APPL601

 Planning  and  programming  in  TESOL  

Topic  2  English  language  learning  and  teaching:  A  critical  perspective  
 
Introduction  
In   this   lecture   we   are   going   to   continue   exploring   the   contexts   of   TESOL,   but  
will  take  a  global  perspective.  We  have  a  look  at  various  English  speaker  groups  
in  the  world  and  the  place  of  English  among  other  languages  in  the  world.  In  light  
of  this,  we  assess  the  role  of  English  and  touch  upon  concepts  such  as  ‘linguistic  
imperialism’   and   ‘World   Englishes’,   to   mention   a   couple.   Then,   we   try   to   apply  
this   to   our   context   of   language   teaching   and   answer   the   question   “Why   be  
critical?”   so   we   look   at   what   linguistic   imperialism   is.   Next,   culture   in   the  
classroom  is  the  topic  we  consider  in  more  detail:  first  with  a  focus  on  teaching  
materials,  then  with  regard  to  the  various  backgrounds  our  students  may  have.  
Overview:  
• The context of TESOL – a global perspective
• Linguistic Imperialism
• World Englishes, English as a Lingua Franca
• Culture in the classroom: students, teachers and language learning resources
• Cultures in the classroom
 
The  contexts  of  TESOL  
Let’s   take   a   more   global   perspective   this   time   and   look   at   English   as   used   by  
various  speakers  and  with  relation  to  other  languages.      
Can  you  guess  the  answer  to  the  questions  below?  
1)   What   do   you   think   is   the   percentage   of   human   interactions   that   are   English  
Native  Speaker  to  English  Native  Speaker?  ____%  
2)  What  about  Non-­‐Native  English  Speaker  to  Non-­‐Native  English  Speaker?  ____%  

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The  chart  above  shows   that  it  is  only  about  4%  of  global  interaction  (in  English)  
takes   place   between   native   speakers   of   English;   whereas,   74%   takes   place  
between  non-­‐native  speakers.  This  ties  up  well  with  what  we  mentioned  in  the  
first   week   regarding   English   language   as   not   ‘owned’   by   certain   countries   or  
speakers  of  a  certain  variety.  At  least,  this  is  what  the  numbers  show.  
The   next   diagram   shows   the   number   of   speakers:   native   speakers   being   375  
million,   L2   speakers   the   same   amount,   and   EFL   speakers   the   biggest   number,  
750  million.  It  also  shows  us  possible  language  shifts  with  the  emphasis  being  on  
more   and   more   people   in   the   world   becoming   L2   speakers   of   English.  
Consequently,  English  is  gaining  more  significance  and  power  as  a  language.  

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What   is   happening   to   other   languages   in   the   world?   Well,   parallel   to   this  
tendency,   the   number   of   languages   is   decreasing   rapidly,   In   fact   as   the   graph  
shows   below,   by   2200   the   number   of   languages   in   the   world   is   likely   to   fall  
below  1000.  
 

 
There   are   about   6-­‐7000   languages   in   the   world   today   (the   actual   number  
depends  on  what  we  consider  a  language)  and  a  great  proportion  of  them  can  be  
found   in   the   Asia-­‐Pacific   region   (50%)   and   in   Africa   (31%),   the   Americas  
accounts  for  15%  and  Europe  merely  4%.  
But  what  is  the  most  widely  spoken  language  in  the  world?  And  what  are  the  top  
8  languages?  

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The   line   graph   above   the   8   most   widely   spoken   languages   and   their   estimated  
number   of   speakers   in   the   future,   and   again   we   can   see   that   English   is   gaining   in  
numbers  too.  
When   we   look   at   all   the   languages   in   the   world   though,   the   trend   is   a   more  
negative  one.  Chrystal  (2000)  states  that  4%  of  the  world’s  languages  are  spoken  
by  96%  of  the  population,  which  also  means  that  96%  of  the  world’s  languages  
are  spoken  by  a  mere  4%  of  the  population.  
However,   the   above   data   only   talks   about   L1   speakers   and   does   not   go   into  
details   about   bilinguals   (L2   speakers   and   EFL   speakers   included).   So   we   can  
assume  that  the  popularity  of  English  as  a  lingua  franca  in  communication  will  be  
even   higher   while   people   shift   towards   becoming   L2   and   L1   speakers   (as   the  
graph   shows   below   too)   and   other   languages   are   disappearing   from   the   world.    
Think  about  specific  contexts  here,  like  India  where  English  is  already  a  second  
or   first   language   in   many   areas   or   social   groups   and   think   about   the   rapid  
growth  of  the  population  in  this  country.    

