an inquiry and a response.

The performance of a network depends on a number

of factors, including the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the
capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and
delay. We often need more throughput and less delay. However, these two
criteria are often contradictory. If we try to send more data to the network, we
may increase throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic
congestion in the network.
Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured
by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and
the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized
access, protecting data from damage and development, and implementing
policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.
Physical Structures
Before discussing networks, we need to define some network attributes.
Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a
communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
Point-to-Point A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between
two devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission
between those two devices. Most point-to-point connections use an actual
length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as
microwave or satellite links, are also possible
When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are
establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote control and the
television's control system.
Multipoint A multipoint (also called multi-drop) connection is one in which
more than two specific devices share a single link
In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either
spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a
spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared
connection.
Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out
physically.
Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The
topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all
the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring

MESH:
A mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other node
in the network.

A mesh topology can be a full mesh topology or a partially connected

mesh topology.
In a full mesh topology, every computer in the network has a connection to
each of the other computers in that network. The number of connections in this
network can be calculated using the following formula (n is the number of
computers in the network): n(n-1)/2
In a partially connected mesh topology, at least two of the computers in the
network have connections to multiple other computers in that network. It is an
inexpensive way to implement redundancy in a network. In the event that one
of the primary computers or connections in the network fails, the rest of the
network continues to operate normally.
Advantages of a mesh topology
 Can handle high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit
data simultaneously.
 A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission
of data.
 Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other
devices.
Disadvantages of a mesh topology
 The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a
less desirable option.
 Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.
 The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs
and potential for reduced efficiency.
STAR:

A star network, star topology is one of the most common network setups. In
this configuration, every node connects to a central network device, like
a hub, switch, or computer. The central network device acts as a server and the
peripheral devices act as clients. Depending on the type of network card used
in each computer of the star topology, a coaxial cable or a RJ-45 network cable
is used to connect computers together.
Advantages of star topology
 Centralized management of the network, through the use of the central
computer, hub, or switch.
 Easy to add another computer to the network.
 If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network continues to
function normally.
 The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs), High-speed LANs
often use a star topology with a central hub.
Disadvantages of star topology
 Can have a higher cost to implement, especially when using a switch or
router as the central network device.
 The central network device determines the performance and number of
nodes the network can handle.
 If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire network goes down
and all computers are disconnected from the network
BUS:

a line topology, a bus topology is a network setup in which each computer

and network device are connected to a single cable or backbone.
Advantages of bus topology
 It works well when you have a small network.
 It's the easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals
in a linear fashion.
 It requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of bus topology
 It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.
 It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
 Bus topology is not great for large networks.
 Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
 Additional devices slow the network down.
 If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.

RING:
A ring topology is a network configuration in which device connections create
a circular data path. In a ring network, packets of data travel from one device to
the next until they reach their destination. Most ring topologies allow packets to
travel only in one direction, called a unidirectional ring network. Others
permit data to move in either direction, called bidirectional.
The major disadvantage of a ring topology is that if any individual connection in
the ring is broken, the entire network is affected.
Ring topologies may be used in either local area networks (LANs) or wide area
networks (WANs).
Advantages of ring topology
 All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions.
 A network server is not needed to control network connectivity between
each workstation.
 Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.
 Additional workstations can be added without impacting performance of
the network.
Disadvantages of ring topology
 All data being transferred over the network must pass through each
workstation on the network, which can make it slower than a star topology.
 The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.
 The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is more
expensive than Ethernet cards and hubs/switches.

