CE 325 Design of Structures

July- November 2023

Chapter 3: Design Concepts

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 Design goals

• Strength • Serviceability
– Collapse due to – Deflection
yield, buckling – Vibration
– Stability against – Crack width
overturning or sway – Visual discomfort
– Fatigue fracture

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Strength limit state: Beams

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Strength limit state: column

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 Serviceability

Source: Wikipedia, Structuremag 5

 Partial Safety Factors
• Factors which can be applied to the individual input
variables in a design equation to give the given target
reliability without having to carry out the probabilistic
calculations

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 S < Rn S > Rn

R < Sn R > Sn
Probability
density
(frequency of Load Resistance
occurrence)

Rn Sn Value

Rn : Characteristic resistance
Sn : Characteristic load

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We first need to define characteristic load (Sn) and characteristic
resistance/strength(Rn).
The failure regions can be visualized fixing one of the parameters:
i) R < Sn (resistance is smaller than the characteristic load)
ii) S > Rn (load is greater than characteristic strength)
Once the characteristic loads and strengths are fixed, then the
failure region on the probability density curve corresponds to the
area between the values of Sn and Rn

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 Sn

P ( S < Sn ) =
∫ P(S )
0
∞
P ( R > Rn ) =
∫ P ( R)
Rn

∞
S 
Probability of failure = P (R < S) = ∫ P ( S ) ∫ P ( R < S ) dR dS
0 0 

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Factored design load γs Design strength (0.447fck)

Characteristic load Characteristic strength

(eg. 90th percentile load) (eg. 95th percentile load=0.67 fck)

Load distribution Strength distribution

γs γc

Mr

Loads Strengths

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 Design philosophies
Working stress method (WSM) Limit state method (LSM)
• Stresses in a structural member is obtained • Stresses are obtained from factored design
at working load and compared against loads and compared against design strength of
allowable stresses. Allowable stress = the structural member.
(characteristic concrete cube strength/steel
yield strength/Factor of safety).
• It considers the nonlinear (e.g., elasto-plastic)
• Follows the linear elastic theory of materials behavior of materials.
(e.g, concrete, steel). The allowable stress is
linear elastic.

• Stresses in structural members are • Structural members are designed to sustain the
considered at working loads without any ultimate loads at failure (ultimate loads = load
considerations for the conditions at the factors x working load) different load factors are
instance of failure. used for safety and serviceability limit states

• Design criteria: • Design criteria:

– Strength safety factors x Resistance > load
– Load carrying capacity > working load combinations of load factor x working load
– Stresses in materials < permissible stress – ∅𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 ≥ 𝛾𝛾1 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛1 + 𝛾𝛾2 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛2 + ⋯

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 Limit state method
• Considers a more realistic scenario of
loading and failure

• Includes uncertainty in loads and

materials properties

• Economical design than WSM

• Current concrete (IS456) and steel

code (IS800) use LSM
– WSM can be used when LSM is not
available Figure: Uncertainly in the properties of concrete
Pillai and Menon (2009)

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 Limit state method
• Design resistance (∅𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 ) ≥ design load effect (𝛾𝛾𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 )
– where 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 and 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 are nominal or characteristic values of
resistance R and load effect S; ∅ and 𝛾𝛾 denote the resistance
factor and load factor, respectively. These factors account for
the uncertainly in material properties and loads on a structure

• Class exercise
– Arrange the resistance factors (∅) for these materials in
ascending order
• Concrete, steel, masonry, aluminium

– Arrange the load factors (𝛾𝛾) for the following loads in ascending
order
• Dead load, live load, earthquake load, wind load, snow load

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 Limit states
• A limit state is the state beyond which a structure fails to
perform its intended purpose, in terms of either safety or
serviceability

• Safety (Strength) limit state

– Deals with strength, overturning, sliding, buckling, fatigue
fracture etc.

• Serviceability limit states

– Related to discomfort to occupants of a structure due to
excessive deflection, crack width, vibration, leakage etc.
– Would you live in a building that has a sagging beam, or has
crack in the roof, or excessive vibration due to external sources?

