Microwave

Communications

Engr. Gerhard P. Tan

Instructor
Learning Outcomes
● Describe the concept of plane waves in different transmission
media, polarized plane waves, and plane wave reflection in
mathematical form

● Describe, analyze and design basic passive and active microwave

circuits such as couplers, amplifiers, mixers, oscillators

Topics
● Microwave communication system diagram and components

● Microwave Equipments
 01 02 03
Microwave Systems Microwave
Communications Components Equipments
 Microwave
01 Communications
What is Microwave?
Microwaves have frequencies ranging from about 1
billion cycles per second, or 1 gigahertz (GHz), up to
about 300 gigahertz and wavelengths of about 30
centimeters (12 inches) to 1 millimeter (0.04 inches)

Microwave ovens work by using

microwaves about 12 centimeters in
length to force water and fat
molecules in the food to rotate. The
interaction of these molecules
undergoing forced rotation creates
heat, and the food is cooked.
Terrestrial microwave transmissions are sent between two microwave stations
on the earth (earth station). It is the most common form of long-distance
communication.

Satellite microwave transmissions involve sending microwave transmissions

between two or more earth-based microwave stations and a satellite.
Satellite Microwave
Most communications satellites are placed in orbit 22,300 miles above the
earth's surface. The earth's gravity keeps the satellite in orbit at the same rate
as the earth (geosynchronous orbit). Such satellites are called geosynchronous
orbiting satellites (GEOS).

• Low earth-orbiting satellites (LEOS) orbit

the earth at a height of 325-1,000 miles
and they orbit around the poles (not in a
fixed position relative to the earth).
• Medium earth-orbiting satellites (MEOS)
are similar to LEOS but are positioned at
6,000-10,000 miles above the earth.
• Because microwaves use line-of-sight, the
satellite signal can only reach a part of the
earth. This area is called a footprint.
How does a Microwave Oven work?

Electricity flows from the wall,

through fuses and safety
mechanisms to the controller
How does a Microwave Oven work?

When the controller says to

go, the triac activates,
sending power to the high-
voltage transformer (About
3000-4000 V)
How does a Microwave Oven work?

1. The magnetron tube

transforms the high voltage into
electromagnetic energy

2. A waveguide guides the

microwaves into the cooking
chamber

3. A stirring blade spreads the

microwaves evenly
How does a Microwave Oven work?
Several components needed:

The Magnetron is the heart of the

microwave
– 2450 MHz

• 2450 MHz happened to be available

• RF Leakage
How does a Microwave Oven work?

• RF energy excites water

molecules
• Water molecules rotate on poles
and friction with neighbor
molecules
• Friction forces molecules to retain
energy, otherwise it would just
radiate energy away
Range Comparison
1 m 10
10m
m 100
100m
m 11Km
Km 10
10Km
Km 100
100Km
Km 1,000
1,000Km
Km

Mobile FM MW SW Satellite
𝑐 Telephony Radio Radio Radio Links
𝜆= Blueooth WLANs
𝑓
 Microwave Frequencies & Band
– The practical microwave region is generally considered
to extend from 1 to 30 GHz, although frequencies could
include up to 300 GHz.
– Microwave signals in the 1- to 30-GHz have
wavelengths of 30 cm to 1 cm.
– The microwave frequency spectrum is divided up into
groups of frequencies, or bands.
– Frequencies above 40 GHz are referred to as
millimeter (mm) waves and those above 300 GHz are
in the sub-millimeter band.
 Microwave Frequencies & Band

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

Benefits of Microwaves
▪ Moving into higher frequency ranges has helped to solve the problem of
spectrum crowding.

▪ Today, most new communication services are assigned to the

microwave region.

▪ At higher frequencies there is a greater bandwidth available for the

transmission of information.

▪ Wide bandwidths make it possible to use various multiplexing

techniques to transmit more information.

▪ Transmission of high-speed binary information requires wide

bandwidths and these are easily transmitted on microwave frequencies.
Disadvantage of Microwaves

– The higher the frequency, the more difficult it becomes to analyze

electronic circuits.

– At microwave frequencies, conventional components become difficult

to implement.

– Microwave signals, like light waves, travel in perfectly straight lines.

