MODULE 1

MODULE I

Syllabus:

Acoustical / Sonic Environment and acoustical comfort: Sound, Nature of sound-

Behavior of sound in enclosed spaces-Concept of Geometric Acoustics-Reflection of
sound and their applications- Absorption of sound-Sound absorption coefficient-Human
Audibility range Reverberation & Reverberation Time Calculation- Flanking paths-
Sound absorption-materials and fixings- Reverberation-Sabine’s formula-Eyrings
modification.-Basic design of the elements for the required degree of sound insulation-
Air and structure born noises-equivalent noise levels-day and night equivalent.

***************************************************************************

Acoustic is the science of sound which deals with its production/generation/creation,

transmission, absorption, reflection, decay etc.

Sound is a sensation caused on the ear by a vibration in an elastic medium such as air,
water or a solid body. The source of sound normally is a vibrating solid body which in turn
generates vibrations in the air or water which acts as a medium to convey it in to the ear.

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Sound energy progresses rapidly producing extremely small pressure changes in the
atmosphere. Though sound can travel great distances, each vibrating particle moves only small
amounts to its normal position.

Each vibrating particle moves only an infinitesimal amount to either side of its normal
position. It bumps adjacent particles and imparts most of its motion and energy to them.

A full circuit by a displaced particle is called a cycle. The time required for one
complete cycle is called the period (tp ,seconds) and the number of complete cycles per second
is the frequency of vibration (f, Hertz).

1
𝑡 =
𝑓

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Pure Tone:

A pure tone is a vibration produced at a single natural frequency. A variation in pressure

caused by striking a tuning fork, which produces almost pure tone by vibrating adjacent air
molecules.

Wavelength:
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As sound passes through air, the to and fro motion of the particles alternately pushes
together and draws apart adjacent particles, forming regions of rarefaction and compression.
(rarefaction means reduction in the density of something). Wavelength (λ) is the distance a
sound wave travels during one cycle of vibration. It also is the distance between adjacent
regions where identical conditions of particle displacement occur.

If “v” is the velocity of sound in the medium, and “f” is the frequency,

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λ=v/f

To find the wavelength of sound in air at a specific frequency, use the following formulae:

1130
λ=
𝑓

where, λ = wavelength in ft and f = frequency in Hz.

Audible Range:

A healthy young person is capable of hearing sound energy from 20 to 20000 Hz.

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Hearing sensitivity, especially the upper frequency limit, diminishes with increasing age and
even without adverse effects from diseases and noise – a condition called presbycusis.

Long term and repeated exposure to intense sounds and noise of everyday living can
cause permanent hearing damage called sociosis and short term exposure cause temporary loss.

The extend of hearing sensitivity of an individual deepens on different factors like age,
sex, ethnicity, previous exposure to high noise, etc.

All other hearing losses are called nosocusis.

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Audibility of a sound depends on two factors 1) Its frequency 2) Its intensity.

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Sound waves of frequency below 20 Hz and above 20,000 Hz are not audible to human
beings. Again on getting older, the ability to hear higher frequencies reduce considerably. A
sound intensity of less than 10-12 watts per sq. m. is not audible and intensity above 1
watt/Sq.m gives pain to ears. The following figure roughly represents the human audibility
rage.

Intensity of Sound:

Sound waves from a point source outdoors with no obstructions (called free-field
conditions) are virtually spherical and expand outward from the source.

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Power is a basic quantity of energy flow. Although both acoustical and electric energy are
measured in Watts, they are different forms of energy and cause different responses. For
instance, 10 watts of electric energy produces a very dim light whereas 10 Watts of acoustical
energy produces a very large sound.

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The Intensity from a point source outdoors at a distance ‘d’ away is the sound power of the
source divided by the total spherical area 4𝜋𝑑 of the sound wave at the distance of interest.

The relationship can be expressed as :

𝑊
𝑙=
4𝜋𝑑

Where,

I = sound intensity in W/m2

W =sound power in Watts

D = distance from sound source in metres

If the distance is measured in feet, multiply the result by 10.76 because 1 m 2 equals 10.76 ft2.

The inverse square law for sound is

𝑙 𝑑
=( )
𝑙 𝑑

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Ernst Weber and Gustav Fechner discovered that nearly all human sensations are
proportional to the logarithm of the intensity of stimulus.

