POLITICAL SCIENCE

WESTERN CLASSICAL THOUGHT

Features Of Western Political Thought
Western political thought discusses the best government for Western societies. It has
some clear features.
o Ancient Greek foundations: Greek philosophy formed the foundations of Western
political thought. Plato and Aristotle discussed good rulers and good governments.
Their ideas still influence Western democracies today.
o The debate between rulers and rule: There is a debate between rule by wise leaders
versus rule by citizens. Plato favoured rule by philosopher kings. Aristotle thought
citizens should rule themselves in politics. This debate continues in Western
democracies now.
o Separation of powers: Western thinkers often suggest separating powers to limit
government. Montesquieu argued separation of legislative, executive and judicial
powers prevents tyranny. The American Constitution separates the powers of
government.
o Natural and human rights: Thinkers say people have natural human rights that limit
government power. John Locke said people have rights to life, liberty and property.
Governments exist to protect natural rights. This influenced the American Declaration
of Independence.
o Reason and science: Western political thought relies on reason and science, not
religion. Thinkers appeal to human rationality instead of the divine rights of kings.
Machiavelli separated politics and morality. Enlightenment thinkers used science and
reason.
o Limited government: Western thinkers often argue for a limited government that
maximises individual freedom. They say the government should protect rights and
maintain order but not interfere excessively. Locke favoured a limited government.
o Popular sovereignty: Many thinkers say the people are the source of political power.
Rousseau believed citizens should directly participate in the rule. The American
system has elected representatives of the people.
o Individualism: The West values individualism and individual rights. Thinkers
debated how to balance individual freedom with the common good. Individual liberty
is central to Western political thought.
o Changing perspectives: Western political thought changes with time and context.
Medieval thinkers focused on divine kingship. Renaissance thinkers argued for
constraining monarchs. Enlightenment thinkers valued individual rights and
democracy more.
o Practical focus: Western political thought focuses more on practical solutions than
abstract ideals. Thinkers discuss actual governance, systems, and constitutions rather
than Utopian visions.

In summary, Western political thought has Ancient Greek foundations. It debates rule
by wise leaders versus citizens. It suggests limiting government power through
separation of powers, natural rights and limited government. It relies on reason over
religion and values individual freedom. It also changes over time based on context.

Criticism Of Western Political Thought

Western political thought has been criticised on various grounds. Some critics argue
that it focuses too much on individualism at the cost of the interests of the community.
Others say that it is biased in favour of capitalism and economic growth. Still, others
believe that it excludes non-Western ideas and values. Here are some of the main
criticisms:
o Western political thought focuses too much on individual rights and freedoms. The
emphasis on individual liberty and freedom of choice ignores the fact that individuals
are part of larger communities and societies. Excessive individualism can weaken
social bonds and solidarity. The West puts too much importance on individual
autonomy and selfinterest.
o It promotes capitalist economic systems. Most Western political philosophers have
supported capitalist economic models that prioritise the free market, private property
and commercial exchange. Critics argue that capitalism leads to inequality and
exploitation of the poor. It also causes environmental degradation in the pursuit of
unlimited economic growth. But non-capitalist economic systems are ignored or
criticised in Western thought.
o It excludes non-Western ideas and values. Western political thought has mainly
developed ideas from Europe and the histories of Greco-Roman civilisations. It has
largely ignored political philosophies from Asia, Africa and other non-Western
cultures. This shows a bias towards Western values and a reluctance to consider ideas
outside the Western intellectual tradition. It is accused of cultural superiority and
exclusivism.
o It focuses on rights but ignores responsibilities. Western thought emphasises
individual rights like liberty, privacy and property rights. But it pays less attention to
individual responsibilities towards the community and environment. An overemphasis
on rights without corresponding responsibilities can cause social and moral problems.
o It prioritises material prosperity over spiritual and ethical values. Western political
philosophers have tended to evaluate societies based on criteria like economic growth,
technological progress and material abundance. But spiritual and moral qualities like
compassion, contentment and virtue have been seen as less important. But material
prosperity alone cannot make individuals and societies truly happy.

o In conclusion, while Western political thought has generated many valuable ideas, it
also has significant limitations from a non-Western perspective. A more inclusive
political philosophy would consider ideas from diverse cultures. It would seek a
proper balance between individualism and community, between rights and
responsibilities, and between material and spiritual values. A truly universal political
thought would transcend the limitations of any single cultural tradition.

