28/07/2024

Radiation
Physics
M S . DA N I C A P. PA R DA L I S , R R T. , M A E D - E M C

Subtopics
4

Radiation X-ray Production and

Physics and Interaction with Matter 6
Characteristics
Application of X-ray
Interaction with Matter 10

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Fundamental
Properties
atomic
of X-rays
structures

Radiation
Processes Ionizing vs.
Physics and of
Ionization
Non-
Characteristics and
Excitation
Ionizing
Radiation
(Sub-topics)
Radioactive
Radioactivity
Decay

Conditions necessary to
1 produce x-radiation

Radiation Physics
and
Characteristics 3 Photon interactions
(X-ray Production and
Interaction with Matter)
Relationships of
2 wavelength and frequency
to beam characteristics

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Clinical significance of
photoelectric and modified
5 scattering interactions in
diagnostic imaging
Radiation Physics
and Processes of ionization &
excitation
Characteristics 4 Relationship of energy,
(Application of X-ray wavelength, and frequency
Interaction with Matter)

Production of bremsstrahlung and

1 characteristic radiations

Fundamental
Properties
atomic
of X-rays
structures

Radiation
Radiation
Physics
Processes Ionizing vs.
Physics
andand of
Ionization
Non-
Characteristics
Characteristics and
Excitation
Ionizing
Radiation
(Sub-topic
(Subtopics)
Radioactive
Radioactivity
Decay

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RADIOACTIVITY

RADIOACTIVITY

The emission of particles or energy in

order to become stable.

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It is the property of certain nuclides to

spontaneously emit radiation in a form of
alpha, beta, gamma rays and other nuclear
fragments to reach a stable state.

RADIOACTIVITY

It is discovered in 1896 by the French

Scientist – Antoine Henri Becquerel.

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RADIOACTIVITY
For his discovery of spontaneous
radioactivity, Becquerel was awarded half of
the Nobel prize for Physics in 1903, the other
half being given to Pierre and Marie Curie for
their study of the Becquerel radiation.

Marie & Pierre Curie

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RADIOACTIVITY

The SI unit of radioactivity is Becquerel

(Bq)
◦1Bq = 1dis/s (disintegration per second or
dps)

RADIOACTIVITY

The old unit of radioactivity is Curie (Ci) in

honor of Marie Salomea Sklodowska-Curie,
who coined the term radioactivity & also
discovered the elements polonium and
radium.

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RADIOACTIVITY

Marie Curie’s husband, a French

Physicist, Pierre Curie, helped her on
her study on radioactivity.
◦1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010Bq

TYPES OF RADIOACTIVITY
NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY
◦Exist in nature
◦Example:
◦ COSMIC RADIOACTIVITY – sun, stars & moon
◦ TERRESTRIAL RADIOACTIVITY – exist in soil, food, water & air
◦Background radiation = altitude

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TYPES OF RADIOACTIVITY
ARTIFICIAL RADIOACTIVITY
◦ Man made radiation
◦ Example:
◦ Radiation fall out – nuclear ground testing
◦ Devices :
◦ Teletheraphy machine (Co 60)
◦ Smoke detectors (Americium 241)
◦ Radiopharmaceuticals - NucMed

RADIOACTIVITY
Some atoms have nuclei that contain excess
energy.

Such atoms exist in an abnormally excited

state, characterized by an unstable nucleus.

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RADIOACTIVITY
To reach stability, the nucleus spontaneously
emits particles and energy and transform itself
into another atom.
This process is called RADIOACTIVE
DISINTEGRATION / RADIOACTIVE DECAY.

RADIOACTIVITY

The atoms involved are radionuclides.

Any nuclear arrangement is called a NUCLIDE.
◦ With A, Z and N

Only nuclei that undergo radioactive decay are

radionuclides.

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RADIOACTIVE ATOMS

Unstable atoms emitting radiation

spontaneously to reach a more stable state.

Also termed as radioactive materials.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
RADIOACTIVE ATOM
1. Decay Disintegration/
Transformation Constant ()

2. Half-life (T1/2)

3. Activity (A) / Radioactivity

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1. Decay Disintegration/
Transformation Constant ()

A fraction or percentage of original

number of atoms decaying per unit
time.