Therefore, communication distance is limited to the line-of-sight range.

– Microwave signals penetrate the ionosphere, so multiple-hop

communication is not possible.
Microwave Communication Systems
Like any other communication system, a microwave communication
system uses transmitters, receivers, and antennas.

○ The same modulation and multiplexing techniques used at lower frequencies are also used in
the microwave range.
○ The RF part of the equipment, however, is physically different because of the special circuits
and components that are used to implement the components.
Microwave Communication Systems

○ Like any other transmitter, a microwave

transmitter starts with a carrier generator and
Transmitters a series of amplifiers.
○ It also includes a modulator followed by more
stages of power amplification.
○ The final power amplifier applies the signal to
the transmission line and antenna.
○ A transmitter arrangement could have a
mixer used to up-convert an initial carrier
signal with or without modulation to the final
microwave frequency.
Microwave Communication Systems
Transmitters

Microwave transmitters. (a) Microwave transmitters use frequency multipliers to reach

the microwave frequency. The shaded stages operate in the microwave region.
Microwave Communication Systems
Transmitters

Microwave transmitters. (b) Microwave transmitter using up-conversion with a mixer to

achieve output in the microwave range.
Microwave Communication Systems
Receivers
○ Microwave receivers, like low-frequency
receivers, are the superheterodyne type.

○ Their front ends are made up of microwave

components.

○ Most receivers use double conversion.

Microwave Communication Systems
Receivers
○ The antenna is connected to a tuned circuit, which could be a
cavity resonator or microstrip or strip line tuned circuit.
○ The signal is then applied to a special RF amplifier known as a
low-noise amplifier (LNA).
○ Another tuned circuit connects the amplified input signal to the
mixer.
○ The local oscillator signal is applied to the mixer.
○ The mixer output is usually in the UHF or VHF range.
○ The remainder of the receiver is typical of other
superheterodynes.
Microwave Communication Systems
Receivers

A microwave receiver. The shaded areas denote microwave circuits.

 Systems
02 Components
Microwave Communication Systems
Transmission Lines
○ Coaxial cable, most commonly used in lower-frequency
communication has very high attenuation at microwave
frequencies and conventional cable is unsuitable for
carrying microwave signals.

○ Special microwave coaxial cable that can be used on bands

L, S, and C is made of hard tubing. This low-loss coaxial
cable is known as hardline cable.

○ At higher microwave frequencies, a special hollow

rectangular or circular pipe called a waveguide is used for
the transmission line.
Microwave Communication Systems

Antennas ✓ At low microwave frequencies, standard

antenna types, including the simple dipole
and one-quarter wavelength vertical antenna,
are still used.

✓ At these frequencies antennas are very

small; for example, a half-wave dipole at 2
GHz is about 3 in.

✓ At higher microwave frequencies, special

antennas are generally used.
Microwave Lines & Devices
▪ Although vacuum and microwave tubes like the
klystron and magnetron are still used, most
microwave systems use transistor amplifiers.

▪ Special geometries are used to make bipolar

transistors that provide voltage and power gain
at frequencies up to 10 GHz.

▪ Microwave FET transistors have also been

created.

▪ Monolithic microwave integrated circuits

(MMICs) are widely used.
Microwave Lines & Devices
○ At higher frequencies, standard techniques for implementing lumped components
such as coils and capacitors are not possible.
○ At microwave frequencies, transmission lines, specifically microstrip, are used.
○ Microstrip is preferred for reactive circuits at higher frequencies because it is simpler
and less expensive than stripline.
○ Stripline is used where shielding is necessary.
Microwave Lines & Devices

Micro-strip transmission line used for reactive circuits. (a) Perspective

view. (b) Edge or end view. (c) Side view (open line). (d) Side view
(shorted line).
Microwave Lines & Devices

Equivalent circuits of open and shorted microstrip lines.

Microwave Lines & Devices
Microstrip Tuned Circuits
○ An important characteristic of a microstrip
is its impedance.
○ The characteristic impedance of a
transmission line depends on its physical
characteristics.
○ The dielectric constant of the insulating
material is also a factor.
○ Most characteristic impedances are less
than 100 Ω.
○ One-quarter wavelength transmission line
can be used to make one type of
component look like another.
Microwave Lines & Devices
Microstrip Tuned Circuits

How a one-quarter wavelength microstrip can transform impedances and reactances.