Conclusion
Western political thought is significant. It shaped modern democracies and capitalism.
It influenced America's founding and the French Revolution. It developed concepts
like human rights, the rule of law and democracy. Though Western, its spread has been
global. Western thinkers continue debating relevant ideas. As its ideas evolve, western
political thought provides political alternatives to authoritarian systems. Though
originating in the West, western political thought became globally significant.

Salient Features of the Ancient Indian Political Ideas.

The political thought of Ancient India is diverse and complex, but some of the major
features of this tradition include:
1] Monarchy
2] Democratic Values
3] Decentralization
4] Dharma
5] Spies and Armies
6] Welfare State
7] Republics and Oligarchies

1] Monarchy
Monarchy was the most dominant form of government in ancient India. The king was
considered the supreme authority in the state and his duty was to maintain law and
order, provide justice, and protect his subjects.
For Example: Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata
In the early Indian polity, monarchy was the prevalent form of government. As stated
in the Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata, the state was composed of seven fundamental
constituents:
(i) Swamin, the sovereign ruler
(ii) Amatya, the officials
(iii) Janapada, the territory
(iv) Durga, the fortress
(v) Kosa, the treasure
(vi) Danda, the military, and
(vii) Mitra, the allies.

The Swamin or the sovereign was the primary authority figure and held the highest
position in the state.

The Amatyas, or officials, were appointed to manage the administration and perform
various duties on behalf of the sovereign.
The Janapada or the territory referred to the geographical boundaries of the state,
which were further divided into smaller regions for administrative purposes.

The Durga, or the fort, was a critical component of the state, serving as a defensive
structure to protect the people and resources from external threats.
The Kosa, or treasury, was responsible for managing the state's finances and storing
its wealth.

The Danda, or army, was responsible for maintaining law and order within the state
and defending it from external attacks. Finally, the Mitra, or allies, were other states or
entities that had formed a strategic alliance with the ruling state.

These seven constituents were crucial in the functioning of the state and played a
significant role in maintaining stability and ensuring the well-being of its people. The
early Indian polity was characterized by a well-structured and organized system of
governance, which helped in the development and growth of the state.

2] Democratic Values
Despite the prevalence of monarchical government, democratic values and public
opinion was highly respected in the political tradition. Both Brahmanical and Buddhist
literature provide detailed accounts of the workings of assemblies and the process of
decision-making through voting.

For Example:

Despite the prevalence of monarchical government in ancient India, democratic values

and public opinion were highly respected in the political tradition. Both Brahmanical
and Buddhist literature provide detailed accounts of the workings of assemblies and
the process of decision-making through voting. These texts suggest that democratic
ideals were present in ancient India, and that the principles of popular sovereignty and
representative government were important features of political life.
3] Decentralization
Many ancient Indian political thinkers emphasized the importance of decentralization
of power. They believed that the authority of the king should be balanced by the
autonomy of local officials and communities.

For Example:

"The Manusmriti The Manusrnriti espoused the necessity of political authority, as it

believed that without it, society would be plagued by disorder. According to Manu, the
state should have villages, districts, and provinces, which closely resembles the
present-day administrative structure. His system was based on the principle of
decentralization of authority. He suggested that an assembly of learned individuals, as
well as state officials, should advise the king. The authorities of the village and district
should function independently, with the king only interfering or providing assistance
when required.
The Manusmriti's emphasis on political authority and decentralization of power
highlights the importance of an organized and well-structured system of governance.
It recognizes that a strong political authority is essential to maintaining order and
stability within society, while also recognizing the importance of local authorities in
ensuring that the needs of individual communities are met.

4] Dharma
The concept of dharma was central to ancient Indian political thought. It referred to
the moral and ethical principles that guided the behavior of individuals and the Manu
suggested that an assembly of learned individuals, as well as state officials, should
advise the king. Members of this assembly should be objective and fearless when
making decisions based on the principles of dharma. Manusmriti's system of
governance is designed to ensure that the welfare of the people is the primary concern,
and that decisions are made based on the principles of dharma. The canonical
literature of Buddhism advocates that a monarch should rule in accordance with the
law of truth and righteousness. The ruler should not tolerate any wrongdoing within
their territory and should take care of the poor. This aligns with the Buddhist teachings
of compassion and ethical conduct, emphasizing the importance of governing justly
and with the well-being of all in mind.

5] Spies and Armies

Many ancient Indian texts emphasize the importance of having well-organized armies
and intelligence networks to maintain law and order and protect the state from
external threats. For Example: Kautilya's Arthashastra Kautilya recommended the
organization of armies and spies to keep a watch on internal and external
developments. He recognized the importance of being aware of potential threats to the
state, and believed that a king should be proactive in safeguarding his people's
interests. In addition, a good king should undertake welfare activities in the interest of
all, to ensure that the needs of the community were met.

