condition at an angle (90+Φ)
from If1. The resultant of If1 and If2 gives If (OF2 in figure). Extend OF2 upto F so that F2F accounts
for the additional field current required for accounting the effect of partial saturation of magnetic
circuit. F2F is found for voltage E (refer to phasor diagram of mmf method) as shown in Fig: 1.20.
Project total field current OF to the field current axis and find corresponding voltage E0 using OCC.
Hence regulation can found by ASA method which is more realistic.

1.13.4 Zero Power Factor (ZPF) method or Potier Triangle Method:

During the operation of the alternator, resistance voltage drop IaRa and armature leakage reactance
drop IaXL are actually emf quantities and the armature reaction reactance is a mmf quantity. To
determine the regulation of the alternator by this method OCC, SCC and ZPF test details and
characteristics are required. AS explained earlier oc and sc tests are conducted and OCC and SCC are
drawn. ZPF test is conducted by connecting the alternator to ZPF load and exciting the alternator in
such way that the alternator supplies the rated current at rated voltage running at rated speed. To plot
ZPF characteristics only two points are required. One point is corresponding to the zero voltage and
rated current that can be obtained from scc and the other at rated voltage and rated current under zpf

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load. This zero power factor curve appears like OCC but shifted by a factor IaXL vertically and
horizontally by armature reaction mmf as shown below in Fig: 1.21. Following are the steps to draw
ZPF characteristics.

Fig: 1.21

By suitable tests plot OCC and SCC. Draw air gap line. Conduct ZPF test at full load for rated voltage
and fix the point B. Draw the line BH with length equal to field current required to produce full load
current on short circuit. Draw HD parallel to the air gap line so as to cut the OCC. Draw DE
perpendicular to HB or parallel to voltage axis. Now, DE represents voltage drop IXL and BE
represents the field current required to overcome the effect of armature reaction.

Triangle BDE is called Potier triangle and XL is the Potier reactance. Find E from V, IRa, IXL and Φ.
Use the expression E = √[(Vt cosΦ + IaRa)2 + (Vt sinΦ) + IaXL)2] to compute E. Find field current
corresponding to E. Draw FG with magnitude equal to BE at angle (90+Ψ) from field current axis,
where Ψ is the phase angle of current from voltage vector E (internal phase angle).

The resultant field current is given by OG. Mark this length on field current axis. From OCC find the
corresponding E0. Find the regulation.

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1.14 Power angle characteristics

When the synchronous generator feeding power to the infinite bus-bar at constant terminal voltage Vt
as shown in single line diagram in Fig: 1.22 the phasor diagram for lagging power factor is shown if
Fig: 1.23. For large size of generator armature resistance ra is negligible.

Fig: 1.22 Cylindrical-rotor alternator connected to infinite bus-bar single line diagram

c
IaXs
b
Ef 90°+θ a
90°-θ
Vt
δ
θ
Ia

Fig: 1.23 Phasor diagram of an alternator for lagging power factor load with neglected armature
resistance

The per phase power delivered to the infinite bus is given by

P=Vt Iacosθ

It is seen that oba = 90 − θ and obc = 180 − (90 − θ) = 90 + θ . The triangle obc reveals that

bc oc XI Ef
= or s a =
sinboc sinobc sinδ sin(90+θ)

or, Xs Ia sin(90 + θ) = Ef sinδ

Xs Ia cosθ=Ef sinδ
E
I cosθ= f sinδ
a
Xs

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Substitution of value of Ia cosθ in power equation

Ef Vt
P= sinδ
Xs

The variation of power as derived above with respect to power-angle δ is plotted in Fig; 1.24. The
power versus load angle characteristic curve has a sinusoidal shape and is usually called power-angle
characteristic of the cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine. The power P, for generator is taken as
positive and therefore, for motor as negative.

Fig; 1.24 Power angle characteristic

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 Lecture Notes–Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 35

SYLLABUS/ TOPICS COVERED

Fundamental Principles of A.C. Machines: E.M.F.
equation of an elementary alternator, Single &three
Phase, relation between speed & frequency, factors
affecting the induced e.m.f., full pitch &fractional
pitch windings, winding factors, armature reaction,
the rotating field leakage reactance. Concept of time
phasor & space phasor. Synchronous Generator:
Various types & construction, cylindrical rotor
theory, phasor diagram, open circuit & short circuit
characteristics, armature reaction reactance,
synchronous reactance, SCR, load characteristics,
potier reactance, voltage regulation, EMF method,
MODULE-II MMF method, modified MMF method, ZPF
method, power angle characteristics.
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR & MOTOR [Topics are arranged as per above sequence]

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 Lecture Notes–Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 36

2.1 Salient pole alternators and Blondel’s Two Reaction Theory

The details of synchronous generators developed so far is applicable to only round rotor or non-salient
pole alternators. In such machines the air gap is uniform throughout and hence the effect of mmf will
be same whether it acts along the pole axis or the inter polar axis. Hence reactance of the stator is
same throughout and hence it is called synchronous reactance. But in case salient pole machines the
air gap is non uniform and it is smaller along pole axis and is larger along the inter polar axis. These
axes are called direct axis or d-axis and quadrature axis or q-axis. Hence the effect of mmf when
acting along direct axis will be different than that when it is acting along quadrature axis. Hence the
reactance of the stator cannot be same when the mmf is acting along d – axis and q- axis. As the
length of the air gap is small along direct axis reluctance of the magnetic circuit is less and the air gap
along the q – axis is larger and hence the along the quadrature axis will be comparatively higher.
Hence along d-axis more flux is produced than q-axis. Therefore the reactance due to armature
reaction will be different along d-axis and q-axis. These reactances are,
Xad = direct axis reactance; Xaq = quadrature axis reactance

Hence the effect of armature reaction in the case of a salient pole synchronous machine can be taken
as two components - one acting along the direct axis (coinciding with the main field pole axis) and
the other acting along the quadrature axis (inter-polar region or magnetic neutral axis) and as such
the mmf components of armature-reaction in a salient-pole machine cannot be considered as acting
on the same magnetic circuit. Hence the effect of the armature reaction cannot be taken into account
by considering only the synchronous reactance, in the case of a salient pole synchronous machine.

In fact, the direct-axis component Fad acts over a magnetic circuit identical with that of the main field
system and produces a comparable effect while the quadrature-axis component Faq acts along the
interpolar axis, resulting in an altogether smaller effect and, in addition, a flux distribution totally
different from that of Fad or the main field m.m.f. This explains why the application of cylindrical-
rotor theory to salient-pole machines for predicting the performance gives results not conforming to
the performance obtained from an actual test.

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2.2 Direct-axis and Quadrature-axis Synchronous Reactances

Blondel’s two-reaction theory considers the effects of the quadrature and direct-axis components of
the armature reaction separately. Neglecting saturation, their different effects are considered by
assigning to each an appropriate value of armature-reaction “reactance,” respectively xad and xaq . The
effects of armature resistance and true leakage reactance (XL) may be treated separately, or may be
added to the armature reaction coefficients on the assumption that they are the same, for either the
direct-axis or quadrature-axis components of the armature current (which is almost true). Thus the
combined reactance values can be expressed as,

Xsd = xad + x, and Xsq = xaq + x, for the direct- and cross-reaction axes respectively.

In a salient-pole machine, xaq, the quadrature-axis reactance is smaller than xad, the direct-axis
reactance, since the flux produced by a given current component in that axis is smaller as the
reluctance of the magnetic path consists mostly of the interpolar spaces. It is essential to clearly note
the difference between the quadrature and direct-axis components Iaq, and Iad of the armature current
Ia, and the reactive and active components Iaa and Iar. Although both pairs are represented by phasors
in phase quadrature, the former are related to the induced emf Et while the latter are referred to the
terminal voltage V. These phasors are clearly indicated with reference to the phasor diagram of a
(salient pole) synchronous generator supplying a lagging power factor (pf) load, shown in Fig.2.1

Fig: 2.1 Phasor diagram of salient-pole alternator

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2.3 Power Angle Characteristic of Salient Pole Machine

Neglecting the armature winding resistance, the power output of the generator is given by:

This can be expressed in terms of 𝜎,

Substituting these in the expression for power, we have.

