Reading- 12 NEPHRON and Urine Formation

Nephron Each kidney has nearly one million complex tubular structures called nephrons, which are the
functional units of kidney. Each nephron has two parts –
a) Glomerulus
b) Renal tubule.

a) Glomerulus: It is a tuft of capillaries formed by the afferent arteriole – a fine branch of renal artery
Blood from the glomerulus is carried away by an efferent arteriole (a branch of renal vein).

b) Renal tubule: It consists of Bowman’s capsule, PCT, Henle’s loop, DCT and Collecting duct.
(i) Bowman’s capsule: It is the beginning part of nephron with a double walled cup-like, structure called
Bowman’s Capsule, which encloses the glomerulus.

Glomerulus + Bowman’s capsule= Malpighian body / Renal corpuscles

(ii) Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT): The tubule continues further to form a long highly coiled or
convoluted tubule, proximal (near) to Bowman’s capsule called PCT.

(iii) Henle’s loop: A hairpin shaped Henle’s loop is the next part of the tubule which has a descending and
an ascending limb.

(iv) Distal convoluted tubule (DCT): The ascending limb continues as another highly coiled tubular region
far apart (distal) from Bowman’s capsule as compared to PCT called distal convoluted tubule (DCT).

(v) Collecting duct: The DCTs of many nephrons open into a straight tube called collecting duct. This long
duct extends from the cortex of the kidney to the inner parts of the medulla. Many DCTS of nephrons
converge and open into the renal pelvis through medullary pyramids in the calyces.

The Malpighian corpuscle, PCT and DCT of the nephron are situated in the cortical region of the kidney whereas
the loop of Henle dips into the medulla.

Peritubular capillaries and vasarecta

The efferent arteriole emerging from the glomerulus forms a fine capillary network around the renal tubule
called the peritubular capillaries.
A minute vessel of Peritubular capillary network runs parallel to the Henle’s loop forming a ‘U’shaped vasa recta.
JGA (Juxta glomerular apparatus) is a special sensitive region formed by cellular modifications in the distal
convoluted tubule and the afferent arteriole at the location of their contact.
URINE FORMATION Urine formation involves three main processes namely:

A) Glomerular filtration
 The first step in urine formation is the filtration of blood, which is carried out by the glomerulus and is
called glomerular filtration.
 On an average, 1100-1200 ml of blood is filtered by the kidneys per minute which constitute roughly
1/5th of the blood pumped out by each ventricle of the heart in a minute.
 The glomerular capillary blood pressure causes filtration of blood through 3 layers, i.e., the
endothelium of glomerular blood vessels, the epithelium of Bowman’s capsule and a basement
membrane between these two layers.
 The epithelial cells of Bowman’s capsule called podocytes are arranged in an intricate manner so as to
leave some minute spaces called filtration slits or slit pores.
 Blood is filtered so finely through these membranes, that almost all the constituents of the plasma
except the proteins pass onto the lumen of the Bowman’s capsule. Therefore, it is considered as a
process of ultrafiltration.

B) Tubular reabsorption
The amount of the filtrate formed by the kidneys per minute is called glomerular filtration rate (GFR).
GFR in a healthy individual is approximately 125 ml/minute, i.e., 180 litres per day.
A normal human being will not excrete such an amount of urine.
He will excrete 1.5l/day, it shows the 99% of glomerular filtrate is re absorbed.
i)Re absorption in PCT
PCT is lined by simple cuboidal brush border epithelium which increases the surface area for reabsorption.
Nearly all of the essential nutrients, and 70-80 % of electrolytes and water are reabsorbed by this segment
ii)Re absorption in Henle’s loop
Reabsorption in this segment is minimum. However, this region plays a significant role in the maintenance of
high osmolarity of medullary interstitial fluid
a) Re absorption in descending limb:
The descending limb of loop of Henle is permeable to water but almost impermeable to electrolytes. This
concentrates the filtrate as it moves down
b) Reabsorption in the ascending limb :
The ascending limb is impermeable to water but allows transport of electrolytes actively or passively.
Therefore, as the concentrated filtrate pass upward, concentration decreases.
iii)Reabsorption in DCT
Conditional reabsorption of Na+ and water takes place in this segment. DCT is also capable of reabsorption of
HCO3-

iv)Tubular reabsorption in collecting duct

Large amounts of water could be reabsorbed from this region to produce a concentrated urine.