6] Welfare State
Ancient Indian political thinkers also emphasized the importance of the welfare state.
The king was expected to take care of the welfare of his subjects and ensure that
everyone had access to basic necessities like food, water, and healthcare.

For Example:

According to Manusmriti, the king's primary concern should be the welfare of the
people. Members of the assembly should work together to ensure that the king's
decisions are just and fair, while also considering the well-being of the community as
a whole. The Shanti Parva of Mahabharat also mentions that the seven constituents
were crucial in the functioning of the state and played a significant role in maintaining
stability and ensuring the well-being of its people.

7] Republics and Oligarchies

Greek and Roman accounts of India suggest that many places were governed by
republics and oligarchies. The Buddhist Pali canon also talks about the existence of
many republics, mainly in the foothills of the Himalayas and in North Bihar. This
indicates that democratic values and principles of popular sovereignty were important
features of political life in ancient India.

For Example:

According to Greek and Roman accounts of India, beginning in 327-324 B.C. when
Alexander invaded India, there were many places in India that were governed by
oligarchies. The Buddhist Pali canon also mentions the existence of many republics,
particularly in the foothills of the Himalayas and in North Bihar. This suggests that in
addition to monarchies, ancient India was also characterized by a diverse array of
political systems, including republics, which provided an alternative to traditional
monarchical rule. Lastly, Tiruvalluvar's Tiru-k-Kural suggests that the essentials of a
state include having an adequate army, industrious people, ample resources and food,
alliances with foreign powers, and dependable fortifications. It also stresses that
successful statecraft involves obtaining support without revealing one's weaknesses.
This emphasis on military strength, economic prosperity, diplomacy, and strategic
planning reflects the importance placed on these factors in ancient Indian political
thought.

Short comings of ancient Indian political thought

The ancient Indian Political thought suffered from a number of weaknesses, some of
the important among them are given below.

▪ The Writers of ancient Indian Political thought were much influenced by schools and
systems. The Vedic theological schools, schools of the sacred Tradition (Smriti)
schools of the Buddhist Canons and Arthasashtra etc. had significant influence upon
the scholars of ancient Indian Political thought. This resulted in lack of original
thinking in the mind of authors. What is distressing is that sometimes their ideas are
even full of ambiguities.

▪ Another problem with regard to ancient political thought is chronology or lack of

chronological order. There are different views regarding the dates of different
writings. As for example, there are three dates starting from 3rd Century to 7th
Century AD. Regarding the political treaties of Kamandaka. Consequently, it is
problematic to relate time to the theories of ancient Indian Political Thought.

▪ Still another problem of ancient Indian political thought is the lack of consensus
regarding the meaning of different terms and roles of various political institutions. As
for example, different scholars have assigned different meanings to different terms
like Dandaniti, dharmaniti, Dharma, Rajniti, Samiti, Sabha etc. It is extremely difficult
for an average student to understand these terms. The problem still continues even
with the modern scholars who have not yet been able to root out this problem.

Conclusion
The ancient Indian Political thought is one of the most developed political thoughts
not only in India but all over the World. Unfortunately, this fact has not been well
recognized. There are multiple reasons for this. First, the ancient Indian Political
Thought has not been properly codified. Efforts has not been properly made to define
codify and outline the scope of the study of ancient Indian Political Thought. It is
urgently necessary that the political ideas of ancient political philosophers should be
properly analysed and their importance for Indian Politics should be emphasized.
Moreover, their philosophy may also be used for solving global problems. The ancient
Indian Political Thought and its philosophers needs reintroduction into the totality of
Political thought so that they can claim rightful place in the history of Political thought
DEMOCRACY
Democracy is more than just a set of specific government institutions; it rests upon a
well understood group of values, attitudes, and practices – all of which may take
different forms and expressions among different cultures and societies around
theWorld. These are certain pillars, tenets, or principles of democratic
rule. They Differentiate democratic rule from any other types of government. Any
democracy around the world can be evaluated on the basis of these principles.
Following are the characteristics of a democratic government.

1. Fundamental Rights and Freedom

Fundamental rights are much more than a mere component of democracy.
Theyrepresent sine qua non requirements for the well performing of a democratic
system.The development and evolution of human rights are only possible when
humans live in a democracy, given the fact that it is only within this system that the
population itself can draw up the laws which will govern them.Moreover, human
rights are only efficient when the State power is linked to an autonomy and
independence right, and when all the individuals are treated on equal terms in front of
this justice. IndianConstitution also enshrined certain rights as fundamental rights of
the people and require state and judiciary to protect them.