Microwave Lines & Devices
Microstrip Tuned Circuits
○ Microstrip can also be used to realize coupling from one circuit.

○ One microstrip line is simply placed parallel to another segment of the

microstrip.

○ The degree of coupling between the two depends on the distance of

separation and the length of the parallel segment.

○ The closer the spacing and the longer the parallel run, the greater the
coupling.

○ Microstrip patterns are made directly onto printed circuit boards.

Microwave Lines & Devices
Microstrip Tuned Circuits

○ A special form of microstrip is the hybrid ring.

○ The unique operation of the hybrid ring makes it very

useful for splitting signals or combining them.

○ Microstrip can be used to create almost any tuned

circuit necessary in an amplifier, including resonant
circuits, filters, and impedance-matching networks.
Microwave Lines & Devices
Microstrip Tuned Circuits

A micro strip hybrid ring.

Microwave Lines & Devices
Microwave Transistor
○ The primary differences between standard
lower-frequency transistors and microwave
types are internal geometry and packaging.

○ To reduce internal inductances and

capacitances of transistor elements, special
chip configurations known as geometries are
used.

○ Geometries permit the transistor to operate at

higher power levels and at the same time
minimize distributed and stray inductances and
capacitances.
Microwave Lines & Devices
Microwave Transistor

○ The GaAs MESFET, a type of JFET using a Schottky

barrier junction, can operate at frequencies above 5 GHz.

○ A high electron mobility transistor (HEMT) is a variant

of the MESFET and extends the range beyond 20 GHz
by adding an extra layer of a semiconductor material
such as AlGaAs.

○ A popular device known as a heterojunction bipolar

transistor (HBT) is making even higher-frequency
amplification possible in discrete form and in integrated
circuits.
Microwave Lines & Devices

Microwave transistors. (a) and (b) Low-power small signal. (c) FET power. (d) NPN bipolar power.
Microwave Lines & Devices

Small-Signal Amplifiers

○ A small-signal microwave amplifier can be made up of a single transistor or

multiple transistors combined with a biasing circuit and any microstrip circuits or
components as required.

○ Most microwave amplifiers are of the tuned variety.

○ Another type of small-signal microwave amplifier is a multistage integrated

circuit, a variety of MMIC.
Microwave Lines & Devices
Small-Signal Amplifiers: Transistor Amplifiers

○ A low-noise transistor with a gain of about 10 to 25 dB is

typically used as a microwave amplifier.

○ Most microwave amplifiers are designed to have input and

output impedances of 50 Ω.

○ The transistor is biased into the linear region for class A

operation.

○ RFCs are used in the supply leads to keep the RF out of the
supply and to prevent feedback paths that can cause
oscillation and instability in multistage circuits.

○ Ferrite beads (FB) are used in the collector supply lead for
further decoupling.
Microwave Lines & Devices
Small-Signal Amplifiers: MMIC Amplifiers
○ A common monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC)
amplifier is one that incorporates two or more stages of FET or
bipolar transistors made on a common chip to form a multistage
amplifier.

○ The chip also incorporates resistors for biasing and small bypass
capacitors.

○ Physically, these devices look like transistors.

○ Another form of MMIC is the hybrid circuit, which combines an

amplifier IC connected to microstrip circuits and discrete
components.
Microwave Lines & Devices
Small-Signal Amplifiers: Power Amplifiers
○ A typical class A microwave power amplifier is designed with
microstrip lines used for impedance matching and tuning.

○ Input and output impedances are 50 Ω.

○ Typical power-supply voltages are 12, 24, and 28 volts.

○ Most power amplifiers obtain their bias from constant-current

sources.

○ A single-stage FET power amplifier can achieve a power output

of 100 W in the high UHF and low microwave region.
Microwave Semiconductor Diodes

Small Signal Diodes

▪ Diodes used for signal detection and mixing are

the most common microwave semiconductor
devices.