C) Tubular secretion
During urine formation, the tubular cells secrete substances like H+, K+ and ammonia into the filtrate.
Tubular secretion is also an important step in urine formation as it helps in the maintenance of ionic and acid
base balance of body fluids.
Tubular secretion in various parts is given below:

i)Tubular secretion in PCT

PCT also helps to maintain the pH and ionic balance of the body fluids by selective secretion of hydrogen
ions, ammonia and potassium ions into the filtrate and by absorption of HCO3 – from it.

ii)Tubular secretion in DCT

URINE
 An adult man excrete1 to 1.5 litres of urine /day
 Colour -Yellow
 pH- 6 (slightly acidic)
 On an average 25-30gm urea per day
 Analysis of urine helps in clinical diagnosis of
many metabolic disorders as well as
malfunctioning of the kidney.
For example: Presence of glucose (Glycosuria) and
ketone bodies (Ketonuria) in urine are indicative of
diabetes mellitus
 Counter Current Mechanism of Concentration of the Filtrate

 The kidneys in mammals possess a special

mechanism for concentrating the urine,
called counter current mechanism.
 The main function of counter current
mechanism is to concentrate NaCI in
interstitial fluid thereby causing water to
diffuse out of collecting ducts. As a result
hypertonic urine is produced.
 This mechanism depends on the loop of
Henle, vasa recta, collecting ducts and
interstitial fluid.
 The flow of filtrate in the two limbs of
Henle’s loop is in opposite directions and
thus forms a counter current.
 The flow of blood through the two limbs
of vasa recta is also in a counter current
pattern.
 The proximity between the Henle’s loop
and vasa recta, as well as the counter
current in them help in maintaining an
increasing osmolarity towards the inner
medullary interstitium, i.e., from 300
mOsmolL-1 in the cortex to about 1200
mOsmolL-1 in the inner medulla.
 This gradient is mainly caused by NaCl
and urea.
 NaCl is transported by the ascending limb
of Henle’s loop which is exchanged with
the descending limb of vasa recta. NaCl
is returned to the interstitium by the
ascending portion of vasa recta.

 Similarly, small amounts of urea enter the thin segment of the ascending limb of Henle’s loop which is
transported back to the interstitium by the collecting tubule.
 The above described transport of substances facilitated by the special arrangement of Henle’s loop and vasa
recta is called the counter current mechanism .
 The counter current mechanism helps to maintain a concentration gradient in the medullary interstitial fluid
which helps in an easy absorption of water from the filtrate present in the collecting duct. This increases the
concentration of the filtrate (urine). Human kidneys can produce about four times concentrated urine than
the initial filtrate formed.

Thus in a nutshell:
Regulation of excretion:

a) Neural Control: As kidneys are innervated with sympathetic nervous system which when activated retrores
the blood flow hence GFR.

When GFR decreases→ Sympathetic Nervous System→Adrenalin→Vasoconstriction of efferent areteriole

→ GFR increases

b) Myogenic autoregulation is brought about when blood pressure increases. The increased blood pressure
causes stretching of vascular walls stretch receptors of afferent arteriole get excited that causes release of
 Ca2+ ions in the sarcoplasm making the walls of the smooth muscles to contract and constriction of vessels
bringing GFR back to normal.

c)Regulation by hypothalamus
Osmoreceptors in the body are activated by changes in blood volume, body fluid volume and ionic
concentration.
An excessive loss of fluid from the body can activate these receptors which stimulate the hypothalamus to
release antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin from the neurohypophysis.
ADH facilitates water reabsorption from latter parts of the tubule, thereby preventing diuresis
(The loss of excess water through urine is called diuresis ).
An increase in body fluid volume can switch off the osmoreceptors and suppress the ADH release to complete
the feedback.
ADH can also affect the kidney function by its constrictor effects on blood vessels, hence ADH is also called
vasoconstrictor. This causes an increase in blood pressure. An increase in blood pressure can increase
theglomerular blood flow and thereby the GFR.

d) RAAS: Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System:

This system is called RAAS: Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System.This system operates in nephrons with
juxtaglomerular apparatus.
Juxtaglomerular apparatus: It involves:
a) macula densa cells in the walls of DCT which are sensitive to the levels of Na+.
b) Juxtaglomerular cells in the walls of afferent arteriole which release renin and erythropoietin.
When BP or blood volume is low macula densa cells of DCT sense it and trigger the release of renin from
juxtaglomerular cells. Renin converts Angiotensinogen of liver to Angiotensin I. It forms
Angiotensin II which acts in 3 ways:
i) It increases Na+ reabsorption from PCT which increases BP.
ii) It can increase glomerular blood pressure by causing vasoconstriction of efferent arterioles thus bringing
GFR back to normal.
iii) It increases Na+ reabsorption from DCT by stimulating the adrenal glands to release a hormone, called
aldosterone that induces the distal convoluted tubule to absorb more Na+ and water.
d) Atrial NatureticFactor(ANF) : When blood volume is raised, venous return of blood to heart increases
atrial walls (Right atria of the heart- SA Node) get stretched and respond by releasing ANF. This is an
another hormone, a peptide called Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF) which opposes the regulation by RAAS.
The walls of the atria of the heart thus release ANF in response to an increase in blood volume and pressure.
ANF inhibits release of renin from the JGA and thereby inhibits NaCl reabsorption by the collecting duct
and reduces aldosterone release from the adrenal gland.
This ANF is also a vasodilator thus helps to maintain BP.