It is clear from the above expression that the power is a little more than that for a cylindrical rotor
synchronous machine, as the first term alone represents the power for a cylindrical rotor synchronous
machine. A term in (sin 2𝜎) is added into the power – angle characteristic of a non-salient pole
synchronous machine. This also shows that it is possible to generate an emf even if the excitation E0
is zero. However this magnitude is quite less compared with that obtained with a finite E0. Likewise
we can show that the machine develops a torque - called the reluctance torque - as this torque is
developed due to the variation of the reluctance in the magnetic circuit even if the excitation E0 is
zero. Fig: 2.2 shows the typical power angle characteristic of a salient pole alternator.

Fig: 2.2

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 Lecture Notes–Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 39

2.4 Slip Test

From this test the values of Xd and Xq are determined by applying a balance reduced external voltage
(say, V volts, around 25% of rated value) to the armature. The field winding remains unexcited. The
machine is run at a speed a little less than the synchronous speed (the slip being less than 1%) using
a prime mover (or motor). Connection diagram is shown in circuit diagram.

Fig: 2.3

Due to voltage V applied to the stator terminal a current I will flow causing a stator mmf. This stator
mmf moves slowly relative to the poles and induced an emf in the field circuit in a similar fashion to
that of rotor in an induction motor at slip frequency. The effect will be that the stator mmf will moves
slowly relative to the poles.

The physical poles and the armature-reaction mmf are alternately in phase and out, the change
occurring at slip frequency. When the axis of the pole and the axis of the armature reaction mmf wave
coincide, the armature mmf acts through the field magnetic circuit. Since the applied voltage is
constant, the air-gap flux would be constant. When crest of the rotating armature mmf is in line with
the field-pole axis, minimum air-gap offers minimum reluctance thus the current required in armature
for the establishment of constant air-gap flux must be minimum. Constant applied voltage minus the
minimum impedance voltage drop in the armature terminal gives maximum armature terminal
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voltage. Thus the d-axis synchronous reactance is given by

Maximum armature terminal voltage per phase

Xd =
Minimum armature current per phase
Similarly

Minimum armature terminal voltage per phase

Xq =
Maximum armature current per phase

2.5 Parallel Operation of Alternators

The operation of connecting an alternator in parallel with another alternator or with common bus-bars
is known as synchronizing. Generally, alternators are used in a power system where they are in
parallel with many other alternators. It means that the alternator is connected to a live system of
constant voltage and constant frequency. Often the electrical system, to which the alternator is
connected, has already so many alternators and loads connected to it that no matter what power is
delivered by the incoming alternator, the voltage and frequency of the system remain the same. In
that case, the alternator is said to be connected to infinite bus-bars.

For proper synchronization of alternators, the following four conditions must be satisfied

1. The terminal voltage (effective) of the incoming alternator must be the same as bus-bar
voltage.

2. The speed of the incoming machine must be such that its frequency (= PN/60) equals bus-bar
frequency.
3. The phase of the alternator voltage must be identical with the phase of the bus-bar voltage.
4. The phase angle between identical phases must be zero.
It means that the switch must be closed at (or very near) the instant the two voltages have correct
phase relationship.

Condition (1) is indicated by a voltmeter, conditions (2), (3) and (4) are indicated by synchronizing
lamps or a synchronoscope.

The synchronizing lamp method is consists of 3 lamps connected between the phases of the running
3-ph generator and the incoming generator as shown in Fig: 2.4.

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In three phase alternators, it is necessary to synchronize one phase only, the other two phases be will
then synchronized automatically. However, first it is necessary that the incoming alternator is
correctly ‘phased out’ i.e. the phases are connected in the proper order of R,Y &B not R, B, Y etc.

Lamp L1 is connected between R and R′, L2 between Y and B′ (not Y and Y′) and L3 between B and

Y′ (and not B and B′) as shown in Fig: 2.5.

Fig: 2.4

Fig: 2.5

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Fig: 2.6

Two set of star vectors will rotate at unequal speeds if the frequencies of the two are different. If the

incoming alternator is running faster, then voltage star R′ Y′ B′ appear to rotate anticlockwise with

respect to the bus-bar voltage star RYB at a speed corresponding to the difference between their

frequencies. With reference to Fig: 2.6, it is seen that voltage across L1 is RR′ to be increasing from

zero, and that across L2 is YB′ which is decreasing, having just passed through its maximum, and that

across L3 BY′ which is increasing and approaching its maximum. Hence the lamps will light up one
after the other in the order 2, 3, 1,2,3,1 or 1, 2, 3. If the incoming alternator is running slower, then
the sequence of light up will be 1, 3, 2. Synchronization is done at the moment the uncrossed lamp
L1 is in the middle of the dark period and other two lamps are equally bright. Hence this method of
synchronization is known as two bright one dark lamp method.
It should be noted that synchronization by lamps is not quite accurate, because to a large extent, it
depends on the sense of correct judgment of the operator. Hence, to eliminate the element of personal
judgment in routine operation of alternators, the machines are synchronized by a more accurate device
called a synchronoscope as shown in Fig: 2.7. It consists of 3 stationary coils and a rotating iron vane
which is attached to a pointer. Out of three coils, a pair is connected to one phase of the line and the
other to the corresponding machine terminals, potential transformer being usually used. The pointer
moves to one side or the other from its vertical position depending on whether the incoming machine
is too fast or too slow. For correct speed, the pointer points vertically up.

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Fig: 2.7

2.5.1 Synchronizing Current:

If two alternators generating exactly the same emf are perfectly synchronized, there is no resultant
emf acting on the local circuit consisting of their two armatures connected in parallel. No current
circulates between the two and no power is transferred from one to the other. Under this condition
emf of alternator 1, i.e. E1 is equal to and in phase opposition to emf of alternator 2, i.e. E2 as shown
in the Figure .There is, apparently, no force tending to keep them in synchronism, but as soon as the
conditions are disturbed a synchronizing force is developed, tending to keep the whole system stable.
Suppose one alternator falls behind a little in phase by an angle θ. The two alternator emfs now
produce a resultant voltage and this acts on the local circuit consisting of the two armature windings
and the joining connections. In alternators, the synchronous reactance is large compared with the
resistance, so that the resultant circulating current Is is very nearly in quadrature with the resultant

emf Er acting on the circuit. Figure represents a single phase case, where E1 and E2 represent the

two induced emfs, the latter having fallen back slightly in phase. The resultant emf, Er, is almost in
quadrature with both the emfs, and gives rise to a current, Is, lagging behind Er by an angle
approximating to a right angle. It is, thus, seen that E1 and Is are almost in phase. The first alternator
is generating a power E1 Is cos Φ1, which is positive, while the second one is generating a power E2
Is cos Φ2, which is negative, since cos Φ2 is negative. In other words, the first alternator is supplying

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the second with power, the difference between the two amounts of power represents the copper losses
occasioned by the current Is flowing through the circuit which possesses resistance. This power output
of the first alternator tends to retard it, while the power input to the second one tends to accelerate it
till such a time that E1 and E2 are again in phase opposition and the machines once again work in
perfect synchronism. So, the action helps to keep both machines in stable synchronism. The current,
Is, is called the synchronizing current.