▪ Two types of widely used microwave diodes are:

✓ Point-contact diode

✓ Schottky barrier or hot-carrier diode

Microwave Semiconductor Diodes
Small Signal Diodes: Point-Contact Diode
➢ The oldest microwave semiconductor device is the point-contact diode,
also called a crystal diode.

➢ A point-contact diode is a piece of semiconductor material and a fine

wire that makes contact with the semiconductor material.

➢ Point-contact diodes are ideal for small-signal applications.

➢ They are widely used in microwave mixers and detectors and in

microwave power measurement equipment.
Microwave Semiconductor Diodes

A point-contact diode.
Microwave Semiconductor Diodes

Small Signal Diodes: Hot Carrier Diodes

➢ For the most part, point-contact diodes have been replaced by Schottky
diodes, sometimes referred to as hot carrier diodes.
➢ Like the point-contact diode, the Schottky diode is extremely small and has a
tiny junction capacitance.
➢ Schottky diodes are widely used in balanced modulators and mixers.
➢ They are also used as fast switches at microwave frequencies.
Microwave Semiconductor Diodes

Hot carrier or Schottky diode

Microwave Semiconductor Diodes
Frequency-Multiplier Diodes
Microwave diodes designed primarily for frequency-multiplier service include:
✓ Varactor diodes

✓ Step-recovery diodes
Microwave Semiconductor Diodes
Frequency-Multiplier Diodes: Varactor Diode

➢ A varactor diode is basically a voltage variable capacitor.

➢ When a reverse bias is applied to the diode, it acts like a

capacitor.

➢ A varactor is primarily used in microwave circuits as a

frequency multiplier.

➢ Varactors are used in applications in which it is difficult to

generate microwave signals.

➢ Varactor diodes are available for producing relatively high

power outputs at frequencies up to 100 GHz.
Microwave Semiconductor Diodes

A varactor frequency multiplier.

Microwave Semiconductor Diodes
Frequency-Multiplier Diodes: Step-Recovery Diodes

➢ A step-recovery diode or snap-off varactor is widely used in microwave frequency-

multiplier circuits.

➢ A step-recovery diode is a PN-junction diode made with gallium arsenide or silicon.

➢ When it is forward-biased, it conducts as any diode, but a charge is stored in the

depletion layer.

➢ When reverse bias is applied, the charge keeps the diode on momentarily and then
turns off abruptly.

➢ This snap-off produces a high intensity reverse-current pulse that is rich in harmonics.
Microwave Semiconductor Diodes
Oscillator Diodes

Three types of diodes other than the tunnel diode that can oscillate due to
negative resistance characteristics are:

■ Gunn diode

■ IMPATT diode

■ TRAPATT diode
Microwave Semiconductor Diodes
Oscillator Diodes: Gunn Diodes

➢ Gunn diodes, also called transferred-electron devices

(TEDs), are not diodes in the usual sense because they do
not have junctions.

➢ A Gunn diode is a thin piece of N-type gallium arsenide

(GaAs) or indium phosphide (InP) semiconductor which
forms a special resistor when voltage is applied to it.

➢ The Gunn diode exhibits a negative-resistance

characteristic.

➢ Gunn diodes oscillate at frequencies up to 150 GHz.

Microwave Semiconductor Diodes
Oscillator Diodes: IMPATT and TRAPATT Diodes

➢ Two microwave diodes widely used as oscillators are the

IMPATT and TRAPATT diodes.

➢ Both are PN-junction diodes made of silicon, GaAs, or InP.

➢ They are designed to operate with a high reverse bias that

causes them to avalanche or break down.

➢ IMPATT diodes are available with power ratings up to 25 W to

frequencies as high as 300 GHz.

➢ IMPATT are preferred over Gunn diodes if higher power is

required.
Microwave Semiconductor Diodes
PIN Diodes

➢ A PIN diode is a special PN-junction diode with an I (intrinsic)

layer between the P and the N sections.

➢ The P and N layers are usually silicon, although GaAs is

sometimes used and the I layer is a very lightly doped N-type
semiconductor.

➢ PIN diodes are used as switches in microwave circuits.