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All   in   all,   the   above   statistics   show   that   English   is   shifting   towards   L2   and   EFL  
use  in  numbers  and  what  it  means  for  its  function,  is  that  it  will  be  used  less  for  
specific   purposes   and   more   for   general   activities   (if   you   also   consider   that   it  
seeps  into  more  and  more  domains  of  our  lives).  
This  means  that  the  focus  will  be  more  on  World  Englishes,  that  is  English  not  
owned   by   a   certain   cultural   group   or   geographical   area,   and   it   is   increasingly  
used  for  intercultural  interaction.  People  from  different  cultural,  linguistic,  and  
geographical   backgrounds   interact   in   English,   so   English   is   seen   as   a   medium   for  
intercultural  communication.    
It   is   important,   therefore,   to   think   about   English   in   this   way   in   our   context   in  
Australia   as   well:   that   it   is   not   a   standard   Australian   variety   of   English   that  
migrants   to   Australia   need   to   learn   to   communicate   with   native   speakers,   but  
look   at   the   country   as   a   multicultural   domain   where   L2   speakers   from   various  
backgrounds  interact  with  each  other  and  with  L1  speakers.  
We  need  to  also  think  about  the  history  of  English  as  a  colonial  language  and  
how  some  countries  that  were  colonized  by  the  British  in  the  past  have  created  
their   own   varieties   of   English,   such   as   Singlish   in   Singapore.   These   varieties  
appeared   due   to   language   contact   and   have   become   just   as   legitimate   as   any  
other  variety  of  English.  
Linguistic  imperialism  
Linguistic   imperialism   is   a   phenomenon   that   is   unfortunately   still   present   in  
the  attitudes  of  many  native  speaker  TESOL  professionals,  and  many  non-­‐native  
speakers   and   language   learners   unfortunately   still   hold   up   the   ideas  
underpinning   it.   Linguistic   imperialism   is   based   on   modernization   theory,   which  
holds   that   underdeveloped   countries   are   underdeveloped   because   of   their  
traditional   structure,   which   limits   economic   development   and   prosperity,   and  
Western  societies  provide  the  most  effective  model  for  them.  For  this,  English  is  
a  useful  tool.  Consequently,  the  relationship  between  developed  and  developing  
countries  is  one  of  inequality  and  exploitation  and  English  serves  as  an  aid  in  
this  exploitation.  In  Phillipson’s  (1992)  words  English  linguistic  imperialism  is    

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“the   dominance   of   English   [as]   asserted   and   maintained   by   the   establishment  
and   continuous   reconstitution   of   structural   and   cultural   inequalities   between  
English  and  other  languages”  (1992,  p  47)    
But   why   is   this   important   to   us?   Firstly,   hopefully   no   teacher   looks   at   teaching  
English   to   speakers   of   other   languages   as   a   way   of   ‘saving   them’   any   more.  
Secondly,   as   I   have   mentioned   earlier,   some   teachers   and   learners   still   hold   up  
this  perspective  of  the  native  speaker  as  the  ultimate  source  of  knowledge.  Many  
colleges  around  the  world  still  employ  only  native-­‐speaker  teachers  coming  from  
certain   countries   and,   sadly,   some   students   may   give   more   credit   to   these  
individuals  too.  Quite  often,  teachers  say  “Well,  I’m  the  native  speaker,  I  know  it  
better”.  It  is  thus  essential  that  as  professionals  we  do  not  encourage  these  
ideas   and   behaviours,   but   try   to   create   an   atmosphere   of   equality   both   in  
our  classrooms  and  staff  rooms.  As  we  have  seen  above,  L2  and  EFL  speakers  
are  in  majority  and  English  is  used  as  a  lingua  franca,  so  all  varieties  need  to  get  
equal  credit.      
Culture  in  the  classroom  
As   we   could   see,   there   has   been   a   shift   in   perspective   towards   English   as   an  
International   Language   and   in   its   function   towards   intercultural   communication.  
So  what  is  the  role  of  culture  in  teaching  materials?  According  to  McKay  (2002  
Learning   of   culture   is   not   just   providing   and   acquiring   information,   but  
reflecting  on  one’s  own  culture  with  relation  to  the  target  one  and  to  recognize  
variation  within  one  given  culture.  This  means  that  learners  need  to  realize  that  
not   all   groups   within   a   certain   culture   are   alike.   Like   this   learners   learn   not   to  
take  things  for  granted:    to  not  assume  that  one  practice  has  the  same  meaning  in  
another  culture.    
Secondly,   culture   is   inherent   in   language:   semantics,   or   some   elements   of  
language   are   inherent   e.g.   writing   an   academic   report   has   conventions  
(objectivity,   use   of   abstract   nouns).   On   the   level   of   words,   however,   some  
vocabulary   items   can   be   ‘local’   or   characteristic   to   a   certain   geographical   area  
e.g.  thongs  or  to  a  bigger  region  e.g.  idioms  that  are  related  to  Western  culture,  
like  ‘Pandora’s  box’,  but  in  a  sense  more  international.  There  is  a  continuum  of  
‘locality’  and  thus  it  is  quite  difficult  to  separate  language  from  culture.  
Finally,   the   inclusion   of   cultural   content   in   language   lessons   can   also   be  
motivating  to  some  students.  The  ultimate  goal  is  not  to  make  students  accept  
cultural  practices  or  make  them  agree  with  them  but  rather  to  be  aware  of  them.  
The   next   question   is:   whose   culture   should   be   represented?   Is   it   the   learner’s  
own   culture   (source   culture   materials),   the   culture   of   a   country   in   which  
English   is   used   as   an   L1   (target   culture   materials),   or   perhaps   a   variety   of  
cultures  around  the  world  (international  target  culture  materials)?  