PROBLEM 1:

Determine the remaining activity of a certain

radioactive atom after 3 seconds if the original
activity 100mCi and the given transformation
constant () is 25 % per second.

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SOLUTION:
Original amount = 100mCi
 = 25 % per second
TIME ELAPSED ORIGINAL AMOUNT REMAINING
AMOUNT DECAYING AMOUNT
1 SECOND 100 mCi 25 mCi 75 mCi

2 SECONDS 75 mCi 19 mCi 56 mCi

ANSWER: 42 mCi will remain after 3 sec.

3 SECONDS 56 mCi 14 mCi 42 mCi

PROBLEM 2:

Determine the remaining activity of a

certain radioactive atom after 5 seconds if
the original activity is 75 mCi and the
given transformation constant () is 15%
per second.

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SOLUTION:
Original amount = 75 mCi = 15% per second
TIME ELAPSED ORIGINAL AMOUNT REMAINING
AMOUNT DECAYING AMOUNT
1 SECOND 75 mCi 11.25 mCi 63.75 mCi

2 SECONDS 63.75 mCi 9.56 mCi 54.19 mCi

3 SECONDS 54.19 mCi 8.13 mCi 46.06 mCi

4 SECONDS 46.06 mCi 6.91 mCi 39.15 mCi

5 SECONDS 39.15 mCi 5.87 mCi 33.28 mCi

RADIOACTIVE HALF-LIFE
Radioactive material is not here one day & gone the next.

Rather, radioisotopes disintegrate into stable isotopes of

different elements at an ever-decreasing rate, but the rate
& consequently the quantity of radioactive material never
quite reach zero.

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RADIOACTIVE HALF-LIFE

Radioactive material is measured in

Curies (Ci) and that 1Ci is equal to 3.7 x
1010 atoms disintegrating each second
(3.7 x 1010 Bq).

RADIOACTIVE HALF-LIFE

The rate of radioactive decay & the quantity

of material present at any given time is
described mathematically by a formula
known as the RADIOACTIVE DECAY LAW.

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RADIOACTIVE HALF-LIFE

From this formula we obtain a quantity

known as HALF-LIFE (T1/2).

2. HALF-LIFE (T 1/2)

▪The period of time required for a quantity of radioactivity

to be reduced to one-half of its original value.
▪ The half-life of a radioisotope is the time required for a
quantity of radioactivity to be reduced to one-half its
original value.

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HALF-LIFE

Half-lives of radioisotopes vary from less than a

second to many years.

Each radioisotope has a unique, characteristic

half-life.

PERCENTAGE OF ACTIVITY LEFT AFTER CERTAIN HALF-LIFE

T1/2 ORIGINAL VALUE AMOUNT LEFT

1 100% 50%

2 50% 25%

3 25% 12.5%

4 12.5% 6.25%

5 6.25% 3.125%

6 3.125% 1.56%

7 1.56% 0.78%

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PROBLEM 1:

A certain RAM, has an initial activity of

80mCi, how much will remain after 3 half
lives ?

SOLUTION:
Based on the table, you can immediately answer that after 3 half-
lives, the remaining activity will be 12.5%. So, you take the 12.5%
of 80mCi, and you will get 10mCi.

80mCi x 12.5% (convert 12.5% into decimal = 0.125)

80mCi x 0.125 = 10 mCi

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SOLUTION:

On the other hand, you can also solve the problem

by following these instructions:

80 mCi ÷ 2 ÷ 2 ÷ 2 = 10mCi

PROBLEM 2:
A 120 mCi of Tc-99m (T1/2 = 6hrs) is prepared
on Monday at 6am. How much will remain on
Wednesday at 6am ?

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SOLUTION:
First count the number of hours that have elapsed or passed
from Monday 6 am until Wednesday 6 am, which is equal to
48 hrs.

Since the T ½ of Tc-99m is every 6hrs, we will determine how

many half lives have occurred during 48hrs by dividing 48hrs
by 6hrs, w/c is equal to 8.

SOLUTION:
This means that after 48hrs (from Monday 6am to Wednesday
6am), Tc-99m has undergone 8 T1/2.