For example, if the intensity is doubled ear gets an impression of only a slight increase
not an increase of 100%. A young and healthy person can respond to air vibrations hardly
greater than molecular size and it also responds without damage to a sound intensity of 10 12
times greater.

Intensity of sound in decibels is given by the formulae:

𝑙
𝐿 = 10. 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑙

Where, Li = sound intensity level (dB)

l = sound intensity (W/m2)

l0 = reference sound intensity, 10-12 (W/m2)

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The intensity of a sound wave is related to its amplitude squared by the following relationship:

𝐼=
(
. .
)

Here,

Δp is the pressure variation or pressure amplitude (half the difference between the maximum
and minimum pressure in the sound wave) in units of pascals (Pa) or N/m 2.

ρ is the density of the material in which the sound wave travels, in units of kg/m 3

vw is the speed of sound in the medium, in units of m/s.

Problems:

1. The intensity of a rock music group is 8.93 * 10-2 W/m2. Find the corresponding sound
intensity level Li.

. ∗
𝐿 = 10. 𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 10. 𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 110 𝑑𝐵

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2. A loud speech, measured 3 ft away, has a sound intensity of L i of 73 dB. Find the
corresponding intensity l.

𝑙
𝐿 = 10. 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑙

𝑙
73 = 10. 𝑙𝑜𝑔
10

l = 1.995 * 10-5 W/m2

3. Measured sound intensity of one trombone is 80 dB. Find out the sound intensity of 76
trombones.

Sound intensity from one trombone = 80 dB

𝑙
80 = 10. 𝑙𝑜𝑔
10

l = 10-4 W/m2

So,
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to combine the sound intensity of 76 trombones, each producing 80 dB, l 2 will be 76* l1.

𝐿 = 10. 𝑙𝑜𝑔
∗
= 99 𝑑𝐵

Addition of sound levels

Sound levels in dB scales cannot be added up directly as it is in logarithmic scale. We

can find out the corresponding intensities in w/m2 (as described in example-2) add them up and
then again convert to dB scale as described in example-1. There is an easier way of adding
sound levels in dB.

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TRACE KTU
 Geometrical acoustics

Geometrical acoustics or ray acoustics is a branch of acoustics that studies propagation

of sound on the basis of the concept of rays considered as lines along which the acoustic energy
is transported.

Reflection

When a wave reaches the boundary between one medium another medium, a portion of
the wave undergoes reflection and a portion of the wave undergoes transmission across the
boundary. the amount of reflection is dependent upon the dissimilarity of the two media.

A hard material such as concrete is as dissimilar as can be to the air through which the
sound moves; subsequently, most of the sound wave is reflected by the walls and little is
absorbed

Walls and ceilings of concert halls are made softer materials such as fiberglass and
acoustic tiles. These materials are more similar to air than concrete and thus have a greater
ability to absorb sound. This gives the room more pleasing acoustic properties.

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Reflection of sound waves off of surfaces can lead to one of two phenomena -
an echo or a reverberation.

A reverberation often occurs in a small room with height, width, and length dimensions
of approximately 17 meters or less. The effect of a particular sound wave upon the brain
endures for more than a tiny fraction of a second; the human brain keeps a sound in memory
for up to 0.1 seconds. If a reflected sound wave reaches the ear within 0.1 seconds of the initial
sound, then it seems to the person that the sound is prolonged. The reception of multiple
reflections off of walls and ceilings within 0.1 seconds of each other causes reverberations -
the prolonging of a sound.

Reflection of sound waves also leads to echoes. Echoes are different than
reverberations. Echoes occur when a reflected sound wave reaches the ear more than 0.1
seconds after the original sound wave was heard. If the elapsed time between the arrivals of
the two sound waves is more than 0.1 seconds, then the sensation of the first sound will
have died out. In this case, the arrival of the second sound wave will be perceived as a second
sound rather than the prolonging of the first sound. There will be an echo instead of a
reverberation.

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 Applications Justifying Sound Reflection

Echo

It is the sound heard when reflections occur from a firm surface, for example, a wall or cliff. Echo
is the repetition of sound even after the source has stopped vibrating. This is used by bats as well
as dolphins for the detection of obstacles or navigation. Interestingly, SONAR follows the same
principle for sound navigation. In SONAR, ultrasonic sound waves are transmitted in all
directions through the ship and the signals received are later examined.