Fig: 2.7

2.5.2 Effect of Change of Excitation:

A change in the excitation of an alternator running in parallel with other affects only its KVA output;
it does not affect the KW output. A change in the excitation, thus, affects only the power factor of its
output. Let two similar alternators of the same rating be operating in parallel, receiving equal power
inputs from their prime movers. Neglecting losses, their kW outputs are therefore equal. If their
excitations are the same, they induce the same emf, and since they are in parallel their terminal

voltages are also the same. When delivering a total load of I amperes at a power-factor of cos , each

alternator delivers half the total current and I1 = I2 = I/2.

Fig: 2.8
Since their induced emfs are the same, there is no resultant emf acting around the local circuit formed
by their two armature windings, so that the synchronizing current, Is, is zero. Since the armature

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resistance is neglected, the vector difference between E1 = E2 and V is equal to, I1Xs1 = I2Xs2 , this

vector leading the current I by 900, where XS1 and XS2 are the synchronous reactances of the two
alternators respectively.

Now consider the effect of reducing the excitation of the second alternator. E2 is therefore reduced as

shown in Figure. This reduces the terminal voltage slightly, so let the excitation of the first alternator
be increased so as to bring the terminal voltage back to its original value. Since the two alternator
inputs are unchanged and losses are neglected, the two kW outputs are the same as before. The current
I2 is changed due to the change in E2, but the active components of both I1 and I2 remain unaltered. It
can be observed that there is a small change in the load angles of the two alternators, this angle being
slightly increased in the case of the weakly excited alternator and slightly decreased in the case of the
strongly excited alternator. It can also be observed that I1 + I2 = I, the total load current.

2.5.3 Effect of Change of Input Torque

The amount of power output delivered by an alternator running in parallel with others is governed
solely by the power input received from its prime mover. If two alternators only are operating in
parallel the increase in power input may be accompanied by a minute increase in their speeds, causing
a proportional rise in frequency. This can be corrected by reducing the power input to the other
alternator, until the frequency is brought back to its original value. In practice, when load is
transferred from one alternator to another, the power input to the alternator required to take additional
load is increased, the power input to the other alternator being simultaneously decreased. In this way,
the change in power output can be effected without measurable change in the frequency. The effect
of increasing the input to one prime mover is, thus, seen to make its alternator take an increased share
of the load, the other being relieved to a corresponding extent. The final power-factors are also altered,
since the ratio of the reactive components of the load has also been changed. The power-factors of
the two alternators can be brought back to their original values, if desired, by adjusting the excitations
of alternators.

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2.5.4 Load Sharing

When several alternators are required to run in parallel, it probably happens that their rated outputs
differ. In such cases it is usual to divide the total load between them in such a way that each alternator
takes the load in the same proportion of its rated load in total rated outputs. The total load is not
divided equally. Alternatively, it may be desired to run one large alternator permanently on full load,
the fluctuations in load being borne by one or more of the others. If the alternators are sharing the
load equally the power triangles are as shown in Fig: 2.9.

Fig: 2.9

2.5.5 Sharing of load when two alternators are in parallel

Consider two alternators with identical speed load characteristics connected in parallel as shown in
Fig: 2.10.

Fig: 2.10

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Let E1, E2 be the induced emf per phase,

Z1, Z2 be the impedances per phase,
I1, I2 be the current supplied by each machine per phase
Z be the load impedance per phase,
V be the terminal voltage per phase

From the circuit we have V = E1 - I1Z1 = E2 – I2Z2

and hence, I1 = E1 - V/Z1 and I2 = E2 – V/Z2

and also V = (I1 + I2 ) Z = IZ

solving above equations

I1 = [(E1- E2) Z + E1 Z2]/ [ Z( Z1 + Z2) + Z1Z2]

I2 = [(E2- E1) Z + E2 Z1]/ [ Z( Z1 + Z2) + Z1Z2]

The total current I = I1 + I2 = [E1Z2 + E2Z1] / [ Z( Z1 + Z2) + Z1Z2]

And the circulating current or synchronizing current Is = (E1 - E2) / (Z1 + Z2)

2.5.6 Prime-mover Governor Characteristic

The transfer of active power between alternators in parallel is accomplished by adjustment of the no-
load speed setting of the respective prime-mover governors, and the transfer of reactive power is
accomplished by adjustment of the respective field rheostats or voltage regulators .A typical prime-
mover governor characteristic, shown in Fig: 2.11, is a plot of prime-mover speed (or generator
frequency) vs. active power. Although usually drawn as a straight line, the actual characteristic has a
slight curve. The drooping characteristic shown in the figure provides inherent stability of operation
when paralleled with other machines. Machines with zero droop, called isochronous machines, are
inherently unstable when operated in parallel; they are subject to unexpected load swings, unless
electrically controlled with solid-state regulators.

The no-load speed setting (and hence the no-load frequency setting) of a synchronous generator can
be changed by remote control from the generator panel by using a remote-control switch. The switch
actuates a servomotor that repositions the no-load speed setting of the governor, raising or lowering
the characteristic without changing its slope. Curves for different no-load speed settings are shown
with broken lines in Figure 2.11.

Governor Speed Regulation

Governor speed regulation (GSR) is defined as:

Where, nrated = rated speed (r/min)

nnl = no-load speed (r/min)
frated = rated frequency (Hz) & fnl = no-load frequency (Hz)

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Fig: 2.11

Governor Droop

Governor droop (GD) or droop rate is defined as the ratio of the change in frequency to the
corresponding change in active power:

Where,
frated = rated frequency (Hz) & fnl = no-load frequency (Hz)
Prated = rated active power (kW)

2.6 Sudden Short Circuit of a Synchronous Generator

It may be possible in practice that the alternator running with full excitation may undergo a sudden
short circuit because of the abnormal conditions. Due to sudden short circuit of alternator, large
mechanical forces are developed which may not be sustained by the alternator. These forces are
proportional to square of the current value, hence large pressure is built up between adjacent stator
conductors.
The short circuit transients in a synchronous machine is a complicated phenomenon due to number
of circuits coupled to each other are involved. When a synchronous generator undergoes short circuit,
it has a characteristics time varying behaviour. During short circuit, flux per pole dynamically
changes. Thus the transients are seen in the field and damper windings. The alternator can be
represented by an equivalent circuit wherein the reactance is seen to be changed from subtransient
reactance to final steady state synchronous reactance.
When alternator undergoes a short circuit number of events take place which depends on various
factors such as the instant in the cycle at which short circuit occurs, whether the machine is loaded or
not, what is the excitation provided, how many phases are involved, whether it is occurring near to
machine terminals or away from it and on the constructional features of the machine. Hence the

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evaluation of sudden short circuit current for the given conditions is complex and to some extent
empirical process depending on values of resistance, self and mutual inductances which themselves
are variable and difficult to assess.

After the moment of short circuit, the time period followed by it can be divided into three periods.
The first one is very short period of one or two cycles the conditions of which are dependent on the
flux linkages between stator and rotor during short circuit. The second interval is longer one which is
nothing but transient decay of short circuit current which is affected by damping and rise of armature
reaction. The final period is nothing but the steady state short circuit before which the generator is
normally open circuited [see Fig: 2.12].

Fig: 2.12

Constant Flux Linkage Theorem

The behavior shown by the alternator just after short circuit can be understood by the use of constant
linkages theorem. If a closed circuit with resistance r and inductance L is considered without a source
then the equation obtained using KVL will be ri + L (di/dt) = 0. If r is very very small then L(di/dt) =
0 or d/dt (LI) = 0 This shows that the flux linkages Li remain constant. In generator also the effective
inductance of stator and rotor windings is large compared to the resistance which can be neglected
for first few cycles. The rotor circuit is closed through exciter while stator is closed by short circuit.
Thus the flux linking with either winding must remain constant irrespective of the rotation.