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If   materials   are   from   the   target   culture   (see   diagram   above):   McKay   (2002)  
differentiated  between  contexts  in  which  the  students  are  from  a  source  culture  
(say   Japanese),   the   teacher   is   either   from   the   source   culture   too   (Japanese)   or  
from  the  target  culture  (say  Australian),  and  the  textbook  covers  target  culture  
materials   (say   an   Australian   barbecue   on   the   beach   as   a   scenario).   In   this   case  
some   content   may   be   irrelevant   for   students   or   inappropriate.   McKay   (2002)  
gives  the  example  of  a  garage  sale  as  an  activity  for  students  from  a  culture  that  
does  not  have  garage  sales  or  even  find  certain  aspects  of  it  unacceptable  (buying  
second-­‐hand  items,  selling  things  on  the  street  etc.)  Another  example  he  gives  is  
materials   covering   various   historical   events   in   the   US   asking   students   to   put  
them   in   order.   McKay   suggests   replacing   these   with   local   equivalents   so   that  
students  can  reflect  on  their  own  culture.  

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If  materials  are  from  the  source  culture  (see  diagram  above):  if  students,  book  
and   teacher   are   all   from   the   source   culture,   teachers   could   use   this   to   get  
students   to   learn   about   a   cultural   event   from   their   own   culture   but   draw  
attention   to   individual   differences   e.g.   Children’s   Day   Festival   in   Japan   asking  
students  to  reflect  on  what  it  means  to  them.  The  teacher  could  also  encourage  
them  to  explain  these  things  to  a  foreigner  (to  see  it  from  a  foreigner’s  eyes).  If  
teacher  is  from  a  target  culture,  they  can  become  the  interested  listener.  

 
If  materials  are  cover  international  target  culture:  an  advantage  is  that  it  could  
illustrate  the  many  contexts  that  English  is  used  in  in  international  contexts  e.g.  
bilinguals   talking.   Also   good   to   illustrate   cross-­‐cultural   pragmatics   when   English  
users   draw   on   their   own   rules   of   appropriateness   e.g.   there’s   a  
misunderstanding  due  to  different  norms  of  greetings  in  different  cultures.  The  
important  thing  is  that  it  needs  to  be  relevant,  and  chosen  carefully.    
In   approaching   cultural   content   we   need   to   ask   ourselves:   what   ways   might   it  
appear   unusual   to   people   from   other   cultures?   For   example,   a   possible   way   to  
tackle  the  garage  sales  activity  is  to  get  students  to  reflect  on  their  own  culture.  
Why   aren’t   garage   sales   popular   in   their   culture?   Who   gives   advice   to   whom?  
The   aim   is   also   to   make   students   understand   target   culture   better.   Useful  

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questions  to  consider  for  this  are:  1)  why  is  this  topic  written  about?  2)  how  is  
this  topic  written  about?  3)  what  other  ways  of  writing  about  the  topic  are  there?  
 
Cultures  in  the  classroom  
Cultures  are  complex  and  dynamic,  and  while  members  of  a  culture  share  certain  
characteristics,   there   is   an   internal   diversity   too.   It   is   then   very   important   to  
keep   in   mind   that   students   coming   from   a   certain   cultural   background   do  
not  think  and  behave  the  same  way.  Generalizations  about  a  group  a  students  
based   on   their   nationality   is   something   that   we   should   all   avoid   in   our  
classrooms.  
However,   it   becomes   salient   to   educate   ourselves   at   teachers   about   the   learning  
culture  of  our  students.  We  should  not  take  for  granted  that  our  students  share  
our   values   when   it   comes   to   learning.   For   example,   they   may   put   much   less  
weight  on  oral  communication  or  exploring  topics  by  discussion.  Similarly,  they  
may   have   different   rules   and   roles   for   linguistic   and   social   interaction,   e.g.   not  
challenging  what  an  older  person  says.  
 
The  above  are  all  very  relevant  issues  for  English  language  teachers  and    
 
References  
Cortazzi,   M.,   &   Jin,   L.   (2013).   Researching   cultures   of   learning:   International  
perspectives   on   language   learning   and   education.   London:   Palgrave  
Macmillan  
Crystal,  D  (2000)  Language  Death.  Cambridge  University  Press.  
McKay,   S.   (2002)   'Culture   in   teaching   English   as   an   international   language',  
Teaching   English   as   an   International   Language:   Rethinking   Goals   and  
Approaches,  Oxford  University  Press,  Oxford:  81-­‐101.  
Phillipson,  R  (1992)  Linguistic  Imperialism,  Oxford  University  Press.  
 
 
 
 

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