Sound Board

These are basically curved surfaces which are placed in a manner so that the sound source stays
at the focus. In a soundboard, the sound waves are uniformly reflected. It can happen in an
auditorium or hall, thus improving their quality.

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Hearing Aid

A hearing aid is useful for is people who face difficulty in hearing. In this device, the sound waves
are established and reflected into a slimmer area directed to the ear.

Megaphone

These are horn-shaped tubes which prevent the extension of sound waves through successive
reflections. This is achieved through the confinement of sound waves that happen in the tube.

Stethoscope

You might have seen a stethoscope hanging around your doctor’s neck. This device is used to hear
sounds generated from internal organs in the human body. A stethoscope functions on the laws of
sound reflection. The sound is received through the chest piece and delivered to the earpieces via
multiple reflections occurring through a long tube. By listening to the sound with the help of
stethoscope, doctors analyze the situation of an organ.

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 Absorption of sound-Sound absorption coefficient

When sound impinges on the boundary surfaces of a room, part of its energy is absorbed
and transmited and part is reflected back into the room.

Free field conditions occur when sound waves are free from the influence of reflective
surfaces (e.g. open area, outdoors, etc.). Under free field conditions, sound energy from point
sources spreads spherically and drops 6 dB for each doubling of distance from the source. Line
sources of vehicular traffic consist of successive point sources which reinforce each other.
Sound energy from line sources spreads cylindrically, not spherically and drops off only 3 dB
for each doubling of distance.

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Reverbent field: Indoors,sound energy drops off under free field conditions only near the
source. Because room surfaces reflect sound, there will be little noise reduction with distance
away from the source (called reverbent field).

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The effectiveness of a sound absorbing material can be expressed by its absorption
coefficient α. The coefficient describes the fraction of the incident sound energy that a material
absorbs. Theoreticaaly, it can vary from 0 (no absorption) to 1 (Perfect absorption).

The total Rooms absorption (i.e. the sum of all room surface areas times their respective
sound absorption coefficients) for a space can be found by :

𝑎 = ∑ 𝑆. 𝛼

Where,

a = total room absorption (sabins)

S = surface area (ft2)

𝛼 = sound absorption coefficient at given frequency (decimal percent)

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The noise reduction coefficeinet NRC is the arithmetic average, rounded off to the nearest
multiple of 0.05 of the sound absorption coefficients α’s at 250, 500, 1000 and 2000 Hz for a
specific material and mounting condition.

𝑁𝑅𝐶 =

 Reverberation

Reverberation (also known as reverb), in acoustics, is a persistence of sound,

or echo after a sound is produced.[1] Reverberation is created when a sound or signal is reflected
causing numerous reflections to build up and then decay as the sound is absorbed by the
surfaces of objects in the space – which could include furniture, people, and air. This is most
noticeable when the sound source stops but the reflections continue,
their amplitude decreasing, until zero is reached.

Reverberation time is a measure of the time required for the sound to "fade away" in an
enclosed area after the source of the sound has stopped.

When it comes to accurately measuring reverberation time with a meter, the term T60 (an

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abbreviation for reverberation time 60 dB) is used. T60 provides an objective reverberation time
measurement. It is defined as the time it takes for the sound pressure level to reduce by 60 dB,
measured after the generated test signal is abruptly ended.

The equation for reverberation time as per Sabine is calculated by the equation,

𝑇 = 0.05

Where,

T = reverberation time, or time required for sound to decay 60 dB after the source has
stopped (s)

V = room volume (ft3)

a = total ft2 of room absorption (sabins )

This formulae is reasonably accurate when sound field conditions are diffuse (e.g.
sound absorption uniformily distributed) and room dimensions do not vary widely (e.g.
compact rooms).

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It should not be used for recording rooms and anechoic chambers, which have
extremely high ratios of absorption to room volume. In these cases, Eyring formulae should be
used.

𝑇 = 0.05 ∗
× ( )

Where,

T =reverberation Time (s)

V = Room Volume (ft3)

S = Total Surface area (ft2)

Problem:

A classroom 60 ft long by 35 ft wide by 15 ft high has sound absorption coefficient’s

α’s of 0.30 for walls, 0.04 for ceiling and 0.10 for floor. All α’s are at 500 Hz.