Analysis of RL Series Circuit

Similar to theorem of constant linkages let us consider a series R-L circuit excited by a voltage source
which is sinusoidal for further understanding of short circuit. The circuit diagram is as shown in the
Fig: 2.13

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Fig: 2.13

Let at the instant t = t1, the sinusoidal voltage V sin𝜔t is applied to series R-L circuit.
Applying KVL,
Ri + L(di/dt) = V sinω t.............................................(1)
For the above equation the complementary function of the solution is
i CF = K1 e-(R/L)t
For obtaining the particular solution let the trial solution be
i PI = A cosωt + Bsinωt
where A and B are undetermined coefficients.
i' PI = - A sin ωt(ω) + B cosωt(ω)
i' PI = -A ωsinωt + Bω cosωt
Substituting trial solution and its derivative in equation (1)
R(A cosωt + B sinω t) + L ( -A sinωt + Bωcosω t) = V sin t
(RB - LAω) sinωt + (RA + ωLB) cosωt = Vsinωt
Comparing coefficient of like terms
RB - LAω = V
RA + ωLB = 0
Solving above equations we get

The particular solution is therefore given by,

To find the value of K1 let us use initial conditions i.e.

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Hence the complete solution is given as,

Substituting in above equation,

The corresponding waveforms are as shown in the Fig: 2.14.

Fig: 2.14
The first term steady state current (is) while the second term represents transient current (it). If the

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voltage is switched at t = t1 when it is zero, the transient term is having the greatest value. The resultant
current is zero having complete asymmetry. The approximate current in this case reaches 2im which
is known as doubling effect compared to the switching of voltage at the instant when voltage is at its
maximum instead of zero. This shows that the current flowing in the circuit changes its waveform if
the instant at which voltage is applied to the circuit, is changed. The same thing is applicable in case
of generator undergoing short circuit.

Short Circuit Phenomenon

Consider a two pole elementary single phase alternator with concentrated stator winding as shown
in Fig: 2.15.

Fig: 2.15
The corresponding waveforms for stator and rotor currents are shown in the Fig: 2.15.

Let short circuit occurs at position of rotor shown in Fig: 2.15(a), when there are no stator linkages.
After 1/4 Rev as shown Fig: 2.15(b), it tends to establish full normal linkage in stator winding. The
stator opposes this by a current in the shown direction as to force the flux in the leakage path. The
rotor current must increase to maintain its flux constant. It reduces to normal at position (c) where
stator current is again reduces to zero. The waveform of stator current and field current shown in the
Fig: 2.16, changes totally if the position of rotor at the instant of short circuit is different. Thus the
short circuit current is a function of of relative position of stator and rotor.

Fig: 2.16
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Using the theorem of constant linkages a three phase short circuit can also be studied. After the instant
of short circuit the flux linking with the stator will not change. A stationary image of main pole flux
is produced in the stator. Thus a D.C. component of current is carried by each phase. The magnitude
of D.C. component of current is different for each phase as the instant on the voltage wave at which
short circuit occurs is different for each phase. The rotor tries to maintain its own poles. The rotor
current is normal each time when rotor poles occupy the position same as that during short circuit and
the current in the stator will be zero if the machine is previously unloaded. After one half cycle from
this position the stator and rotor poles are again coincident but the poles are opposite. To maintain
the flux linkages constant, the current in rotor reaches to its peak value.

The stationary field produced by poles on the stator induces a normal frequency emf in the rotor. Thus
the rotor current is fluctuating whose resultant a.c. component develops fundamental frequency flux
which rotates and again produces in the stator winding double frequency or second harmonic currents.
Thus the waveform of transient current consists of fundamental, a.c. and second harmonic
components of currents.

Thus whenever short circuit occurs in three phase generator then the stator currents are distorted from
pure sine wave and are similar to those obtained when an alternating voltage is suddenly applied to
series R-L circuit.

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Fig: 2.17

2.6.1 Stator Currents during Short Circuit

If a generator having negligible resistance, excited and running on no load is suddenly undergoing
short circuit at its terminals, then the emf induced in the stator winding is used to circulate short circuit
current through it. Initially the reactance to be taken into consideration is not the synchronous
reactance of the machine. The effect of armature flux (reaction) is to reduce the main field flux. But
the flux linking with stator and rotor cannot change instantaneously because of the induction
associated with the windings. Thus at the short circuit instant, the armature reaction is ineffective. It
will not reduce the main flux. Thus the synchronous reactance will not come into picture at the
moment of short circuit. The only limiting factor for short circuit current at this instant is the leakage
reactance. After some time from the instant of short circuit, the armature reaction slowly shows its

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effect and the alternator then reaches to steady state. Thus the short circuit current reaches to high
value for some time and then settles to steady value.
It can be seen that during the initial instant of short circuit is dependent on induced emf and leakage
reactance which is similar to the case which we have considered previously of voltage source
suddenly applied to series R-L circuit. The instant in the cycle at which short occurs also affects the
short circuit current. Near zero e.m.f. (or voltage) it has doubling effect. The expressions that we have
derived are applicable only during initial conditions of short circuit as the induced emf also reduces
after some tome because of increased armature reaction.
The short circuit currents in the three phases during short circuit are as shown in the Fig: 2.17.

2.7 Transient and Subtransient Reactance of Alternators

To understand the behavior of an alternator under transient conditions, the armature and field
resistance is assumed to be negligibly small. Thus, constant flux linkage theorem can be applied. As
per this theorem, in purely inductive circuit, the total flux linkage cannot be changed instantaneously
at the time of any disturbance. Now, if all the three phases of unloaded alternator with normal
excitation are suddenly short circuited there will be short- circuit current flows in the armature. As
the resistance is assumed to be zero, this current will lag behind the voltage by 90 o and the m.m.f.
produced by this current will be along the d-axis. First conclusion is that this current will be affected
by d-axis parameters Xd , Xd’ and Xd” only.

Further, there will be demagnetizing effect of this current, but as the flux linkage with field cannot
change the effect of demagnetizing armature m.m.f. must be counterbalanced by a proportional
increase in the field current. This additional induced component of field current gives rise to greater
excitation under transient state and results in more short circuits as compared to the steady state short
circuit current.

If field poles are provided with damper bars, then at the instant of three phase short circuit, the
demagnetizing armature m.m.f. induces currents in damper bars, which, in turn, produces field in the
same direction as the main field and hence at this instant, the excitation further increases and gives
rise to further increase in short circuit armature current. This is for a very short duration, normally 3
to 4 cycles and this period is known as sub-transient period. Since the field voltage is constant, there
is no additional voltage to sustain these increased excitations during sub transient or transient period.
Consequently the effect of increased field current decreases with a time constant determined by the
field and armature parameters and accordingly the short circuit armature current also decays with the
same time constant.

In the Fig: 2.18 a symmetrical wave from for armature short circuit current of phase – A is shown.
The D.C. component is zero in this phase.
The reactances offered by the machine during sub transient period are known as sub transient
reactances. Along the direct axis, it is direct axis sub transient reactance, X"d and along the quadrature
axis, it is quadrature axis sub-transient reactance, X”q. As these reactances are due to the fact that
flux linkages in field circuit during sudden disturbance remain constant, the sub transient reactances
Xd” and Xq” can also be defined as below:

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Fig: 2.18

Direct axis sub- transient reactance X”d

The field structure is assumed to have damper bars on salient poles. The field winding is initially
unexcited and is short – circuited so that field flux- linkage is zero. Armature currents now are
suddenly applied in such time phase that the peak of varying armature m.m.f. wave is in direct axis.
As per constant flux linkage theorem, since the flux linkage before this is zero. Hence, it remains zero
just after the application of armature m.m.f. wave and in order to maintain the flux linkages zero,
current are induced in damper bars, additional rotor circuit formed by pole- body etc. and the field
winding. The field of the varying armature m.m.f. is forced to drive the flux through the leakage paths
mainly in air as shown in Fig: 2.19 (a).

Fig: 2.19 (a)

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The armature flux linkage per ampere under these conditions is known as direct axis sub transient
inductance Ld”.