Now divide the given amount of activity (120 mCi) by 2 (which

signifies half-life, remember from the previous problems?) 8 times
(since there were 8 half-lives).

120mCi ÷ 2 ÷2 ÷2 ÷2 ÷ 2 ÷2 ÷2 ÷2 =
0.46875 mCi or 4. 6875 x 101 mCi

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A. BIOLOGICAL HALF LIFE

[B T1/2 ]
▪The time required for the body to eliminate half of an
administered dosage of any substance by regular
process of deliberation.
▪Also known as the elimination half-life of a substance.

B. PHYSICAL HALF LIFE

▪The time required so that activity of radionuclide is
reduced to 50%.

▪The average time required for the decay of half the

atoms in a given amount of a radioactive substance.

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C. EFFECTIVE HALF LIFE

[E T1/2]
▪The time required for a radioactive elimination in the
body to be diminished by 50% as a result of the
combined action of radioactive decay & biological
elimination.
E T ½ = B T½ X P T ½
BT½+PT½

HALF LIVES OF COMMON RAM

ELEMENT HALF LIFE

Tc-99 6 hrs.

I-131 8 days

I-123 13 hrs.

Ra-223 11 days

Ra-226 1600 yrs.

Ir-192 74 days

Co-60 5.26 yrs.

Cs-137 30 yrs.

Sr-90 28 yrs.

Mo-99 66hrs.

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3. ACTIVITY (A) /
RADIOACTIVITY

▪Time rate of decay of RAM

▪New unit is Becquerel
▪Old unit is Curie

RADIOACTIVE DECAY

The process wherein the unstable atom (parent)

spontaneously emits radiation to reach a more stable
state (daughter).

PARENT – is the unstable atom or the radioactive

atom
DAUGHTER – is a new atom that is already stable.

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MODES OF DECAY
1. ALPHA EMISSION / DECAY ()
2. BETA EMISSION / DECAY ()
◦ POSITIVE BETA DECAY (+)
◦ NEGATIVE BETA DECAY (-)

3. ELECTRON CAPTURE
4. ISOMETRIC TRANSITION
5. INTERNALCONVERSION / K CONVERSION
6. GAMMA EMISSION / DECAY

ALPHA EMISSION/DECAY ()

▪Occurs in heavy nuclides with high atomic numbers.
▪It resembles a Helium (He) element
▪Relative charge = +2
▪Mass of 4
▪Alpha () radiation has low penetrating power & most harmful
internally & less harmful externally.
▪It can be stopped by a piece of paper or cloth.

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EXAMPLE:
Radium (parent) decays by alpha emission to produce radon
(daughter).
◦ 226 Ra 222 Rn + 
88 86

✓4 ++
2

BETA EMISSION/DECAY ()

▪The relative charge of  is -1 & a mass of 0.
▪ particle has a moderate energy and it can be stopped
by approx. 0.5mm aluminum or lead.

▪Has two sub-modes: the negatron emission & positron

emission

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A. NEGATRON EMISSION
▪Negatron/ Beta Minus decay/ emission
▪This occurs when there are too many neutrons.
▪Emission of negatron + antineutrino
1n 1p
N = by 1
Z= by 1

B. POSITRON EMISSION
▪Positron Emission / Beta Plus Decay
▪This occurs when there are too many protons.
▪Emission of positron (+) + neutrino
1p 1n
Z= by 1
N= by 1

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ISOMETRIC TRANSITION

▪This decay emits a gamma () ray and only occurs on elements
with an excited state.
▪During emission, there is no change in the number of particles of
the excited nucleus.
▪The excited nucleus upon emission of gamma radiation reaches
its ground state.

INTERNAL CONVERSION/
K CONVERSION
▪A removal of an electron within an atom by a gamma
() ray from a nucleus.
▪The process by which the gamma emitted during
isometric transition transfer its energy to an orbital
electron from an atom.