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DESIGN LOADS AND
COMBINATIONS

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 Dead loads (DL)
• Dead loads (DL) on structures consists of self weight of various
structural member and weights of object that are permanently
attached to the structure (e.g., beams, columns, slabs, walls,
windows, electrical fixtures, plumbing).
• Can reliably be estimate from density of materials.
• Unit weight and densities
– Unit weight of concrete (plain): 24 kN/m3
– Unit weight of concrete (reinforced): 25 kN/m3
– Density of steel: 7850 kg/m3
• Average weight of buildings, includes
beam+columns+slabs+walls+others (approximation):
– Reinforced concrete: 5.4-6.2 kN/m2
– Steel framed buildings: 2.9-3.6 kN/m2
– Timber buildings: 1.9-2.4 kN/m2

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Dead loads, contd.

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 Live loads (LL)
• Live loads (LL) on are due to weights of objects
temporarily placed to a structure.
• Live load can include people, furniture,
vehicles and all other things that can be
moved throughout a structure.
• The design live load (LL) is estimated based on
worst case scenario (e.g., an overcrowded
auditorium due a celebrity performance!).
• A structure rarely realizes its design live load.

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 Live loads, contd.
Live loads on floors
Live loads on roofs

Horizontal live loads on parapets/balustrades

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 Other loads
• Earthquake (EQ) loads
• Wind loads
• Snow loads
• Impact loads
• Blast loads

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 Load combinations
• The uncertainty in the estimation of loads on a structure is considered
using partial load factors (e.g., 1.5DL).
• The values of the load factors are calculated assuming the worst case
scenario for a particular load.
• Total load on a structure is comprised of summation of different loads with
respective load factors.
• It is very unlikely that all loads will act simultaneously at their peak values.
For example, it is unlikely that the peak live load and peak earthquake load
will act at the same instance during the lifetime of a structure.
• Hence the load factors are reduced when two or more loads are acting
simultaneously.
• The simultaneous occurrence of these loads might counteract (e.g., dead
load and axial load due to EQ on a perimeter column of a frame).
• Hence different load combinations are used to arrive at the worst possible
scenario (max response) for each structural components.

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 Load combinations
• Load combination can be for strength limit states or
serviceability limit states;

• For example, IS456 prescribes following load combinations:

• Ultimate limit states:
– UL= 1.5(DL+LL)
– UL=1.5(DL+QL) or (0.9DL+1.5QL)
– UL=1.2(DL+LL+QL)

• Serviceability limit states

– SL=1.0(DL+LL)
– SL=1.0(DL+QL)
– SL=1.0DL+0.8LL+0.8QL

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DESIGN STRENGTH

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 Design stress-strain curve: Concrete
• Cube stress: fck
• Characteristic stress: 0.85×0.8×fck = 0.67 fck
• Design stress = 0.67fck/γc = 0.67 fck/1.5 = 0.447fck

• Flexural compression (Beams)

𝜀𝜀 𝜀𝜀 2
0.447𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 − for 𝜀𝜀 < 0.002
– 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 = � 0.002 0.002
0.447𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 for 𝜀𝜀 ≥ 0.002

• Uniform axial compression (short columns)

– Ultimate strain 0.002 corresponding to max design stress
of 0.447fck

Characteristic and Design Stress-

• Axial compression with flexure Strain Curves for Concrete in
– Ultimate strain is between 0.002 and 0.0035 depending on Flexural Compression
the location of neutral axis
– Max design stress is limited to 0.447fck

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 Design stress-strain curve: Fe250