Quadrature axis subtransient reactance, Xq”

This also is defined in a manner similar to Xd”, but in this case, armature currents are applied in such
time phase that the peak of varying armature m.m.f. wave is along the quadrature axis. The damper
bars in the quadrature axis force the field of the varying armature m.m.f. to follow the leakage path
as shown Fig: 2.19 (b).

Fig: 2.19 (b)

As before, the flux linkage with q-axis damper bars must remain constant i.e. zero before and after
the sudden application of armature m.m.f. Under these conditions, the armature flux linkages per
ampere is known as q-axis sub transient inductance Lq” and Xq”=ωLq”.
To determine Xd” and Xq”, the above mentioned conditions are created there. Two phases of the
three phase alternator are connected in series and the combination is connected to a low voltage single
phase supply. Field winding is short circuited. The rotor is rotated and brought along the d-axis once.
Xd” can be calculated from the armature current and voltage per phase of armature in this position.
Next, rotor is brought along the q-axis position and Xq” is determined.

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2.8 Synchronous Motors

It may be recalled that a D.C. generator can be run as a D.C. motor. In same way, an alternator may
operate as a motor by connecting its armature winding to a 3-phase supply. It is then called a
synchronous motor. As the name implies, a synchronous motor runs at synchronous speed (Ns =
120f/P) i.e., in synchronism with the revolving field produced by the 3-phase supply. The speed of
rotation is, therefore, tied to the frequency of the source. Since the frequency is fixed, the motor speed
stays constant irrespective of the load or voltage of 3- phase supply. However, synchronous motors
are not used so much because they run at constant speed (i.e., synchronous speed) but it found very
useful applications because they possess other unique electrical properties.

General Physical Concept

Let assume that the armature winding (laid out in the stator) of a 3-phase synchronous machine is
connected to a suitable balanced 3-phase source and the field winding to a D.C source of rated voltage.
The current flowing through the field coils will set up stationary magnetic poles of alternate North
and South. On the other hand, the 3-phase currents flowing in the armature winding produce a rotating
magnetic field rotating at synchronous speed. In other words there will be moving North and South
poles established in the stator due to the 3-phase currents i.e at any location in the stator there will be
a North pole at some instant of time and it will become a South pole after a time period corresponding
to half a cycle. (after a time = 1/2f, where f = frequency of the supply). Assume that the stationary
South pole in the rotor is aligned with the North pole in the stator moving in clockwise direction at a
particular instant of time, as shown in Figure below. These two poles get attracted and try to maintain
this alignment (as per Lenz’s law) and hence the rotor pole tries to follow the stator pole as the
conditions are suitable for the production of torque in the clockwise direction. However, the rotor
cannot move instantaneously due to its mechanical inertia, and so it needs some time to move. In the
meantime, the stator pole would quickly (a time duration corresponding to half a cycle) change its
polarity and becomes a South pole. So the force of attraction will no longer be present and instead
the like poles experience a force of repulsion as shown in Fig: 2.20 & Fig: 2.21. In other words, the
conditions are now suitable for the production of torque in the anticlockwise direction. Even this
condition will not last longer as the stator pole would again change to North pole after a time of 1/2f.
Thus the rotor will experience an alternating force which tries to move it clockwise and anticlockwise
at twice the frequency of the supply, i.e. at intervals corresponding to 1/2f seconds. As this duration
is quite small compared to the mechanical time constant of the rotor, the rotor cannot respond and
move in any direction. The rotor continues to be stationary only.

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Fig: 2.20

On the contrary if the rotor is brought to near synchronous speed by some external device say a small
motor mounted on the same shaft as that of the rotor, the rotor poles get locked to the unlike poles in
the stator and the rotor continues to run at the synchronous speed even if the supply to the motor is
disconnected. Thus the synchronous rotor cannot start rotating on its own when the rotor and stator
are supplied with rated voltage and frequency and hence the synchronous motor has no starting torque.
So, some special provision has to be made either inside the machine or outside of the machine so that
the rotor is brought to near about its synchronous speed. At that time, if the armature is supplied with
electrical power, the rotor can pull into step and continue to run at its synchronous speed.

Fig: 2.21

2.9 Construction
A synchronous motor is a machine that operates at synchronous speed and converts electrical energy
into mechanical energy. It is fundamentally an alternator operated as a motor. Like an alternator, a

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synchronous motor has the following two parts:

(i) a stator which houses 3-phase armature winding in the slots of the stator core and receives power
from a 3-phase supply [See (Fig: 2.22 )].
(ii) a rotor that has a set of salient poles excited by direct current to form alternate N and S poles. The
exciting coils are connected in series to two slip rings and direct current is fed into the winding from
an external exciter mounted on the rotor shaft. The stator is wound for the same number of poles as
the rotor poles. As in the case of an induction motor, the number of poles determines the synchronous
speed of the motor,
Ns = 120f/P
Where,
f = frequency of supply in Hz
P = number of poles
An important drawback of a synchronous motor is that it is not self-starting and auxiliary means have
to be used for starting it.

2.10 Operating Principle

The fact that a synchronous motor has no starting torque can be easily explained.

(i) Consider a 3-phase synchronous motor having two rotor poles NR and SR. Then the stator will
also be wound for two poles NS and SS. The motor has direct voltage applied to the rotor winding
and a 3-phase voltage applied to the stator winding. The stator winding produces a rotating field
which revolves round the stator at synchronous speed Ns (= 120 f/P). The direct (or zero
frequency) current sets up a two-pole field which is stationary so long as the rotor is not turning.
Thus, we have a situation in which there exists a pair of revolving armature poles (i.e., NS - SS)
and a pair of stationary rotor poles (i.e., NR - SR).

(ii) Suppose at any instant, the stator poles are at positions A and B as shown in Fig: 2.22. It is clear
that poles NS and NR repel each other and so do the poles SS and SR. Therefore, the rotor tends
to move in the anticlockwise direction. After a period of half-cycle (or ½ f = 1/100 second), the
polarities of the stator poles are reversed but the polarities of the rotor poles remain the same as
shown in Fig: 2.22. Now SS and NR attract each other and so do NS and SR. Therefore, the rotor
tends to move in the clockwise direction. Since the stator poles change their polarities rapidly,
they tend to pull the rotor first in one direction and then after a period of half-cycle in the other.
Due to high inertia of the rotor, the motor fails to start. Hence, a synchronous motor has no self-
starting torque i.e., a synchronous motor cannot start by itself.

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Fig: 2.22

2.11 Equivalent Circuit

Unlike the induction motor, the synchronous motor is connected to two electrical systems; a d.c.
source at the rotor terminals and an a.c. system at the stator terminals.

1. Under normal conditions of synchronous motor operation, no voltage is induced in the rotor by the
stator field because the rotor winding is rotating at the same speed as the stator field. Only the
impressed direct current is present in the rotor winding and ohmic resistance of this winding is the
only opposition to it as shown in Fig: 2.23 (i).

2. In the stator winding, two effects are to be considered, the effect of stator field on the stator winding
and the effect of the rotor field cutting the stator conductors at synchronous speed.

(i) The effect of stator field on the stator (or armature) conductors is accounted for by including an
inductive reactance in the armature winding. This is called synchronous reactance Xs. A resistance
Ra must be considered to be in series with this reactance to account for the copper losses in the stator
or armature winding as shown in Fig: 2.23 (i). This resistance combines with synchronous reactance
and gives the synchronous impedance of the machine.