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Find the reverberation time T at 500 Hz in this space with no occupant’s and no sound
absorbing treatment.

 Compute the room volume.

V = 60 * 35 *15 = 31500 ft3
 Compute the surface areas.

Ceiling, S = 60 * 35 = 2100 ft2

Walls , S = 2*35*15 =1050 ft2

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S = 2*60*15 = 1800 ft2

Floor, S = 60 *35 = 2100 ft2

 Compute the total room absorption coefficient.

S α a = S×α (sabins)
Ceiling 2100 0.04 84
Walls 2850 0.30 855
Floor 2100 0.10 210
Total a = 1149 sabins
 Compute the reverberation time,
𝑇 = 0.05 = 0.05 ∗ = 1.37 𝑠 𝑎𝑡 500 𝐻𝑧

 Flanking path
Any path for sound transmission that bypasses or circumvents the primary path
through the structure under consideration is called the flanking path. A/C ducts, PVC

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pipes used for electric wiring etc act as flaking paths between rooms separated by solid
walls. Extreme care should be given in identifying and treating flanking paths properly,
especially for rooms for which confidentiality is important.
“Flanking” is a misunderstood and underappreciated problem in noise control
construction design. It occurs when noise becomes structure-borne and finds a route
around an isolated surface, called a “flanking path.”

 Noise
The initial definition of noise was “an unpleasant sound”. But the international
committee for standardization of acoustical terms now defines noise as “an unwanted
sound”, i.e. a sound not desired by a recipient.
The discrimination and differentiation between sound and noise also depends on
the habit and interest of the person receiving it.
Noise could be of indoor or outdoor origin. It could be continuous or intermittent.
If could be of any frequency.

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 Structure-bone Noise & Airborne Noise

Inside a building, we may hear many kinds of sound, including noise. Not only
pleasant sounds, such as birds chirping, that we encounter, but also some disturbing
sounds, such as traffic, footsteps, human conversation, and loud music from another
room.
All these sounds enter the room from many different sources.
In the discipline of building acoustics, there are mainly two mediums that transmit
sound in a building environment; those are air and solid objects. When noise is
transmitted by air, we call it airborne noise. Meanwhile, when it is transmitted by a solid
object, we call it structure-borne noise.
Structure-borne noise can results from (1) an impact on a solid surface or (2) a
low-frequency sound vibrating a solid surface. In buildings, this generated sound or
noise–either from the first or the second methods–will travel from the solid surface, such
as a wall, where the sound source takes place. Then, it will radiate through the building
structures and finally reach the solid surface of the receiver room. E.g. : Did you ever
feel a vibration when a subway train is passing below you while you are on the ground?
The vibration you feel is nothing but noise. This noise is what we describe as structure-

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borne noise. In this case, the wheel-rail interaction causes a powerful vibration that can
oscillate the particles of the structure around it.
Airborne noise happens when energy causes the air in the surrounding to
compress. This compression makes some regions of the air has a higher pressure. It is
then followed by rarefaction, where the lower pressure occurs in the other regions. This
compression-rarefaction pattern moves away from the energy source at the speed of
sound. In buildings, there are many ways sound can propagate into a room. Noise from
the conversation in the other room, for example, may reach your room directly without
any obstacle. It happens when you have an opening that connects both rooms, such as an
open door, window, or even a small keyhole. However, you may still hear the noise when
you already close all the openings. It happens because when the noise hits a solid surface,
such as a wall, the airborne noise can vibrate its solid particles. It the sound energy is
sufficient enough, it can travel further into your room and finally reach your eardrums.

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Equivalent Sound Level – Leq.

Leq (equivalent continuous sound level) is defined as the steady sound pressure level
which, over a given period of time, has the same total energy as the actual fluctuating noise.
Thus, the Leq is in fact the RMS sound level with the measurement duration used as the
averaging time.
Equivalent Sound Level – Leq. – quantifies the noise environment to a single value of
sound level for any desired duration. It is designed to represent a varying sound source over a

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given time as a single number. Leq. Is also sometimes known as Average sound level – LAT.
Equvalent Sound Level- Leq. – can be calculated by integrating the sound pressure level
over a time period as:

𝐿 . = 10. log [ ∫ 𝑑𝑡]

.