➢ PIN diodes are widely used to switch sections of quarter- or

half-wavelength transmission lines to provide varying phase
shifts in a circuit.
 Microwave
03 Equipments
Microwave Antennas

Because of the line-of-sight transmission

of microwave signals, highly directive
antennas are preferred because they do
not waste the radiated energy and
because they provide an increase in
gain, which helps offset noise at
microwave frequencies.
Microwave Antennas

Low-Frequency Antennas

○ At low microwave frequencies, less than 2 GHz, standard

antennas are commonly used, including the dipole and its
variations.

○ The corner reflector is a fat, wide-bandwidth, half-wave

dipole fed with low-loss coaxial cable.

○ The overall gain of a corner reflector antenna is 10 to 15

dB.
Microwave Antennas

A corner reflector is used with a dipole for low microwave frequencies

Microwave Antennas
Horn Antenna
○ Microwave antennas must be some extension of or compatible with a
waveguide.

○ Waveguide are not good radiators because they provide a poor impedance
match with free space. This results in standing waves and reflected power.

○ This mismatch can be offset by flaring the end of the waveguide to create a
horn antenna.

○ Horn antennas have excellent gain and directivity.

○ The gain and directivity of a horn are a direct function of its dimensions; the
most important dimensions are length, aperture area, and flare angle.
Microwave Antennas

Basic horn antenna

Microwave Antennas
Parabolic Antennas

○ A parabolic reflector is a large dish-shaped structure made of metal or

screen mesh.

○ The energy radiated by the horn is pointed at the reflector, which focuses the
radiated energy into a narrow beam and reflects it toward its destination.

○ Beam widths of only a few degrees are typical with parabolic reflectors.

○ Narrow beam widths also represent extremely high gains.

Microwave Antennas

Cross-sectional view of a parabolic dish antenna.

Microwave Antennas

Parabolic Antennas: Feed Methods

○ A popular method of feeding a parabolic antenna is an
arrangement known as a Cassegrain feed.

○ The horn antenna is positioned at the center of the parabolic

reflector.

○ At the focal point is another small reflector with either a parabolic or

a hyperbolic shape.

○ The electromagnetic radiation from the horn strikes the small

reflector, which then reflects the energy toward the large dish which
radiates the signal in parallel beams.
Microwave Antennas

Cassegrain feed.
Microwave Antennas
Helical Antennas
○ A helical antenna, as its name suggests, is a wire helix.

○ A center insulating support is used to hold heavy wire or tubing formed into
a circular coil or helix.

○ The diameter of the helix is typically one-third wavelength, and the spacing
between turns is the approximately one-quarter wavelength.

○ The gain of a helical antenna is typically in the 12- to 20dB range and
beamwidths vary from approximately 12° to 45°.

○ Helical antennas are favored in many applications because of their simplicity

and low cost.
Microwave Antennas

The helical antenna.

Microwave Antennas
Bicone Antennas

○ One of the most widely used omnidirectional microwave antennas is the

bicone.

○ The signals are fed into bicone antennas through a circular waveguide
ending in a flared cone.

○ The upper cone acts as a reflector, causing the signal to be radiated equally
in all directions with a very narrow vertical beam width.
Microwave Antennas

The omnidirectional bicone antenna.

Microwave Antennas
Slot Antennas

○ A slot antenna is a radiator made by cutting a one-half wavelength slot in a

conducting sheet of metal or into the side or top of a waveguide.

○ The slot antenna has the same characteristics as a standard dipole

antenna, as long as the metal sheet is very large compared to λ at the
operating frequency.

○ Slot antennas are widely used on high-speed aircraft where the antenna
can be integrated into the metallic skin of the aircraft.
Microwave Antennas

Slot antennas on a waveguide. (a) Radiating slots. (b) Non-radiating slots

Microwave Antennas

Dielectric (Lens) Antennas

○ Dielectric or lens antennas use a special dielectric material to

collimate or focus the microwaves from a source into a narrow
beam.

○ Lens antennas are usually made of polystyrene or some other

plastic, although other types of the dielectric can be used.

○ Their main use is in the millimeter range above 40 GHz.

Microwave Antennas

Lens antenna operations. (a) Dielectric lens. (b) Zoned lens.