▪CONVERSION ELECTRON = electron ejected

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ELECTRON CAPTURE/K-CAPTURE
▪This mode of decay refers to the radioactive decay process
whereby the nucleus captures an electron from an orbital shell of
the atom.
▪It is always accompanied by the emission of an X-ray.
▪Expected to occur in nuclides having a low n : p ratio

ELECTRON CAPTURE/K-CAPTURE
1p + 1e = 1n
Emits K-characteristic radiation

AUGER PROCESS
◦ Pronounced as o-zhay process
◦ Defined as the removal of electron by a characteristic x-ray within an atom.
◦ The removed electron during this process is called the Auger electron.

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GAMMA DECAY

▪Produce by excess energy

▪Does not involve nuclear transformation
▪Z, N, A = DOES NOT CHANGE
▪E = CHANGE

TYPES OF
IONIZING
RADIATION

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Radiation
Two types of radiation: ionizing and non-ionizing radiation
This type of interaction between radiation and matter is called ionization.
Ionization occurs when an x-ray passes close to an orbital electron of an atom
and transfers sufficient energy to the electron to remove it from the atom.
The ionizing radiation may interact with and ionize additional atoms.
Thus, any type of energy that is capable of ionizing matter is known as ionizing
radiation.

TYPES OF IONIZING
RADIATION

1.PARTICULATE RADIATION
2.ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

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5 FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN VARIOUS TYPES OF
RADIATION
5 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
1. MASS
2. ENERGY
3. VELOCITY
4. CHARGE
5. ORIGIN

PARTICULATE RADIATION
Any charged particle in motion is capable of
ionization & induces a magnetic field.

Classified as particulate radiation if they are in

MOTION and POSSESS SUFFICIENT KINETIC
ENERGY.

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PARTICULATE RADIATION
▪Has mass
▪Considered matter
▪Occupies space
▪It has no wavelength – it only represents
matter or mass
▪It loses its energy & intensity

1. ELECTRON
▪9.1 X 10-31 kg
▪511 keV
▪Negative charge
▪Smallest magnet
▪Lightest subatomic particle
▪Discovered by Joseph John Thomson
▪Origin = electron shell

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2. PROTON
▪1.673 X 10-27 kg
▪Positive charge (p+)
▪Eugen Goldstein
▪Determines the atomic number & the
chemical properties of atom

3. NEUTRON
▪1.675 X 10-27 kg
▪No charge (n)
▪Heaviest subatomic particle
▪James Chadwick
▪Neutral
▪Very unstable particle

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4. NEGATRON
▪[-1]
▪9.1 X 10-31 kg
▪511 keV
▪Negative charge
▪Electron-like particle
▪Product of radioactive decay (Negative Beta decay)
▪Origin - Nucleus

5. POSITRON
▪[ +1]
▪9.1 X 10-31 kg
▪511 keV
▪Electron like a particle with a (+) charge
▪Product of radioactive decay (Positive Beta decay)
▪Positive electron = antimatter
▪Undergoes the annihilation process

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6. ALPHA PARTICLE ()

▪4 amu
▪4 to 7 meV
▪+2 charge
▪Unstable heavy nucleus
▪Alpha decay occurs
▪Ionize – 40, 000 ion pairs/cm of travel

6. ALPHA PARTICLE ()

▪Shielding material= SKIN/PAPER
▪AIR= 1 to 10cm
▪SOFT TISSUE= up to 0.1 mm

▪Very violent particle

▪Very hazardous particle

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ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION
▪Propagation of energy
▪With wavelength
▪Properties of wave
▪No mass, no charge
▪Travel at the speed of light( c= 3 x 108 m/s)

ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION
▪Unlimited range in matter
▪Photon radiation (EMR) decreases in intensity
as it traverses matter, but it never quite
reaches zero as does particulate radiation.

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1. X-RAYS
▪Origin = electron cloud
▪Approx. energy = 0 to10 MeV
▪Up to 500 ip/cm of air
▪AIR = 0 to 100 m
▪SOFT TISSUE = 0 to 30 cm

2. GAMMA RAYS
▪Origin = Radioactive nuclei
▪Approx. energy = 0 to 5 MeV
▪Up to 500 ip/cm of air
▪AIR = 0 to 100 m
▪SOFT TISSUE = 0 to 30 cm

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NUCMED TECHNOLOGY
◦ BETA & GAMMA RADIATION
XRAY TECHNOLOGY
◦X-RAYS

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To be continued~

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