Switching at the data link layer in a switched WAN is normally implemented by

using
virtual-circuit techniques.

Comparison

Diagrams from Tanenbaum Textbook

OSI
 OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection
 Created by International Standards Organization (ISO)
 Was created as a framework and reference model to explain how different
networking technologies work together and interact
 It is not a standard that networking protocols must follow
 Each layer has specific functions it is responsible for
 All layers work together in the correct order to move data around a network
 Top to bottom
–All People Seem To Need Data Processing
Bottom to top
–Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away

Physical Layer
 Deals with all aspects of physically moving data from one computer to the next
 Converts data from the upper layers into 1s and 0s for transmission over media
 Defines how data is encoded onto the media to transmit the data
 Defined on this layer: Cable standards, wireless standards, and fiber optic
standards.
Copper wiring, fiber optic cable, radio frequencies, anything that can be used to
transmit data is defined on the Physical layer of the OSI Model
 Device example: Hub
 Used to transmit data
Data Link Layer
 Is responsible for moving frames from node to node or computer to computer
 Can move frames from one adjacent computer to another, cannot move frames
across routers
 Encapsulation = frame
 Requires MAC address or physical address
 Protocols defined include Ethernet Protocol and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
 Device example: Switch
 Two sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and the Media Access Control (MAC)
o Logical Link Control (LLC)
 –Data Link layer addressing, flow control, address notification, error control
o Media Access Control (MAC)
 –Determines which computer has access to the network media at any given
time
 –Determines where one frame ends and the next one starts, called frame
synchronization
Network Layer
 Responsible for moving packets (data) from one end of the network to the
other, called end-to-end communications
 Requires logical addresses such as IP addresses
 Device example: Router
 –Routing is the ability of various network devices and their related software to
move data packets from source to destination
Transport Layer
 Takes data from higher levels of OSI Model and breaks it into segments that can
be sent to lower-level layers for data transmission
 Conversely, reassembles data segments into data that higher-level protocols
and applications can use
 Also puts segments in correct order (called sequencing ) so they can be
reassembled in correct order at destination
 Concerned with the reliability of the transport of sent data
 May use a connection-oriented protocol such as TCP to ensure destination
received segments
 May use a connectionless protocol such as UDP to send segments without
assurance of delivery
 Uses port addressing
Session Layer
 Responsible for managing the dialog between networked devices
 Establishes, manages, and terminates connections
 Provides duplex, half-duplex, or simplex communications between devices
 Provides procedures for establishing checkpoints, adjournment, termination,
and restart or recovery procedures
Presentation Layer
 Concerned with how data is presented to the network
 Handles three primary tasks: –Translation , –Compression , –Encryption

Application Layer
 Contains all services or protocols needed by application software or operating
system to communicate on the network
 Examples
o –Firefox web browser uses HTTP (Hyper-Text Transport Protocol)
o –E-mail program may use POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) to read e-mails
and SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) to send e-mails
The interaction between layers in the OSI model

An exchange using the OSI model

SUMMARY:
 TCP/IP Model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
–A protocol suite is a large number of related protocols that work together to
allow networked computers to communicate

Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

Application Layer
 Application layer protocols define the rules when implementing specific network
applications
 Rely on the underlying layers to provide accurate and efficient data delivery
 Typical protocols:
o FTP – File Transfer Protocol
 For file transfer
o Telnet – Remote terminal protocol
 For remote login on any other computer on the network
o SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
 For mail transfer
o HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol
 For Web browsing
 Encompasses same functions as these OSI Model layers Application
Presentation Session
Transport Layer
TCP &UDP
 TCP is a connection-oriented protocol
o Does not mean it has a physical connection between sender and receiver
o TCP provides the function to allow a connection virtually exists – also called
virtual circuit
 UDP provides the functions:
o Dividing a chunk of data into segments
o Reassembly segments into the original chunk
o Provide further the functions such as reordering and data resend
 Offering a reliable byte-stream delivery service
 Functions the same as the Transport layer in OSI
 Synchronize source and destination computers to set up the session between
the respective computers
Internet Layer
 The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets and
connects independent networks to transport the packets across network
boundaries. The network layer protocols are the IP and the Internet Control
Message Protocol (ICMP), which is used for error reporting.
Host-to-network layer
The Host-to-network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP reference model.
It combines the link layer and the physical layer of the ISO/OSI model. At
this layer, data is transferred between adjacent network nodes in a WAN or
between nodes on the same LAN.
THE INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives. It has affected
the way we do business as well as the way we spend our leisure time. Count
the ways you've used the Internet recently. Perhaps you've sent electronic
mail (e-mail) to a business associate, paid a utility bill, read a newspaper from
a distant city, or looked up a local movie schedule-all by using the Internet. Or
maybe you researched a medical topic, booked a hotel reservation, chatted
with a fellow Trekkie, or comparison-shopped for a car. The Internet is a
communication system that has brought a wealth of information to our
fingertips and organized it for our use.

A Brief History

A network is a group of connected communicating devices such as

computers and printers. An internet (note the lowercase letter i) is two or
more networks that can communicate with each other. The most notable
internet is called the Internet (uppercase letter I), a collaboration of more than
hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks. Private individuals as well
as various organizations such as government agencies, schools, research
facilities, corporations, and libraries in more than 100 countries use the
Internet. Millions of people are users. Yet this extraordinary communication
system only came into being in 1969.
In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in research organizations were
standalone devices. Computers from different manufacturers were unable to
communicate with one another. The Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) in the Department of Defense (DoD) was interested in finding a way to
connect computers so that the researchers they funded could share their
findings, thereby reducing costs and eliminating duplication of effort.
In 1967, at an Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) meeting,
ARPA presented its ideas for ARPANET, a small network of connected
computers. The idea was that each host computer (not necessarily from the
same manufacturer) would be attached to a specialized computer, called an
inteiface message processor (IMP). The IMPs, in tum, would be connected to
one another. Each IMP had to be able to communicate with other IMPs as well
as with its own attached host. By 1969, ARPANET was a reality. Four nodes, at
the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), the University of California
at Santa Barbara (UCSB), Stanford Research Institute (SRI), and the University
of Utah, were connected via the IMPs to form a network. Software called the
Network Control Protocol (NCP) provided communication between the hosts.
In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, both of whom were part of the core
ARPANET group, collaborated on what they called the Internetting Projec1.
Cerf and Kahn's landmark 1973 paper outlined the protocols to achieve end-
to-end delivery of packets. This paper on Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
included concepts such as encapsulation, the datagram, and the functions of
a gateway. Shortly thereafter, authorities made a decision to split TCP into two
protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internetworking Protocol
(lP). IP would handle datagram routing while TCP would be responsible for
higher-level functions such as segmentation, reassembly, and error detection.
The internetworking protocol became known as TCPIIP.
The Internet Today

The Internet has come a long way since the 1960s. The Internet today is not a
simple hierarchical structure. It is made up of many wide- and local-area
networks joined by connecting devices and switching stations. It is difficult to
give an accurate representation of the Internet because it is continually
changing-new networks are being added, existing networks are adding
addresses, and networks of defunct companies are being removed. Today
most end users who want Internet connection use the services of Internet
service providers (lSPs). There are international service providers, national
service providers, regional service providers, and local service providers. The
Internet today is run by private companies, not the government. Figure 1.13
shows a conceptual (not geographic) view of the Internet.
International Internet Service Providers:
At the top of the hierarchy are the international service providers that
connect nations together.
National Internet Service Providers:
The national Internet service providers are backbone networks created
and maintained by specialized companies. There are many national ISPs
operating in North America; some of the most well known are SprintLink,
PSINet, UUNet Technology, AGIS, and internet Mel. To provide connectivity
between the end users, these backbone networks are connected by complex
switching stations (normally run by a third party) called network access points
(NAPs). Some national ISP networks are also connected to one another by
private switching stations called peering points. These normally operate at a
high data rate (up to 600 Mbps).
Regional Internet Service Providers:
Regional internet service providers or regional ISPs are smaller ISPs that
are connected to one or more national ISPs. They are at the third level of the
hierarchy with a smaller data rate. Local Internet Service Providers:
Local Internet service providers provide direct service to the end users.
The local ISPs can be connected to regional ISPs or directly to national ISPs.
Most end users are connected to the local ISPs. Note that in this sense, a local
ISP can be a company that just provides Internet services, a corporation with
a network that supplies services to its own employees, or a nonprofit
organization, such as a college or a university, that runs its own network.
Each of these local ISPs can be connected to a regional or national service
provider.
 UNIT- II
DATA LINK LAYER FUNCTIONS (SERVICES)
1. Providing services to the network layer:
1 Unacknowledged connectionless service.
Appropriate for low error rate and real-time traffic. Ex: Ethernet
2. Acknowledged connectionless service.
Useful in unreliable channels, WiFi. Ack/Timer/Resend
3. Acknowledged connection-oriented service.
Guarantee frames are received exactly once and in the right order.
Appropriate over long, unreliable links such as a satellite channel or a long-
distance telephone circuit
2. Framing: Frames are the streams of bits received from the network layer
into manageable data units. This division of stream of bits is done by Data
Link Layer.
3. Physical Addressing: The Data Link layer adds a header to the frame in
order to define physical address of the sender or receiver of the frame, if
the frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network.
4. Flow Control: A receiving node can receive the frames at a faster rate
than it can process the frame. Without flow control, the receiver's buffer
can overflow, and frames can get lost. To overcome this problem, the data
link layer uses the flow control to prevent the sending node on one side of
the link from overwhelming the receiving node on another side of the link.
This prevents traffic jam at the receiver side.
5. Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a trailer at the end of
the frame. Duplication of frames are also prevented by using this
mechanism. Data Link Layers adds mechanism to prevent duplication of
frames.
Error detection: Errors can be introduced by signal attenuation and noise.
Data Link Layer protocol provides a mechanism to detect one or more
errors. This is achieved by adding error detection bits in the frame and then
receiving node can perform an error check.
Error correction: Error correction is similar to the Error detection, except
that receiving node not only detects the errors but also determine where
the errors have occurred in the frame.
6. Access Control: Protocols of this layer determine which of the devices has
control over the link at any given time, when two or more devices are
connected to the same link.
7. Reliable delivery: Data Link Layer provides a reliable delivery service,
i.e., transmits the network layer datagram without any error. A reliable
delivery service is accomplished with transmissions and
acknowledgements. A data link layer mainly provides the reliable delivery