Fig: 2.23

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(ii) The second effect is that a voltage is generated in the stator winding by the synchronously-
revolving field of the rotor as shown in Fig: 2.23 (i). This generated e.m.f. Eb is known as back e.m.f.
and opposes the stator voltage V. The magnitude of Eb depends upon rotor speed and rotor flux ф per
pole. Since rotor speed is constant; the value of Eb depends upon the rotor flux per pole i.e. exciting
rotor current If.
Fig: 2.23 (i) shows the schematic diagram for one phase of a star-connected synchronous motor while
Fig: 2.23 (ii) shows its equivalent circuit. Referring to the equivalent circuit in Fig: 2.23 (ii).
Net voltage/phase in stator winding is
Er = V - Eb phasor difference
Armature current/phase,

This equivalent circuit helps considerably in understanding the operation of a synchronous motor.
A synchronous motor is said to be normally excited if the field excitation is such that Eb = V. If the
field excitation is such that Eb < V, the motor is said to be under-excited. The motor is said to be
over-excited if the field excitation is such that Eb > V. As we shall see, for both normal and under
excitation, the motor has lagging power factor. However, for over-excitation, the motor has leading
power factor.

2.12 Phasor Diagram

Fig: 2.24 shows the phasor diagrams for different field excitations at constant load. Fig: 2.24 (i) shows
the phasor diagram for normal excitation (Eb = V), whereas Fig: 2.24 (ii) shows the phasor diagram
for under-excitation. In both cases, the motor has lagging power factor. Fig: 2.24 (iii) shows the
phasor diagram when field excitation is adjusted for unity p.f. operation. Under this condition, the
resultant voltage Er and, therefore, the stator current Ia are minimum. When the motor is overexcited,
it has leading power factor as shown in Fig: 2.24 (iv). The following points may be remembered:
(i) For a given load, the power factor is governed by the field excitation; a weak field produces the
lagging armature current and a strong field produces a leading armature current.
(ii) The armature current (Ia) is minimum at unity p.f and increases as the p.f. becomes less either
leading or lagging

Fig: 2.24

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2.13 Torque and Power Relations

Motor Torque
Gross torque, T =9.55 Pm/Ns N-M where Pm = Gross motor output in watts = Eb Ia cos(d - ф)
Ns = Synchronous speed in r.p.m.
Shaft torque, Tsh = 9.55 Pshout/Ns N-M
It may be seen that torque is directly proportional to the mechanical power because rotor speed (i.e.,
Ns) is fixed.

Mechanical Power Developed

Neglecting the armature resistance Fig: 2.25 shows the phasor diagram of an under-excited
synchronous motor driving a mechanical load. Since armature resistance Ra is assumed zero. tanq=
Xs/Ra = ¥ and hence q =90°.
Input power/phase = V Ia cos ф
Since Ra is assumed zero, stator Cu loss (I Ra)2 will be zero. Hence input power is equal to the
mechanical power Pm developed by the motor.
Mechanical power developed/ phase, Pm = V Ia cos ф, referring to the phasor diagram in Fig: 2.25.

Fig: 2.25

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2.14 V-Curves and Inverted V-Curves

It is clear from above discussion that if excitation is varied from very low (under excitation) to very
high (over excitation) value, then current Ia decreases, becomes minimum at unity p.f. and then again
increases. But initial lagging current becomes unity and then becomes leading in nature. This can be
shown as in the Fig: 2.26.

Fig: 2.26

Excitation can be increased by increasing the field current passing through the field winding of
synchronous motor. If graph of armature current drawn by the motor (Ia) against field current (If) is
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plotted, then its shape looks like an english alphabet V. If such graphs are obtained at various load
conditions we get family of curves, all looking like V. Such curves are called V-curves of synchronous
motor. These are shown in the Fig: 2.27 (a).
As against this, if the power factor (cos Φ) is plotted against field current (If), then the shape of
the graph looks like an inverted V. Such curves obtained by plotting p.f. against If, at various load
conditions are called Inverted V-curves of synchronous motor. These curves are shown in the Fig:
2.27 (b).

Fig: 2.27

Typically, the synchronous machine V-curves are provided by the manufacturer so that the user can
determine the resulting operation under a given set of conditions.

2.15 Effect of Changing Field Excitation at Constant Load

In a d.c. motor, the armature current Ia is determined by dividing the difference between V and Eb
by the armature resistance Ra. Similarly, in a synchronous motor, the stator current (Ia) is determined
by dividing voltage-phasor resultant (Er) between V and Eb by the synchronous impedance Zs. One
of the most important features of a synchronous motor is that by changing the field excitation, it can
be made to operate from lagging to leading power factor. Consider a synchronous motor having a
fixed supply voltage and driving a constant mechanical load. Since the mechanical load as well as the
speed is constant, the power input to the motor (=3 V*Ia *cos ф) is also constant. This means that the
in-phase component Ia cos ф drawn from the supply will remain constant. If the field excitation is
changed, back e.m.f Eb also changes. This results in the change of phase position of Ia w.r.t. V and
hence the power factor cos 𝜑 of the motor changes. Fig: 2.28 shows the phasor diagram of the
synchronous motor for different values of field excitation. Note that extremities of current phasor Ia
lie on the straight line AB.

(i) Under excitation

The motor is said to be under-excited if the field excitation is such that Eb < V. Under such conditions,
the current Ia lags behind V so that motor power factor is lagging as shown in Fig: 2.28 (i). This can
be easily explained. Since Eb < V, the net voltage Er is decreased and turns clockwise. As angle 𝛿𝛿 (=

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90°) between Er and Ia is constant, therefore, phasor Ia also turns clockwise i.e., current Ia lags behind
the supply voltage. Consequently, the motor has a lagging power factor.

(ii) Normal excitation

The motor is said to be normally excited if the field excitation is such that Eb = V. This is shown in
Fig: 2.28 (ii). Note that the effect of increasing excitation (i.e., increasing Eb) is to turn the phasor Er
and hence Ia in the anti-clockwise direction i.e., Ia phasor has come closer to phasor V. Therefore,
p.f. increases though still lagging. Since input power (=3 V*Ia *cos ф) is unchanged, the stator current
Ia must decrease with increase in p.f.
Suppose the field excitation is increased until the current Ia is in phase with the applied voltage V,
making the p.f. of the synchronous motor unity [See Fig: 2.28 (iii)]. For a given load, at unity p.f. the
resultant Er and, therefore, Ia are minimum.

(iii) Over excitation

The motor is said to be overexcited if the field excitation is such that Eb > V. Under-such conditions,
current Ia leads V and the motor power factor is leading as shown in Fig: 2.28 (iv). Note that Er and
hence Ia further turn anti-clockwise from the normal excitation position. Consequently, Ia leads V.
From the above discussion, it is concluded that if the synchronous motor is under-excited, it has a
lagging power factor. As the excitation is increased, the power factor improves till it becomes unity
at normal excitation. Under such conditions, the current drawn from the supply is minimum. If the
excitation is further increased (i.e., over excitation), the motor power factor becomes leading. Note.
The armature current (Ia) is minimum at unity p.f and increases as the power factor becomes poor,
either leading or lagging.

Fig: 2.28

2.16 Synchronous Condenser

A synchronous motor takes a leading current when over-excited and, therefore, behaves as a
capacitor. An over-excited synchronous motor running on no-load in known as synchronous
condenser. When such a machine is connected in parallel with induction motors or other devices that
operate at low lagging power factor, the leading kVAR supplied by the synchronous condenser partly

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neutralizes the lagging reactive kVAR of the loads. Consequently, the power factor of the system is
improved. Fig: 2.29 shows the power factor improvement by synchronous condenser method. The 3
- f load takes current IL at low lagging power factor cos фL. The synchronous condenser takes a
current Im which leads the voltage by an angle fm. The resultant current I is the vector sum of Im and
IL and lags behind the voltage by an angle ф. It is clear that ф is less than фL so that cos f is greater
than cos фL. Thus the power factor is increased from cos фL to cos ф. Synchronous condensers are
generally used at major bulk supply substations for power factor improvement.

Fig: 2.29

Advantages

(i) By varying the field excitation, the magnitude of current drawn by the motor can be changed by
any amount. This helps in achieving step less control of power factor.