• Well-defined yield fy characteristic curve

point
250

0.87 fy design curve

200

stress (MPa)
150

• Design yield stress =

Es = 2 × 105
fy/γs = fy/1.15 = 0.87fy
100

1
50

εy = (0.87fy/Es)
0

• Yield strain = 0.87fy/Es

0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008
strain

Characteristic and Design Stress-Strain

Curves for Fe 250 Grade Mild Steel

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 Design stress-strain curve: HYSD
• Partial safety factor for steel (γs) is only 500
applicable to inelastic region, unlike steel where characteristic curve
it is applicable to all stress levels fy
400 design curve
fyd = 0.87fy
• Design yield stress fyd = fy/γs = fy/1.15 = 0.87fy
300

stress (MPa)
• No distinct yield point
– Yielding starts to occur at 0.8fyd (zero inelastic strain) 200
– Complete yielding corresponding to 0.2% proof strain Es = 2 × 105 MPa

The design yield stress corresponds to a value of

100
• εy = (0.87fy/Es) + 0.002
0.2% proof strain
– 0.002 + fyd/Es = 0.002 + 0.87fy/Es 0
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008

• So how do we calculate stress corresponding to a strain

strain of a partially yielded rebar (i.e., 0 < Characteristic and Design Stress-Strain Curves
inelastic strain < 0.002)? for Fe 415 Grade Cold-Worked Steel
 Design stress-strain of rebar: HYSD
• Design yield strength (fyd )
• 361 MPa for Fe415
500
• 435 MPa for Fe500
• Rebar stress fst corresponding to strain εst is needed characteristic curve
• fst = Es×εst if εst < 0.8fyd/Es 400
fy
design curve
• fst = fyd if εst > 0.002 + fyd/Es fyd = 0.87fy
• fst = Refer to Table 3.1 and 3.2 below for 0.8fyd/Es < εst < 0.002 + fyd/Es
300

stress (MPa)
200
Es = 2 × 105 MPa

100
εy = (0.87fy/Es) + 0.002

0
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008
strain

Fig. 3.7 Characteristic and Design Stress-Strain

Curves for Fe 415 Grade Cold-Worked Steel

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 Example 1
• Determine the tensile stress in the rebars (Fe415
Grade) of a reinforced concrete section if the strain
in the tension rebars of a RC section is:
• 0.00125
• 0.00275
• 0.00435

Ans:
est = 0.00125, fst = 0.00125×2×105 = 250 MPa
est = 0.00275, fst = 351.5 Mpa
est = 0.00435, fst = 361 MPa
 Example 2
• Consider an RC section of a beam
shown in the figure. Assume M25
grade concrete.
– Determine the maximum bending
stress (ignore the effect of rebars)
subject to a moment of 50 kN-m.
• (Ans: 2.77 Mpa)
– Would this section undergo
cracking under the given moment?
• (Ans: No, fcr = 0.7√fck = 3.5 Mpa > 2.77
Mpa)

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 Example 3
• The cantilevered beam shown in the Figure supports a uniformly distributed dead
load g= 20KN/m which includes the weight of beam and a uniformly distributed
live load q = 12KN/m. Determine the maximum positive and negative design
bending moment.

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 Example 3: Solution
• Dead load is permanent, but the live load placement may vary over the
two spans (AB and BC) to obtain worst load combination.

• Possible loading combinations

a) DL over ABC
b) DL over ABC + LL over ABC
c) DL over ABC + LL over AB
d) DL over ABC + LL over BC

• Negative moment would occur at point B, with load max load over span
BC, i.e., load case (b) or (d)
– w = 1.5(wDL+wLL) = 1.5 (20+12) kN/m = 48 kN
– Maximum negative moment = wL2/2 = 48×1.82/2 = 77.8 kN-m

• Maximum positive moment would occur in the span AB with maximum

load over AB, i.e., case (c)

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 Example 3: Solution
• Maximum positive moment would occur in the span AB with
maximum load over AB, i.e., case (c)
– w = 1.5(wDL+wLL) = 1.5 (20+12) kN/m = 48 kN over AB
– w = 1.5wDL= 1.5×20 kN/m = 30 kN

• Reaction at A can be obtained by taking moment about point B

– RA = (48×4.22/2-30×1.82/2)/4.2 = 89.2 kN
– Zero shear force occurs at 89.2/48 = 1.86 m from A
– Maximum bending moment = 89.2*1.86/2 = 82.9 kN-m

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