Thus ADH, RAAS and ANF regulate the functions of kidneys. As a result they control body fluid
osmolarity, salt concentration, blood pressure and blood volume.
S.No. Rennin Renin

It is secreted by peptic (zymogen) cells of gastric It is secreted by specialised cells in the

1.
glands into the stomach. afferent arterioles of the kidney cortex.
Its secretion is stimulated by food. Its secretion is stimulated by a reduction of
2.
Na+ level in tissue fluid
It is secreted as an inactive form prorennin which It is secreted as renin.
3.
is activated to rennin by HCl.
It is a proteolytic enzyme. It is a hormone that acts as an enzyme
4.
It helps in the digestion of milk protein casein. It converts the protein angiotensinogen into
5.
angiotensin.

Micturition
The passing out of the urine is called micturition.
Urine formed by the nephrons is ultimately carried to the urinary bladder where it is stored till a voluntary
signal is given by the central nervous system (CNS).
This signal is initiated by the stretching of the urinary bladder as it gets filled with urine.
In response, the stretch receptors on the walls of the bladder send signals to the CNS.
The CNS passes on motor messages. to initiate the contraction of smooth muscles of the bladder and
simultaneous relaxation of the urethral sphincter causing the release of urine.
Micturition is a reflex process but in adults it can be controlled voluntarily to some extent.
• The urinary bladder and the internal sphincter are supplied by both sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous systems of autonomic nervous system whereas, the external sphincter is supplied by the somatic
nerve.The colour of urine is caused by the pigment urochrome, which is a breakdown product of
haemoglobin from worn out red blood corpuscles.

ROLE OF OTHER ORGANS IN EXCRETION

a)Lungs: Lungs remove large amounts of CO2 (200ml /minutes) and also significant quantities of water every
day.
b)Liver: Liver, the largest gland in our body, secretes bile-containing substances like bilirubin, biliverdin,
cholesterol, degraded steroid hormones, vitamins and drugs.
Most of these substances ultimately pass out alongwith digestive wastes.

c)Glands in the skin:

i)Sweat gland: The sweat gland in the skin can eliminate certain substances through their secretions.
Sweat produced by the sweat glands is a watery fluid containing NaCl, small amounts of urea, lactic acid,
etc. The primary function of sweat is to facilitate a cooling effect on the body surface, it also helps in the
removal of containing NaCl, small amounts of urea, lactic acid

ii)Sebaceous glands: Sebaceous glands eliminate certain substances like sterols, hydrocarbons and waxes
through sebum. This secretion provides a protective oily covering for the skin.
d)Salivary gland:
Small amounts of nitrogenous wastes could be eliminated through saliva

DISORDERS OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

1. Uremia:
Malfunctioning of kidneys can lead to accumulation of urea in blood, a condition called uremia,
In such patients, urea can be removed by a process called hemodialysis.

Haemodialysis/Artificial kdiney
 Blood drained from a convenient artery is
pumped into a dialysing unit after adding
an anticoagulant like heparin.
 The unit contains a coiled cellophane tube
surrounded by a fluid called dialysing
fluid.
 The Dialysing fluid contains same
composition as that of plasma. But the
nitrogenous wastes are absent
 As nitrogenous wastes are absent
nitrogenous molecules flows from blood
into dialysis fluid (based on concentration
gradient).
 The cleared blood is pumped back to the
body through a vein after adding anti-
heparin to it.

Kidney transplantation
Kidney transplantation is the ultimate method in the correction of acute renal failures (kidney failure). A
functioning kidney is used in transplantation from a donor, preferably a close relative, to minimise its
chances of rejection by the immune system of the host.

2. Renal calculi:
Stone or insoluble mass of crystallised salts
(oxalates, etc.) formed within the kidney.

3.Glomerulonephritis:
Inflammation of glomeruli of kidney.

 Diabetes insipidus: • It is characterised by

excessive dilute urine and intense thirst.
It is caused by ADH deficiency.