(ii) The motor windings have high thermal stability to short circuit currents.
(iii) The faults can be removed easily.

Disadvantages

(i) There are considerable losses in the motor.

(ii) The maintenance cost is high.
(iii) It produces noise.
(iv) Except in sizes above 500 RVA, the cost is greater than that of static capacitors of the same
rating.
(v) As a synchronous motor has no self-starting torque, then-fore, an auxiliary equipment has
to be provided for this purpose.

2.17 Methods of starting synchronous motor

There are three chief methods that are used to start a synchronous motor:
1. To reduce the speed of the rotating magnetic field of the stator to a low enough value that the
rotor can easily accelerate and lock in with it during one half-cycle of the rotating magnetic

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field’s rotation. This is done by reducing the frequency of the applied electric power. This
method is usually followed in the case of inverter-fed synchronous motor operating under
variable speed drive applications.
2. To use an external prime mover to accelerate the rotor of synchronous motor near to its
synchronous speed and then supply the rotor as well as stator. Of course care should be taken
to ensure that the directions of rotation of the rotor as well as that of the rotating magnetic
field of the stator are the same. This method is usually followed in the laboratory- the
synchronous machine is started as a generator and is then connected to the supply mains by
following the synchronization or paralleling procedure. Then the power supply to the prime
mover is disconnected so that the synchronous machine will continue to operate as a motor.
3. To use damper windings if these are provided in the machine. The damper windings are
provided in most of the large synchronous motors in order to nullify the oscillations of the
rotor whenever the synchronous machine is subjected to a periodically varying load.

Motor Starting by reducing the supply Frequency

If the rotating magnetic field of the stator in a synchronous motor rotates at a low enough speed, there
will be no problem for the rotor to accelerate and to lock in with the stator’s magnetic field. The speed
of the stator magnetic field can then be increased to its rated operating speed by gradually increasing
the supply frequency ‘f’ up to its normal 50- or 60-Hz value.
But the usual power supply systems generally regulate the frequency to be 50 or 60 Hz as the case
may be. However, variable-frequency voltage source can be obtained from a dedicated generator only
in the olden days and such a situation was obviously impractical except for very unusual or special
drive applications. But the present day solid state power converters offer an easy solution to this. We
now have the rectifier- inverter and cycloconverters, which can be used to convert a constant
frequency AC supply to a variable frequency AC supply. With the development of such modern solid-
state variable-frequency drive packages, it is thus possible to continuously control the frequency of
the supply connected to the synchronous motor all the way from a fraction of a hertz up to and even
above the normal rated frequency. If such a variable-frequency drive unit is included in a motor-
control circuit to achieve speed control, then starting the synchronous motor is very easy-simply
adjust the frequency to a very low value for starting, and then raise it up to the desired operating
frequency for normal running.
When a synchronous motor is operated at a speed lower than the rated speed, its internal generated
voltage (usually called the counter EMF) EA = K𝜑𝜔 will be smaller than normal. As such the terminal
voltage applied to the motor must be reduced proportionally with the frequency in order to keep the
stator current within the rated value. Generally, the voltage in any variable-frequency power supply
varies roughly linearly with the output frequency.

Motor Starting with an External Motor

The second method of starting a synchronous motor is to attach an external starting motor (pony
motor) to it and bring the synchronous machine to near about its rated speed (but not exactly equal to
it, as the synchronization process may fail to indicate the point of closure of the main switch
connecting the synchronous machine to the supply system) with the pony motor. Then the output of
the synchronous machine can be synchronised or paralleled with its power supply system as a
EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla
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generator, and the pony motor can be detached from the shaft of the machine or the supply to the
pony motor can be disconnected. Once the pony motor is turned OFF, the shaft of the machine slows
down, the speed of the rotor magnetic field BR falls behind Bnet, momentarily and the synchronous
machine continues to operate as a motor. As soon as it begins to operate as a motor the synchronous
motor can be loaded in the usual manner just like any motor.
This whole procedure is not as cumbersome as it sounds, since many synchronous motors are parts
of motor-generator sets, and the synchronous machine in the motor-generator set may be started with
the other machine serving as the starting motor. Moreover, the starting motor is required to overcome
only the mechanical inertia of the synchronous machine without any mechanical load (load is attached
only after the synchronous machine is paralleled to the power supply system). Since only the motor’s
inertia must be overcome, the starting motor can have a much smaller rating than the synchronous
motor it is going to start.
Generally most of the large synchronous motors have brushless excitation systems mounted on their
shafts. It is then possible to use these exciters as the starting motors. For many medium-size to large
synchronous motors, an external starting motor or starting by using the exciter may be the only
possible solution, because the power systems they are tied to may not be able to handle the starting
currents needed to use the damper (amortisseur) winding.

Motor Starting by using damper (Amortisseur) Winding

As already mentioned earlier most of the large synchronous motors are provided with damper
windings, in order to nullify the oscillations of the rotor whenever the synchronous machine is
subjected to a periodically varying load. Damper windings are special bars laid into slots cut in the
pole face of a synchronous machine and then shorted out on each end by a large shorting ring, similar
to the squirrel cage rotor bars. A salient pole rotor with sets of damper windings is shown in Fig: 2.30
below.

Fig: 2.30

When the stator of such a synchronous machine is connected to the 3-Phase AC supply, the machine
starts as a 3-Phase induction machine due to the presence of the damper bars, just like a squirrel cage

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induction motor. Just as in the case of a 3-Phase squirrel cage induction motor, the applied voltage
must be suitably reduced so as to limit the starting current to the safe rated value. Once the motor
picks up to a speed near about its synchronous speed, the DC supply to its field winding is connected
and the synchronous motor pulls into step i.e. it continues to operate as a Synchronous motor running
at its synchronous speed.

2.18 Performance Characteristic

The effects of changes in mechanical or shaft load on armature current, power angle, and power factor
can be seen from the phasor diagram shown in Fig: 2.31; As the applied stator voltage, frequency,
and field excitation are assumed, constant. The initial load conditions, are represented by the thick
lines. The effect of increasing the shaft load to twice its initial value are represented by the light lines
indicating the new steady state conditions. When the shaft load is doubled both Ia cos φi and Ef sin δ
are doubled. While redrawing the phasor diagrams to show new steady-state conditions, the line of
action of the new jIaXs phasor must be perpendicular to the new Ia phasor. Furthermore, as shown in
Fig: 2.31, if the excitation is not changed, increasing the shaft load causes the locus of the Ef phasor
to follow a circular arc, thereby increasing its phase angle with increasing shaft load. Note also that
an increase in shaft load is also accompanied by a decrease in φi ; resulting in an increase in power
factor.
As additional load is placed on the machine, the rotor continues to increase its angle of lag relative to
the rotating magnetic field, thereby increasing both the angle of lag of the counter EMF phasor and
the magnitude of the stator current. It is interesting to note that during all this load variation, however,
except for the duration of transient conditions whereby the rotor assumes a new position in relation
to the rotating magnetic field, the average speed of the machine does not change. As the load is being
increased, a final point is reached at which a further increase in δ fails to cause a corresponding
increase in motor torque, and the rotor pulls out of synchronism. In fact as stated earlier, the rotor
poles at this point, will fall behind the stator poles such that they now come under the influence of
like poles and the force of attraction no longer exists. Thus, the point of maximum torque occurs at a
power angle of approximately 90◦ for a cylindrical-rotor machine. This maximum value of torque
that causes a synchronous motor to pull out of synchronism is called the pull-out torque. In actual
practice, the motor will never be operated at power angles close to 90◦ as armature current will be
many times its rated value at this load.