Hybrid Topology A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main
star topology with each branch connecting several stations in a bus topology as
shown in Figure

Types of Network based on size

The types of network are classified based upon the size, the area it covers and
its physical architecture. The three primary network categories are LAN, WAN
and MAN. Each network differs in their characteristics such as distance,
transmission speed, cables and cost.
Basic types
LAN (Local Area Network)
Group of interconnected computers within a small area. (room, building,
campus)
Two or more pc's can from a LAN to share files, folders, printers, applications
and other devices.
Coaxial or CAT 5 cables are normally used for connections.
Due to short distances, errors and noise are minimum.
Data transfer rate is 10 to 100 mbps.
Example: A computer lab in a school.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
Design to extend over a large area.
Connecting number of LAN's to form larger network, so that resources can be
shared.
Networks can be up to 5 to 50 km.
Owned by organization or individual.
Data transfer rate is low compare to LAN.
Example: Organization with different branches located in the city.
WAN (Wide Area Network)
Are country and worldwide network.
Contains multiple LAN's and MAN's.
Distinguished in terms of geographical range.
Uses satellites and microwave relays.
Data transfer rate depends upon the ISP provider and varies over the location.
Best example is the internet.

Other types
WLAN (Wireless LAN)
A LAN that uses high frequency radio waves for communication.
Provides short range connectivity with high speed data transmission.
PAN (Personal Area Network)
Network organized by the individual user for its personal use.
SAN (Storage Area Network)
Connects servers to data storage devices via fiber-optic cables.
E.g.: Used for daily backup of organization or a mirror copy

A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry

information from a source to a destination.
Classes of transmission media

Guided Media: Guided media, which are those that provide a medium from
one device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic
cable.

Twisted-Pair Cable: A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally

copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together. One of the wires
is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground
reference.

Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh
covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors. Although metal casing
improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or
crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.

The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack)
Applications
Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data
channels.
Local-area networks, such as l0Base-T and l00Base-T, also use twisted-pair
cables.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in
twisted pair cable. coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire
(usuallycopper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in
an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two. The outer
metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second
conductor, which completes the circuit.This outer conductor is also enclosed in
an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover.

The most common type of connector used today is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman

(BNe), connector.
Applications
Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks,digital telephone
networks
Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables.
Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet LANs

Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form
of light. Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single
uniform substance.
If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another
substance(of a different density), the ray changes direction.
Bending of light ray
Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic
core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.

Propagation Modes

Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move

through the core in different paths. How these beams move within the cable
depends on the structure of the core, as shown in Figure.

In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from
the center to the edges. A beam of light moves through this constant density in
a straight line until it reaches the interface of the core and the cladding. The
term step index refers to the suddenness of this change, which contributes to
the distortion of the signal as it passes through the fiber.
A second type of fiber, called multimode graded-index fiber, decreases this
distortion of the signal through the cable. The word index here refers to the
index of refraction.
Single-Mode: Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source
of light that limits beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal.
Fiber Construction

The subscriber channel (SC) connector, The straight-tip (ST) connector,

MT-RJ(mechanical transfer registered jack) is a connector
Applications
Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide
bandwidth is cost-effective..
Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial
cable,thus creating a hybrid network.
Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet) and
1000Base-X also use fiber-optic cable
Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
Advantages Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over metallic cable
(twisted pair or coaxial).
1 Higher bandwidth.
2 Less signal attenuation. Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly
greaterthan that of other guided media. A signal can run for 50 km without
requiring regeneration. We need repeaters every 5 km for coaxial or twisted-
pair cable.
3 Immunity to electromagnetic interference. Electromagnetic noise cannot
affect fiber-optic cables.
4 Resistance to corrosive materials. Glass is more resistant to corrosive
materials than copper.
5 Light weight. Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
6 Greater immunity to tapping. Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping
than copper cables. Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be
tapped.
Disadvantages There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fiber.
1Installation and maintenance
2 Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we
need bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.
3 Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of
other guided media. If the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of
optical fiber cannot be justified.

UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication.
Radio Waves
Microwaves
Infrared

Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways:
ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight propagation, as shown in
Figure

Radio Waves
Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are
normally called radio waves. Radio waves are omni directional. When an
antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all directions. This
means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned. A
sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna.
The omni directional property has a disadvantage, too. The radio waves
transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by another antenna
that may send signals using the same frequency or band.
Omni directional Antenna
Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals in all
directions. Based on the wavelength, strength, and the purpose of transmission,
we can have several types of antennas. Figure shows an omnidirectional
antenna.