𝐿 . = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 (𝑑𝐵)

T = time period (s)
𝑝 = 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑃𝑎, )

𝑝 . = 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (2 ∗ 10 , )

It can also be calculated using the equation,

/
𝐿 . = 10. log [∑ 𝑓 . 10 ]
where: fi = fraction of total time the constant level Li is present
Li = sound level in dBA

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Problem:
A machine generates a sound pressure of 0.02 Pa half the time when idling and 0.1 Pa the other
half of the time while working.

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Day-Night Sound Level Equivalent, Ldn:
It is the A weighted equivalent sound level for a 24 hour period with an additional 10
dB imposed on the equivalent sound levels for night time hours of 10 pm to 7 am.
In determining the daily measure of environmental noise, it is important to account for
the different response of people to daytime and nighttime noise. During the nighttime, exterior
background noise levels are generally lower than in the daytime; however, most household
noise also decreases at night, thus exterior noise intrusions again become noticeable.
Furthermore, most people trying to sleep at night are more sensitive to noise. To account for
human sensitivity to night time noise levels, a special descriptor was developed. The descriptor
is called the Day / Night Average Sound Level (Leq,day / Leq,night).
( )
𝐿 = 10. log ( 15. 10 + 9. 10 )

𝐿 = 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙

𝐿 = 𝑛𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙

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Problem:

 Computation of Noise reduction with the use of absorbers:

The buildup of sound levels in a room is due to the repeated reflections of sound
from its enclosing surfaces. This buildup is affected by the size of the room and the amount of
absorption within the room. The difference in decibels in reverberant noise levels, or noise
reduction, under two conditions of room absorption can be found as follows:
𝑁𝑅 = 10 log

Where,
NR = room noise reduction (dB)
a2 = total room absorption after treatment (sabins)

Problem: TRACE KTU

a1 = total room absorption before treatment (sabins)

A class room of 20m X 10m X 4m has 4 windows of 2 sq.m each and one door of 3 sq.
m, all kept open. The absorption coefficients of ceiling and wall are 0.04 and that of the floor
is 0.02. Find out the total sound absorption in metric Sabine. If 50% of the wall and 50 % of
the ceiling are treated with sound absorbing materials having absorption coefficient 0.50 and
the floor is laid with carpet of absorption coefficient 0.70, find the reduction in reverberant
noise level that can be achieved. Assume that the hall is occupied with 60 people having
average absorption of 0.75 including that of the seat.
Room Volume= 20*10*4 = 800 cu.m
Surface area of ceiling = 200 sq.m
Surface area of the floor = 200 sq.m
Area of openings =11 sq.m
Surface area of wall = 2*(20*4+10*4)-11=229 sq.m
Absorption by all the surfaces before treating = 200*0.04 + 229*0.04 + 200*0.02 + 11
= 32.16 Metric Sabine
Absorption by the audience = 0.75*60 = 45 Metric Sabine

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Total absorption before treating the surfaces = 32.16 + 45 = 77.16 Metric Sabine
Absorption by all the surfaces after treating =100*0.04 + 100*0.50 + 229/2*0.04 + 229/2
*0.50+ 200*0.7+11 = 266.83 Metric Sabine
Total absorption after treating = 266.83+45=311.83
Noise reduction (N.R)=10 log 311.83/77.16 =6 dB

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Transmission loss
Transmission loss (TL) in general describes the accumulated decrease
in intensity of a waveform energy as a wave propagates outwards from a source, or as it
propagates through a certain area or through a certain type of structure.

Transmission loss is a measurement of how much sound energy is reduced in transmission

through materials.. The more massive a material, the higher its transmission loss.

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Transmission Loss (TL) can be expressed as follows:

TL = L1 – L2

Where,
TL = sound transmission loss (dB)
L1 = Sound Level in Source Room (dB)
L2 = Sound Level in receiving room (dB)
And
TL = 10.log( )

Where,
𝜏 = 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
= 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Problem :
The TL of a heavy concrete block wall is 40 dB. Find the 𝜏 for the wall.
TL = 10.log( )

40 = 10.log( )

TRACE KTU 𝜏 = 10-4 = 0.0001

It can also be found using the equation,

N.R. = TLbarrier + 10. log( )