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Fig: 2.31

Effect of changes in field excitation on synchronous motor performance

As increasing the strength of the magnets will increase the magnetic attraction, and thereby cause the
rotor magnets to have a closer alignment with the corresponding opposite poles of the rotating
magnetic poles of the stator. This will obviously result in a smaller power angle. When the shaft load
is assumed to be constant, the steady-state value of Ef sin δ must also be constant. An increase in Ef
will cause a transient increase in Ef sin δ, and the rotor will accelerate. As the rotor changes its angular
position, δ decreases until Ef sin δ has the same steady-state value as before, at which time the rotor
is again operating at synchronous speed, as it should run only at the synchronous speed. This change
in angular position of the rotor magnets relative to the poles of rotating magnetic field of the stator
occurs in a fraction of a second. The effect of changes in field excitation on armature current, power
angle, and power factor of a synchronous motor operating with a constant shaft load, from a constant
voltage, constant frequency supply, is illustrated in Fig: 2.32. For a constant shaft load,

This is shown in Fig. 57, where the locus of the tip of the Ef phasor is a straight line parallel to the
VT phasor. Similarly, for a constant shaft load,

This is also shown in Fig. 57, where the locus of the tip of the Ia phasor is a line perpendicular to the
VT phasor.

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 Lecture Notes–Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 72

Fig: 2.32

Note that increasing the excitation from Ef1 to Ef3 in Fig: 2.32 caused the phase angle of the current
phasor with respect to the terminal voltage VT (and hence the power factor) to go from lagging to
leading. The value of field excitation that results in unity power factor is called normal excitation.
Excitation greater than normal is called over excitation, and excitation less than normal is called under
excitation. Furthermore, as indicated in Fig: 2.32, when operating in the overexcited mode, |Ef | >
|VT |. In fact a synchronous motor operating under over excitation condition is sometimes called a
synchronous condenser.

Power Factor Characteristic of Synchronous Motors

In an induction motor, only one winding (i.e., stator winding) produces the necessary flux in the
machine. The stator winding must draw reactive power from the supply to set up the flux.
Consequently, induction motor must operate at lagging power factor. But in a synchronous motor,
there are two possible sources of excitation; alternating current in the stator or direct current in the
rotor. The required flux may be produced either by stator or rotor or both.
(i) If the rotor exciting current is of such magnitude that it produces all the required flux, then no
magnetizing current or reactive power is needed in the stator. As a result, the motor will operate at
unity power factor.
(ii) If the rotor exciting current is less (i.e., motor is under-excited), the deficit in flux is made up by
the stator. Consequently, the motor draws reactive power to provide for the remaining flux. Hence
motor will operate at a lagging power factor.
(iii) If the rotor exciting current is greater (i.e., motor is over-excited), the excess flux must be
counterbalanced in the stator. Now the stator, instead of absorbing reactive power, actually delivers
reactive power to the 3-phase line. The motor then behaves like a source of reactive power, as if it

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 Lecture Notes–Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 73

were a capacitor. In other words, the motor operates at a leading power factor.
To sum up, a synchronous motor absorbs reactive power when it is under excited and delivers reactive
power to source when it is over-excited.

2.19 Hunting and Damper Winding:

Hunting:

Sudden changes of load on synchronous motors may sometimes set up oscillations that are
superimposed upon the normal rotation, resulting in periodic variations of a very low frequency in
speed. This effect is known as hunting or phase-swinging. Occasionally, the trouble is aggravated by
the motor having a natural period of oscillation approximately equal to the hunting period. When the
synchronous motor phase-swings into the unstable region, the motor may fall out of synchronism.

Damper winding:

The tendency of hunting can be minimized by the use of a damper winding. Damper windings are
placed in the pole faces. No emfs are induced in the damper bars and no current flows in the damper
winding, which is not operative. Whenever any irregularity takes place in the speed of rotation,
however, the polar flux moves from side to side of the pole, this movement causing the flux to move
backwards and forwards across the damper bars. Emfs are induced in the damper bars forwards across
the damper winding. These tend to damp out the superimposed oscillatory motion by absorbing its
energy. The damper winding, thus, has no effect upon the normal average speed, it merely tends to
damp out the oscillations in the speed, acting as a kind of electrical flywheel. In the case of a three-
phase synchronous motor the stator currents set up a rotating mmf rotating at uniform speed and if
the rotor is rotating at uniform speed, no emfs are induced in the damper bars. Fig: 2.33 shows a
salient pole synchronous motor with damper winding.

Fig: 2.33

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 Lecture Notes–Electrical Machine-II P a g e | 74

2.20 Synchronous Induction Motor

In the applications where high starting torque and constant speed are desired then synchronous
induction motor can be used. It has the advantages of both synchronous motor and induction motor.
The synchronous motor gives constant speed whereas induction motors can be started against full
load torque.
Consider a normal slip ring induction motor having three phase winding on the rotor .The motor is
connected to the exciter which gives D.C. supply to the rotor through slip rings. One phase carries
full D.C. current while the other two carries half the full D.C. current as they are connected in parallel.
Due to this D.C. excitation, permanent poles (N and S) formed on the rotor.
Initially it is run as a slip ring induction motor with the help of starting resistances. When the
resistances are cut out the motor runs with a slip. Now the connections are changed and the exciter is
connected in series with the rotor windings which will remain in the circuit permanently.
As the motor is running as induction motor initially high starting torque (up to twice full load value)
can be developed. When the D.C. excitation is provided it is pulled into synchronism and starts
running at constant speed. Thus synchronous induction motor provides constant speed, large starting
torque, low starting current and power factor correction.

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Acknowledgement

The committee members gratefully acknowledge google, scribd, NPTEL, openoffice, sumatra pdf,
scilab for myriad suggestions and help for preparing this lecture note. The committee members also
wants to express their gratitude to the persons out there who think knowledge should be free and be
accessible and sharable without any restrictions so that every single person on this planet has the same
opportunity to explore, expand and become enlightened by the collective gifts of humankind.

However apart from this lecture note students/readers are strongly recommended to follow the below
mentioned books and above all confer with the concern faculty for thorough knowledge of this
authoritative subject of electrical engineering.

Text / Reference Books

1. Electrical Machinery [7th Ed.] 8. Electric Machinery and Transformers [2nd Ed.]
by P. S. Bimbhra by Irving Kosow
Publisher- Khanna Publisher Publisher- Pearson India

2. Generalized Theory of Electrical Machines [2nd Ed.] 9. Analysis of Electric Machine [2nd Ed.]
by P.S. Bimbhra by Kraus, P.C.
Publisher- Khanna Publisher Publisher- McGraw Hill Education (India) Private
Limited
3. The Performance and Design of Alternating Current
Machines [3rd Ed.] by M. G. Say 10. A Course in Electrical Engineering Vol.-I & Vol.-II
Publisher- CBS Publisher by Chester L. Dawes, S. B.
Publisher- McGraw Hill Book Company Inc.
4. Electric Machinery [6th Ed.]
by A. E. Fitzgerald, Stephen D. Umans, Charles Kingsley 11. Principles of Alternating-Current Machinery
Jr. [4th Ed.]
Publisher- McGraw Hill Education (India) Private by R R Lawrence & H.E Richards
Limited Publisher- McGraw Hill Book Company Inc.

5. Electric Machinery Fundamentals [5th Ed.] 12. Electrical Machines [2nd Ed.]
by Stephen J. Chapman by P. K. Mukherjee & S. Chakravorty
Publisher- McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Publisher- Dhanpat Rai Publications
Limited
13. Electrical Machines [4th Ed.]
6. Theory of Alternating Current Machinery [2nd Ed.] by I.J Nagrath & D.P Kothari
by Alexander S Langsdorf Publisher- McGraw Hill Education (India) Private
Publisher- McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
Limited
7. Alternating- Current Machines [3rd Ed.] 14. Problems in Electrical Engineering [9th Ed.]
by T.C. Lloyd and A.G. Conrad Puchstein A.F. by N. N. Parker Smith
Publisher- John Wiley & Sons Publisher- CBS Publisher

Wish you all the best

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla