Module III

Explain Machine learning

Machine learning is a subfield of artificial intelligence (AI) that focuses on developing algorithms
and models that allow computers to learn and make predictions or decisions without being explicitly
programmed. It is a data-driven approach to solving complex problems and has applications in
various domains, including natural language processing, image recognition, recommendation
systems, and many more. Here are the key components and concepts of machine learning:

1. Data: Machine learning relies on large amounts of data. This data can come in various
forms, such as text, images, numerical values, or any other type of structured or unstructured
information.
2. Training data: Machine learning models are trained on historical data. This data includes
input features (also known as attributes or variables) and their corresponding output labels
(target or response variable). The model uses this training data to identify patterns and
relationships.
3. Features: Features are the variables or attributes in the data that the model uses to make
predictions. For example, in a spam email classifier, features could include the words in an
email and their frequency.
4. Model: The machine learning model is a mathematical representation of the relationship
between input features and the target variable. The model learns from the training data by
adjusting its internal parameters to minimize the difference between its predictions and the
actual labels.
5. Algorithms: Machine learning algorithms are the mathematical and statistical techniques that
the model uses to find patterns and make predictions. Common machine learning algorithms
include linear regression, decision trees, neural networks, support vector machines, and
many others.
6. Training: During the training process, the model iteratively adjusts its internal parameters
based on the training data to minimize the error between its predictions and the actual target
values. This process is often called optimization.
7. Testing and evaluation: After training, the model is tested on a separate dataset (test data) to
assess its performance. Various metrics, such as accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score,
are used to evaluate how well the model generalizes to new, unseen data.
8. Supervised vs. Unsupervised learning: In supervised learning, the model is trained on
labeled data, where the correct output is known. In unsupervised learning, the model is given
unlabeled data and must find patterns or structure within the data on its own.
9. Classification vs. Regression: Machine learning tasks can be categorized as classification or
regression. Classification involves predicting discrete classes or categories, such as spam or
not spam, while regression involves predicting continuous numerical values, like predicting
the price of a house.
10. Overfitting and underfitting: Models should strike a balance between fitting the
training data too closely (overfitting) and not fitting it well enough (underfitting). Overfit
 models perform poorly on new data, while underfit models lack the capacity to capture
complex relationships.
11. Hyperparameters: Hyperparameters are settings or configurations of the machine
learning model that are not learned from the data but need to be set before training.
Examples include learning rates, the number of hidden layers in a neural network, and the
maximum depth of a decision tree.

Discuss the types of machine learning-

1. Supervised Learning:

● In supervised learning, the algorithm is trained on a labelled dataset, which means

the input data is paired with the correct output or target.
● The goal is to learn a mapping from inputs to outputs so that the model can make
accurate predictions on new, unseen data.
● Common algorithms for supervised learning include linear regression, decision trees,
support vector machines, and neural networks.
2. Unsupervised Learning:

● Unsupervised learning deals with unlabeled data, where the algorithm is tasked with
finding hidden patterns, structure, or relationships within the data.
● Common tasks include clustering (grouping similar data points) and dimensionality
reduction (reducing the number of features while preserving important information).
● Examples of unsupervised learning algorithms include K-means clustering,
hierarchical clustering, and principal component analysis (PCA).
3. Semi-Supervised Learning:

● Semi-supervised learning combines elements of both supervised and unsupervised

learning. It uses a small amount of labelled data and a larger amount of unlabeled
data.
● The goal is to improve the model's performance by leveraging the labelled data while
benefiting from the inherent structure in the unlabeled data.
4. Reinforcement Learning:

● Reinforcement learning is about training agents to make sequences of decisions in an

environment to maximize a cumulative reward.
● Agents learn through trial and error, where they take actions and receive feedback in
the form of rewards or penalties.
● Reinforcement learning is used in applications like robotics, game playing, and
autonomous systems.
5. Self-Supervised Learning:

● Self-supervised learning is a form of unsupervised learning where the model

generates its own labels from the input data.
● It's often used in tasks such as pre training neural networks, where a model learns to
predict missing parts of the input data.
 6. Transfer Learning:

● Transfer learning involves taking a pre-trained model and fine-tuning it on a different

but related task.
● This approach can significantly reduce the amount of data and time needed for
7. Deep Learning:

● Deep learning is a subfield of machine learning that focuses on neural networks with
many layers (deep neural networks).
● It has been particularly successful in tasks like image recognition, natural language
processing, and reinforcement learning.

Supervised machine learning algorithm

Supervised machine learning is a type of machine learning where an algorithm learns from labeled
training data to make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed. In supervised
learning, the algorithm is provided with a dataset containing both input features and their
corresponding correct output labels. The goal is to learn a mapping from input to output, so when
presented with new, unseen data, the algorithm can make accurate predictions or classifications.
Here are some common supervised machine learning algorithms:

1. Linear Regression: Linear regression is used for predicting a continuous output variable
(target) based on one or more input features. It finds the best-fit linear relationship between
the features and the target variable.
2. Logistic Regression: Logistic regression is used for binary classification problems, where
the goal is to assign data points to one of two classes based on input features. It models the
probability of a data point belonging to a particular class.
3. Decision Trees: Decision trees are used for both classification and regression tasks. They
partition the feature space into segments to make predictions based on a sequence of binary
decisions.
4. Random Forest: Random Forest is an ensemble learning method that combines multiple
decision trees to improve the accuracy and robustness of predictions.
5. Support Vector Machines (SVM): SVM is used for both classification and regression. It
tries to find the hyperplane that best separates data points of different classes while
maximizing the margin between them.
6. K-Nearest Neighbors (K-NN): K-NN is used for classification and regression. It assigns a
class label or predicts a value based on the majority class or the average of the k-nearest data
points in the feature space.
7. Naive Bayes: Naive Bayes is commonly used for text classification and other problems
involving categorical data. It's based on Bayes' theorem and assumes that features are
conditionally independent.
 8. Neural Networks (Deep Learning): Deep learning methods, such as artificial neural
networks, are used for a wide range of tasks, including image and speech recognition,
natural language processing, and more. They consist of interconnected layers of neurons
(nodes) and are capable of learning complex, non-linear relationships.

Classification and regression

Classification and regression are two fundamental types of supervised machine learning tasks. They
involve predicting an output or label based on input data, but they serve different purposes and have
distinct characteristics:

1. Classification:

● Classification is a type of supervised learning task where the goal is to categorize

input data into predefined classes or categories.
● The output of a classification model is a discrete label or class, representing which
category the input belongs to.
● Common examples of classification tasks include spam email detection (categorizing
emails as spam or not), image classification (identifying objects or animals in
images), sentiment analysis (determining whether a text has a positive, negative, or
neutral sentiment), and disease diagnosis (categorizing patients as having a disease or
not).
2. Regression:

● Regression is also a supervised learning task, but it focuses on predicting a

continuous numerical value rather than a discrete class.
● The output of a regression model is a real-numbered value, which can be a price, a
temperature, a score, or any other continuous variable.
● Examples of regression tasks include predicting house prices based on various
features (square footage, location, etc.), forecasting stock prices, estimating the age
of a person based on demographic data, and predicting a patient's blood pressure
based on health metrics.

Unsupervised machine learning algorithms are a class of algorithms used to discover

patterns and structures within data without the need for labeled outputs or guidance. Unlike
supervised learning, where algorithms are trained on labeled data to make predictions,
unsupervised learning aims to uncover inherent structures and relationships within the data.
Here are some common unsupervised machine learning algorithms:

1. Clustering:

● K-Means: A popular clustering algorithm that divides data into 'K' clusters based on
the similarity of data points.
● Hierarchical Clustering: Builds a hierarchy of clusters by iteratively merging or
splitting data points.
2. Dimensionality Reduction:

● Principal Component Analysis (PCA): Reduces the dimensionality of data by

finding orthogonal axes (principal components) that capture the most variance.
 ● t-Distributed Stochastic Neighbor Embedding (t-SNE): Reduces dimensionality
while preserving pairwise similarities between data points.
3. Anomaly Detection:

● Isolation Forest: Identifies anomalies (outliers) by isolating them in a tree-based

structure.
● One-Class SVM: Trains a model on the 'normal' data and identifies anomalies as
data points that deviate from the learned distribution.
4. Density Estimation:

● Gaussian Mixture Models (GMM): Models data as a mixture of Gaussian

distributions, useful for modeling complex data with multiple clusters.
5. Association Rule Mining:

● Apriori Algorithm: Identifies frequent itemsets and association rules in

transactional databases, often used in market basket analysis.
6. Self-Organizing Maps (SOM): Neural network-based technique for dimensionality
reduction and clustering.
7. Non-negative Matrix Factorization (NMF): Decomposes data into non-negative
components, useful for feature extraction and topic modeling.
8. Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA): A generative probabilistic model for topic modeling in
text data.
9. Autoencoders: Neural network-based models used for dimensionality reduction and feature
learning.
10. Mean Shift: A clustering algorithm that automatically discovers cluster centers by
iteratively shifting points towards high-density regions.

Unsupervised learning is widely used in various applications, including data exploration, pattern
recognition, customer segmentation, and anomaly detection. The choice of algorithm depends on
the nature of the data and the specific problem you are trying to solve.

Clustering and associations

Clustering and association are two fundamental techniques in data analysis and machine learning.
They are often used to uncover patterns, relationships, and insights within data. Let's explore each
of these concepts:

1. Clustering:

● Clustering is a type of unsupervised learning technique that groups similar data

points together based on their inherent characteristics or features.
● The goal of clustering is to partition a dataset into subsets (clusters) in such a way
that data points within the same cluster are more similar to each other than to those in
other clusters.
● Common clustering algorithms include K-Means, Hierarchical Clustering,
DBSCAN, and Gaussian Mixture Models (GMM).
 ● Clustering can be applied to various domains, such as customer segmentation, image
segmentation, document clustering, and anomaly detection.
2. Association:

● Association analysis is a technique used to discover interesting relationships and

associations between variables in a dataset.
● The primary application of association analysis is to find patterns in transactional
data, such as market basket analysis in retail, where it identifies items that are
frequently purchased together.
● The most famous algorithm for association analysis is the Apriori algorithm, which
generates association rules by identifying itemsets that occur together frequently.
● Association rules consist of an antecedent (if part) and a consequent (then part). For
example, "If a customer buys product A, they are likely to buy product B."

Here are some key differences between clustering and association:

1. Supervision:

● Clustering is unsupervised, meaning it doesn't require labeled data, and it groups data
based on inherent similarities.
● Association analysis is also unsupervised, but it focuses on finding relationships
between variables, particularly in transactional data.
2. Output:

● Clustering produces clusters or groups of data points.

● Association analysis generates association rules that describe the relationships
between items or variables.
3. Use cases:

● Clustering is used for tasks like customer segmentation, anomaly detection, and
image segmentation.
● Association analysis is used for market basket analysis, recommendation systems,
and finding patterns in large transaction datasets.

In summary, clustering and association are valuable techniques in data analysis and machine
learning, each with its own distinct purpose and applications. Clustering helps find natural
groupings in data, while association analysis uncovers interesting relationships between variables or
items in transactional data. Both are essential for extracting valuable insights from different types of
datasets.

Linear regression is a statistical method used for modeling the relationship between a dependent
variable and one or more independent variables by fitting a linear equation to the observed data. It is
a fundamental and widely used technique in the field of statistics and machine learning. The
primary goal of linear regression is to find the best-fitting linear equation that describes the
relationship between variables.
In a simple linear regression, there is one dependent variable (the variable you want to predict or
explain) and one independent variable (the variable used to make predictions). The relationship is
represented by the following equation:
Y=aX+b
Where:

● Y is the dependent variable.

● X is the independent variable.
● a is the slope of the line, which represents the change in Y for a one-unit change in X.
● b is the intercept, which is the value of Y when X is 0.

The goal in simple linear regression is to estimate the values of a and b such that the line fits the
data points as closely as possible.
Multiple linear regression extends this concept to more than one independent variable, resulting in
an equation like this:
Y=a1X1+a2X2+…+anXn+b
Where:

● Y is the dependent variable.

● X1,X2,…,Xn are the independent variables.
● a1,a2,…,an are the coefficients (slopes) for each independent variable.
● b is the intercept.

The goal in multiple linear regression is to estimate the coefficients and intercept that best describe
the relationship between the dependent variable and all the independent variables.
Linear regression can be used for various purposes, including:

1. Prediction: It can be used to make predictions about the dependent variable based on the
values of the independent variables.
2. Inference: It helps in understanding the relationships between variables and can be used to
test hypotheses about those relationships.
3. Trend Analysis: Linear regression can be used to analyze trends over time, helping to
identify whether there is a positive or negative correlation between variables.

Linear regression has its assumptions, including the linearity of the relationship, independence of
errors, constant variance (homoscedasticity), and normally distributed errors. Violations of these
assumptions can affect the reliability of the model.
There are also variations of linear regression, such as Ridge regression and Lasso regression, which
are used to handle multicollinearity and prevent overfitting in cases of multiple linear regression.

KNN
K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN) is a supervised machine learning algorithm used for classification and
regression tasks. It is a simple and intuitive algorithm that can be used for both classification and
regression tasks.
In KNN, the "K" stands for the number of nearest neighbors to consider when making predictions.
Here's how the algorithm works:

1. Training: KNN doesn't have a traditional training phase. Instead, it stores the entire training
dataset in memory.
2. Prediction:

● For classification: Given a new data point, KNN identifies the K nearest data points
(neighbors) from the training dataset using a distance metric, such as Euclidean
distance. It then counts the class labels of these K neighbors and assigns the class
label that is most common among them to the new data point.
● For regression: Instead of class labels, KNN calculates the average (or weighted
average) of the target values of the K nearest neighbors and assigns this average as
the prediction for the new data point.

The choice of the value of K is crucial and can significantly impact the model's performance. A
smaller K (e.g., K=1) can make the model sensitive to noise and outliers, while a larger K can make
the model overly smooth and might not capture local patterns effectively.

K Means
K-means is a popular clustering algorithm used in machine learning and data analysis. It is a
partitioning method that divides a dataset into K distinct, non-overlapping subgroups or clusters.
The goal of K-means is to group data points that are similar to each other into the same cluster,
while keeping dissimilar data points in different clusters.
Here's how K-means works:

1. Initialization: Start by selecting K initial centroids. These centroids can be randomly chosen
from the data points or by some other method. The number of clusters (K) is typically
determined in advance by the user.
2. Assignment: Assign each data point to the nearest centroid. This is done by measuring the
distance (usually Euclidean distance) between each data point and all the centroids and
selecting the closest centroid as the cluster for that data point.
3. Update Centroids: Recalculate the centroids for each cluster by taking the mean of all data
points assigned to that cluster. The new centroid becomes the center of mass for all the data
points in the cluster.
4. Repeat: Steps 2 and 3 are repeated iteratively until convergence. Convergence occurs when
the centroids no longer change significantly, or when a specified number of iterations is
reached.
5. Result: The final result is a set of K cluster centroids and the assignment of data points to
these clusters.
K-means is widely used in various applications, including image segmentation, customer
segmentation, and document clustering, among others.
Regression is a statistical method used in data analysis to model the relationship between a
dependent variable (also known as the target or outcome) and one or more independent variables
(predictors or features). The primary goal of regression analysis is to understand how changes in the
independent variables are associated with changes in the dependent variable.
There are various types of regression techniques, and the choice of which one to use depends on the
nature of the data and the research question. Some common types of regression include:

1. Linear Regression: Linear regression is used when the relationship between the dependent
variable and independent variables can be approximated as a linear equation. There are two
main types of linear regression: simple linear regression (one independent variable) and
multiple linear regression (more than one independent variable).
2. Logistic Regression: Logistic regression is used when the dependent variable is binary (has
two classes, such as 0 or 1). It models the probability of an event occurring.
3. Polynomial Regression: Polynomial regression is an extension of linear regression that
models the relationship between the dependent and independent variables as an nth-degree
polynomial. It is used when the relationship is not strictly linear.
4. Ridge and Lasso Regression: These are regularization techniques used to prevent
overfitting in linear regression. Ridge regression adds a penalty term to the linear regression
equation, while Lasso regression adds a penalty term and can perform feature selection.
5. Support Vector Regression (SVR): SVR is a regression technique that uses support vector
machines to model the relationship between variables. It is particularly useful for data with
non-linear patterns.
6. Decision Tree Regression: Decision tree regression involves creating a decision tree to
predict the dependent variable based on the values of the independent variables.
7. Random Forest Regression: Random forest regression is an ensemble technique that
combines multiple decision trees to improve prediction accuracy and reduce overfitting.
8. Time Series Regression: Time series regression is used when the data involves time-
ordered observations. It accounts for temporal dependencies and trends in the data.

Regression analysis can be applied in various fields, including economics, finance, healthcare, and
social sciences, to make predictions, understand relationships between variables, and inform
decision-making. It's a fundamental tool in data analysis and machine learning for both explanatory
and predictive purposes.
Support Vector Machines (SVM)
Support Vector Machines (SVM) are a class of supervised machine learning algorithms used for
classification and regression analysis. They are powerful tools for both linear and non-linear data
classification and have found applications in various fields, including image classification, text
classification, and bioinformatics.
The main idea behind SVM is to find a hyperplane that best separates the data into different classes.
The hyperplane is chosen in such a way that it maximizes the margin between the classes. The
margin is the distance between the hyperplane and the nearest data points from each class, and the
hyperplane is positioned to minimize classification errors.
Here are some key concepts and components of SVM:

1. Hyperplane: In a two-dimensional space, a hyperplane is a straight line that separates the

data into two classes. In higher dimensions, it's a linear decision boundary.
2. Support Vectors: Support vectors are the data points that are closest to the hyperplane and
have the smallest margin. These data points play a crucial role in determining the position
and orientation of the hyperplane.
3. Margin: The margin is the distance between the hyperplane and the nearest support vectors.
SVM aims to maximize this margin, as a larger margin generally leads to better
generalization to new, unseen data.
4. Kernel Trick: SVMs can be extended to handle non-linear data by using a kernel function.
The kernel function allows the algorithm to map the original feature space into a higher-
dimensional space where the data becomes linearly separable. Common kernel functions
include the polynomial kernel and the radial basis function (RBF) kernel.
5. Regularization Parameter (C): The parameter "C" controls the trade-off between maximizing
the margin and minimizing classification errors. A smaller value of C allows for a wider
margin but may tolerate some misclassifications, while a larger value of C enforces a
narrower margin and may result in fewer misclassifications.

SVM can be used for both binary classification (dividing data into two classes) and multi-class
classification (dividing data into more than two classes). Additionally, SVMs are robust against
overfitting and perform well in high-dimensional spaces.
Data preprocessing
Data preprocessing is an essential step in preparing your data for machine learning or data analysis
tasks. NumPy is a powerful Python library for numerical computations, and it can be used to
perform various data preprocessing tasks. Below, outline some common data preprocessing
techniques using NumPy:

1. Import NumPy: Before you start, make sure you have NumPy installed and imported in your
Python script or Jupyter Notebook:

python
import numpy as np

2. Data Loading: First, you need to load your data into a NumPy array. You can use functions
like np.genfromtxt() or np.loadtxt() to load data from text files or use pandas to read data
from different formats.
3. Handling Missing Data: Missing data is common in real-world datasets. You can use
NumPy to handle missing values by replacing them with a specific value (e.g., mean,
 median, or a constant) using functions like np.nan_to_num(), np.nanmean(), or
np.nanmedian().
4. Scaling and Normalization: Standardize your data by scaling it to have zero mean and unit
variance, which is crucial for many machine learning algorithms. You can use NumPy to
perform scaling and normalization:
python
from sklearn.preprocessing import StandardScaler

scaler = StandardScaler()
scaled_data = scaler.fit_transform(your_data)

5. Data Transformation: NumPy can be used to perform various data transformations like log
transformations, square root transformations, or any other custom function you might need.
6. Encoding Categorical Variables: If your dataset contains categorical variables, you may
need to one-hot encode them using techniques like np.eye() or use libraries like scikit-learn's
OneHotEncoder.
7. Splitting Data: You can use NumPy to split your data into training, validation, and test sets
by selecting random or stratified subsets of your data using techniques like
np.random.permutation() or np.split().
8. Removing Outliers: Identify and remove outliers using NumPy by defining thresholds or
statistical methods. You can use functions like np.percentile() to detect outliers and then
filter the data accordingly.
9. Reshaping Data: Sometimes, you may need to reshape your data to fit a specific model's
input requirements. NumPy provides various functions for reshaping, such as np.reshape()
or np.transpose().
10. Feature Engineering: Create new features or modify existing ones to improve the
performance of your machine learning models. NumPy allows you to perform element-wise
operations on arrays to engineer new features.
11. Dimensionality Reduction: Use NumPy for principal component analysis (PCA) or
other dimensionality reduction techniques to reduce the number of features in your dataset.
12. Data Splitting: Split your data into training, validation, and test sets using techniques
like np.split() or np.random.choice().