Microwave Antennas
Patch Antennas
○ Patch antennas are made with microstrip on PCBs.
○ The antenna is a circular or rectangular area of copper separated
from the ground plane on the bottom of the board by the PCB’s
insulating material.
○ Patch antennas are small, inexpensive, and easy to construct.
○ Their bandwidth is directly related to the thickness of the PCB
material.
○ Their radiation pattern is circular in the direction opposite to that of
the ground plane.
Microwave Antennas
Phased Arrays
○ A phased array is an antenna system made up of a large group of similar
antennas on a common plane.

○ Patch antennas on a common PCB can be used, or separate antennas like

dipoles can be mounted together in a plane.

○ The basic purpose of an array is to improve gain and directivity.

○ Arrays also offer better control of directivity, since individual antennas in an

array can be turned off or on, or driven through different phase shifters.

○ Most phased arrays are used in radar systems, but they are finding
applications in some cell phone systems and in satellites.
Microwave Antennas

An 8 × 8 phase array using patch antennas. (Feed lines are not shown.)
Microwave Antennas

Printed-Circuit Antennas
○ Because antennas are so small at microwave frequencies, they
can be conveniently made right on a printed-circuit board that also
holds the transmitter and/or receiver ICs and related circuits.

○ No separate antenna structure, feed line, or connectors are

needed.

○ In addition to the patch and slot antennas, the loop, the inverted-
F, and the meander line antennas are also used.
Microwave Antennas

A sample printed circuit antennas

Microwave Antennas
Intelligent Antenna Technology

○ Intelligent antennas or smart

antennas are antennas that work in
conjunction with electronic decision-
making circuits to modify antenna
performance to fit changing situations.

○ They adapt to the signals being

received and the environment in
which they transmit.
Microwave Antennas

Intelligent Antenna Technology

○ Also called adaptive antennas, these new designs greatly improve

transmission and reception in multipath environments and can also
multiply the number of users of a wireless system.

○ Some popular adaptive antennas today use diversity, multiple-input

multiple-output, and automatic beam forming.
Microwave Antennas
Adaptive Beam Forming

○ Adaptive antennas are systems that

automatically adjust their characteristics to
the environment.
○ They use beam-forming and beam-pointing
techniques to zero in on signals to be
received and to ensure transmission under
noisy conditions.
○ Beam-forming antennas use multiple
antennas such as phase arrays.
Microwave Antennas

Adaptive Beam Forming

○ There are two kinds of adaptive antennas: switched beam arrays

and adaptive arrays.

○ Both switched beam arrays and adaptive arrays are being

employed in some cell phone systems and in newer wireless
LANs.

○ They are particularly beneficial to cell phone systems because they

can boost the system’s capacity.
Microwave Applications

Major applications of microwave radio

Microwave Applications: Radar

○ The electronic communication system known

as radar (radio detection and ranging) is based on
the principle that high-frequency RF signals are
reflected by conductive targets.
○ In a radar system, a signal is transmitted
toward the target and the reflected signal is picked
up by a receiver in the radar unit.
○ The radar unit can determine the distance to
a target (range), its direction (azimuth), and in
some cases, its elevation (distance above the
horizon).
Microwave Applications: Radar

○ There are two basic types of radar

systems: pulsed and continuous-
wave (CW).
○ The pulsed type is the most commonly
used radar system.
○ Signals are transmitted in short bursts
or pulses.
○ The time between transmitted pulses is
known as the pulse repetition time
(PRT).
○ In continuous-wave (CW) radar, a
constant-amplitude continuous
microwave sine wave is transmitted.
Microwave Applications: Radar

○ The newest form of radar is called

ultrawideband (UWB) radar.
○ It is a form of pulsed radar that
radiates a stream of very short
pulses several hundred picoseconds
long.
○ The very narrow pulses give this
radar extreme precision and
resolution of small objects and
details.
○ The low power used restricts
operation to short distances.
Microwave Applications: Satellite Tracking
Satellite Tracker is a powerful free application that will help you observe
artificial satellites, like Starlink and the ISS, crossing the night sky. It can
show the exact position of any satellite above the Earth and send
notifications when the satellite you're interested in will be passing over your
location.
Thank You