Where,
S = surface area of common barrier (dB)
a2 = absorption in receiving room (sabins)
For a solid homogeneous partition, TL value is a function of its mass. If M is the mass per unit
surface area expressed in kg/m2 (i.e., the mass density multiplied by the thickness of the
partition),
TL=18 log M +8 (approx) for M>100
and TL=14.5 log M +13 for M<100

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Problem:
In an apartment building, two adjacent living rooms have a party wall constructed of 4
in thick brick which has a TL of 40 dB at 500 Hz. The surface area S of the wall is 200 ft 2, both
rooms have 300 sabins of absorption a2 at 500 Hz. Find the sound level L2 in room 2 if the
sound level L1 in room 1 is 74 dB.
Noise reduction, N.R. = TLbarrier + 10. log( ) = 40 + 10. log( )

= 41.8 dB
Also,
N.R. = L1 – L2 = 74 – L2 = 41.8
L2 ≈ 32 dB
Problem:
Find the transmission loss of a 12 cm solid brick wall of 12 sq.m. If there is a small
opening of 0.10 * 0.10 m in that wall, find out how much deduction will occur to the TL value.

M = 0.12 *1800 = 216 kg/m2 (1800 kg/m3 is the density of brick)

TL = 18* log 216 +8 = 50 dB

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When 0.1*0.1= 0.01 m2 opening is made in the wall,
TL of the solid wall=50=10 log (1/t1)
Transmittance, 𝜏1= 1/105
Area of the solid wall =12 - 0.01 = 11.99 m2
𝜏 2= transmittance of the opening = 1
. ∗ . ∗
Net transmittance (𝜏) = = 0.0008433

TL value= 10 log (1/0.0008433) = 31 dB

TL value is reduced from 50 dB to 31 dB even with this small opening.

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Acoustical Defects
1. Reverberation
2. Formation of Echoes
3. Sound Focii
4. Dead Spots
5. Insufficient Loudness
6. Exterior Noises
I. Reverberation
It is the persistence of sound in the enclosed space, after the source of sound has
stopped. It is the reflected sound as a result of improper absorption. It may result in
confusion with the next sound created.
However some reverberation is essential for improving quality of sound. The
time during which the sound persists is called reverberation tome of sound in the hall.

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Reverberation time should remain within limits as per Indian Standard Code
: 2526-1963.

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The reverberation time can be controlled by the suitable choice of building

materials and furnishing materials. Since, open windows allow the sound energy to flow
out of the hall, there should be a limited number of windows. They may be opened or
closed to obtain optimum reverberation time.
II. Formation of Echoes
Not all sound that hits matter is absorbed. Some of it is reflected. That means
sound bounces off the solid matter the way a tennis ball bounces off a wall. Sound
reflected back to its source is an Echo.
An echo is produced when the reflected sound wave reaches the ear just when
the original sound from the same source has already heard. Thus, there is a repetition

TRACE KTU
of sound. The sensation of sound persists for 1/10th of a second after the source has
ceased. Thus, an Echo must reach after 1/10th second of the direct sound.
Multiple echoes may be heard when a sound is reflected from a number of
reflecting surfaces placed suitably. This defect can be removed by selecting proper
shape of the hall and by providing rough and porous interior surfaces to disperse the
energy of echoes.
III. Sound Focii
Some times shape of the hall makes sound waves to concentrate in some
particular areas of hall creating a sound of large quality. These spots are called sound
foci. This defect can be removed by geometrical design shapes of interior faces and
providing highly absorbent materials on critical areas (curved spaces).
IV. Dead Spots
This defect is the outcome of formation of sound foci. Because of high
concentration of reflected sound at sound foci, there is deficiency of related sound at
some points. These spots are known as dead spots where sound intensity is so low that

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it is insufficient for hearing. This defect can be removed by suitably placing diffusers
and reflectors.
V. Insufficient Loudness
The initial sound from the source should be of adequate intensity so that it
can be heard throughout the hall. For halls of big sizes, suitable sound amplification
system should be installed. The sound produced should be evenly distributed so that
there is no dead spots and sounf foci.
VI. External Noise
External noises from vehicles, traffic engines, factories, machines, etc. may
enter the hall either through the openings or even through walls and other structural
elements having improper sound insulation.
This defect can be removed by proper planning of the hall with respect to its
surroundings and by proper sound insulation of exterior walls.

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