Binarization - Mean Removal, Scaling, Normalization

Binarization, mean removal, scaling, and normalization are common data preprocessing techniques
used in various fields, including image processing and machine learning, to prepare data for
analysis or model training. Here's an overview of each technique:

1. Binarization: Binarization is the process of converting data or images into a binary format,
typically consisting of 0s and 1s. It is often used to simplify data or segment images. In the
context of images, binarization can be applied to convert grayscale images into black and
white (binary) images by setting a threshold value. Pixels with intensity values below the
 threshold are set to 0, while those above the threshold are set to 1. Binarization is often used
in tasks such as image segmentation and OCR (Optical Character Recognition).
2. Mean Removal (Centering): Mean removal, also known as centering, involves subtracting
the mean (average) value of a dataset from each data point. This process shifts the data
distribution to have a mean of zero.
3. Scaling: Scaling involves adjusting the range of values in a dataset, so they fall within a
specific range or have a consistent scale. There are two common scaling methods:

a. Min-Max Scaling: This scales the data to a specified range, often between 0 and 1. It
involves subtracting the minimum value from each data point and then dividing by the range
(maximum - minimum). This method is suitable when you want to preserve the relationships
between data points and maintain interpretability.
b. Standardization (Z-score normalization): This scales the data to have a mean of 0 and a
standard deviation of 1. It involves subtracting the mean and dividing by the standard
deviation for each data point. Standardization is useful when the data needs to be on a
consistent scale, and it is commonly used in many machine learning algorithms.

4. Normalization: Normalization is a broader term and can refer to various techniques used to
rescale data so that it falls within a specific range or follows a particular distribution. It can
include both binarization and scaling, as well as other techniques. In the context of machine
learning, it is often used to preprocess data to ensure that all features contribute equally to
the learning process and that no feature dominates due to differences in scale or units.

Building a classifier in Python

Building a classifier in Python typically involves several steps, and the specific steps may vary
depending on the type of classifier you want to build (e.g., decision trees, support vector machines,
neural networks, etc.). In this example, discuss the steps for building a simple binary classifier using
the scikit-learn library, one of the most popular machine learning libraries in Python. Here create a
basic decision tree classifier for illustration.

1. Import Required Libraries:

First, you need to import the necessary libraries. In this example, we'll use scikit-learn,
NumPy, and pandas.
python
import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
from sklearn.tree import DecisionTreeClassifier
from sklearn.metrics import accuracy_score, classification_report, confusion_matrix

2. Data Preparation:

Prepare your dataset. You should have a dataset with labelled examples (features and target
values). For this example, let's assume you have a CSV file called data.csv.
python
 data = pd.read_csv('data.csv')
X = data.drop('target', axis=1) # Features
y = data['target'] # Target variable

3. Split the Data:

Split your dataset into a training set and a testing set to evaluate the model's performance. A
common split is 80% for training and 20% for testing.
python
X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, y, test_size=0.2, random_state=42)

4. Build and Train the Classifier:

Create an instance of the classifier and train it using the training data.
python
clf = DecisionTreeClassifier()
clf.fit(X_train, y_train)

5. Make Predictions:

Use the trained classifier to make predictions on the test data.

python
y_pred = clf.predict(X_test)

6. Evaluate the Model:

Evaluate the model's performance using various metrics. Here, we'll calculate accuracy,
generate a classification report, and create a confusion matrix.
python
accuracy = accuracy_score(y_test, y_pred)
report = classification_report(y_test, y_pred)
matrix = confusion_matrix(y_test, y_pred)

print("Accuracy:", accuracy)
print("Classification Report:\n", report)
print("Confusion Matrix:\n", matrix)

7. Fine-Tune the Model (Optional):

Depending on the results, you may want to fine-tune your model by adjusting
hyperparameters or trying different algorithms.

8. Use the Trained Model for Predictions:

Once you are satisfied with the model's performance, you can use it to make predictions on
new, unseen data.
python
new_data = np.array([[...], [...]]) # Replace with your new data
prediction = clf.predict(new_data)
These are the general steps for building a classifier in Python using scikit-learn. Keep in mind that
the specific implementation details may vary depending on your dataset and the type of classifier
you are using.