2. Free and Fair Elections

Elections constitute one of the most important pillars of democracy. Elections as
the“means of filling public offices by competitive struggle for the people’s vote” has
become synonymous with democracy as it empowers the common citizens with the
right to choose their leaders. As a result, elections have become one of the yardsticks
for measuring how democratic a country is. Democratic elections are free
when citizens have the right to choose from several candidates or parties that can run
for the election without any restriction. They must also be free to decide whether they
want to use their right to vote or to abstain from doing so, if they prefer. Democratic
elections are equitable when each citizen who can use his/her right to vote
has at his/her disposal a vote and when neither his/her origin nor his/her sex,
language, incomes or possessions, job or social stratus/class, sexual identity, training,
religion or political convictions have an influence on the value of his/her vote.

3. Rule of Law
In a democratic State, all the citizens are equal in front of the law. A central element
of the rule of law in a democracy is equality before the law. The rule of law is the
principle that the law should rule in the sense that it establishes a framework to
whichall conduct and behavior conform, applying equally to all the members of
society, bethey private citizens or government officials. It means that no individual,
whether president or private citizen, stands above the law. The rule of law is thus
a core democratic principle, embodying ideas like constitutionalism, which is the
practice of the rule of law and limited government. The rule of law protects
fundamental political, social, and economic rights and defends the citizen from
the threats of tyranny and lawlessness. Democratic Governments exercise
authority by way of the law and are themselves subject to the law's constraints. The
State can only take action when it has been vested with the accruing responsibility by
law or by the Constitution. Rule of Law holds the State Accountable for its acts
in front of the citizens and it also gives the latter the opportunity to take
a stand and to react according to its acts. In this State ruled order,citizens are
completely free to take part in political life as well.
4. Democratic Pluralism
In a democracy, pluralism is considered and applied as a form of social order and
policy. In politics, pluralism implies that a large number of interest groupings and
associations that get together freely are reciprocally in a situation of competition to
win influence on social and political life. A plural society is characterized by
respect,acceptance and recognition of all points of view; no matter how different or
diverging they can be; and their dissemination, as well as their enforcement should not
be faced with any obstacle. Pluralism is based on controversial discussions whose
results are often built on compromises which eventually satisfy all the involved
groups, or at the very least, are acceptable as a whole.

5. Constitutionalism
A constitution defines the basic purposes and aspirations of a society for the sake of
the common welfare of the people. All citizens, including the nation's leaders, are
subject to the nation's constitution, which stands as the supreme law of the land. At a
minimum, the constitution, which is usually codified in a single written
document,establishes the authority of the national government, provides
guarantees or fundamental human rights, and sets forth the government’s
basic operating procedures. Constitutionalism recognizes that democratic and
accountable government must be coupled with clearly defined limits on the
power of government. All laws,therefore, must be written in accordance with
the constitution. In a democracy, a politically independent judiciary allows citizens to
challenge laws they believe to be unconstitutional, and to seek court-ordered
remedies for illegal actions by the government or its officials.

6. Separation of Powers
Any government without checks and balances on its powers is likely to abuse those
powers. The most common form of abuse of power is corruption by government
officials. Control of abuse of power can be achieved through a number of ways, i.e.by
way of separation of powers of the three arms of government – the
legislature,executive and the Judiciary – and by ensuring the independence of the
three. In a constitutional democracy, the power of government is divided so that the
legislature makes the laws, the executive authority carries them out, and the judiciary
operates quasi-independently.

7. Free and Independent Media

The media in a democracy have a number of overlapping but distinctive functions that
remain fundamentally unchanged. One is to inform and educate. To make intelligent
decisions about public policy, people need accurate, timely, unbiased information.
Second function of the media is to serve as a watchdog over the government and other
powerful institutions in society. By holding to a standard of independence and
objectivity, however imperfectly, the news media can expose the truth behind
theclaims of governments and hold public officials accountable for their actions.

8. Space for Opposition, Civil Society and Interest Groups

The right of individuals to associate freely and to organize themselves as they see fitis
fundamental to democracy. In a democratic State, there is always an opposition that
exists parallel with the government. It constitutes a beacon for the government. Its
Presence is necessary to guarantee an exchange of points of view. Democracy in fact
feeds its dynamic on such permanent conflicts between points of views, and on the
discussions that result from them. Similarly, civil society constitutes the
nongovernmental sector such as NGOs that functions for the upliftment of society and
both work and pressurize the government to make policies for the welfare of
people.Interest groups for example farmers organizations, labor union, women’s group
all tries to protect the interest of their communities.

CONDITIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL WORKING OF DEMOCRACY

1. Vigilance:
● Alertness of the people is essential condition without which the true idea of
democracy cannot be realized.
● According to Bryce, "indolence and indifference on the part of the citizens are
the two enemies of democracy."
● Constant vigilance is the price of liberty. In the absence of proper vigilance,
democracy is liable to be perverted.
2. Education:
● The greatest defect in the working of democracy lies in the fact that the masses
in whom the power is vested are mostly uneducated, in the third world
countries.
● They do not properly comprehend the political problems of their country and
the value of their votes. Lack of consciousness is dangerous in a democracy.
● Without a spirit of reasonableness, democracy is bound to degenerate into mob
rule.
● This defect can be remedied by universal education and wide dissemination of
knowledge.

3. Written Constitution and Independent Judiciary :

● Some writers believe that a written constitution is also essential for a success of
Democracy.
● A written constitution helps in the safeguarding of individual liberty and
keeping the different organs of government within the respective spheres of
their authority.
● Sir Henry Maine says, with a wise constitution, the turbulence of democracy
may be restrained and made as calm as in a reservoir".

4. Freedom of Speech, Association and Press:

● Individual liberty is the core of democracy. These freedoms allow a free scope
for the proper expansion of human personality.
● Absence of individual liberty dwarfs human personality and consequently
affects democracy adversely.

5. Removal of Gross Inequalities of Wealth:

● Extremes of wealth and poverty obstruct the success of democracy to a very
great extent. Many scholars believe that political equality is impossible in the
absence of economic equality.
● In the opinion of Karl Marx, state is not a neutral agency. It favors those who
are economically dominant in every society. Experience has shown that
whatever may be the actual form of government, political power tends to
gravitate towards those who wield economic power. This is, indeed, the
greatest threat to the success of political democracy. In a class-divided society,
the rich will always have an upper hand and the poor will always suffer.
● Therefore, the success of democracy demands a re-adjustment of economic
relations in such a way that vast differences of wealth may disappear and every
citizen be provided with the material means of a decent existence and adequate
leisure for public affairs.

6. Spirit of Toleration:
● Democracy is a government by debate and discussion. A keen spirit of
toleration is essential for constructive criticism and healthy discussion.
● Moreover, democratic government implies a government by the majority. The
majority should be sympathetic towards the minorities and the minorities
should be willing to submit to the decisions of the majority.

7. Civic Sense:
● The citizens should possess a high degree of civic sense. They should take a
living and healthy interest in the public life of their country.
● They should also possess a high standard of honest and moral rectitude. Power
may be misused for ignoble purposes in the absence of these virtues.

8. Sound Party System

● In order to make democracy a success, a healthy and influential opposition is a
must; otherwise the ruling party will become an autocrat after winning the
election.
● The Opposition keeps a check on the autocratic activities of ministers. Without
it, there is every likelihood of then being power-corrupt.

9. Decentralization of Powers and Local Self-Government

● For the success of a democracy, decentralization of powers is essential.
● The concentration of power makes the government autocratic.
● The French writer De Tocqueville has rightly said that, “Local institutions
constitute the strength of free nations. A nation may establish a system of free
governments but without municipal institutions it cannot have the spirit of
liberty.”
DEMOCRACY V DICTATORSHIP

Democracy Dictatorship

The head of the country in a democratic One individual is the sole

government is the one who gets the most authority of the country with no
support in the form of votes in a general election. institution to keep its power in
check

Political control in a country is provided through In a dictatorship no elections take

free and fair elections, with two or more political place or they are heavily
parties being involved. regulated by restricting the
number of political parties and
limiting gatherings and
associations

The media in a democratic form of government is The media is the mouthpiece of a

known as the fourth pillar of democracy as they dictatorial government.
watch the government’s every move and criticise Regardless of what a dictator
it should any misstep be taken. does, the media will only show
what needs to be shown to the
masses so that a cult of
personality is always maintained.

In a democracy, the fundamental rights of the In a dictatorship, little importance

citizen are protected by the constitution. Citizens is given to fundamental rights,
have the right to join political parties and other with the populace being generally
organizations. subjected to constant policing,
monitoring and brutality.
 The earliest forms of democracy appeared in Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix and
Ancient Greece. It is generally accepted that the Gaius Julius Ceaser of Ancient
Athenians established what is held as the first Rome can be considered as the
democracy in 508–507 BC. The democracy was first dictators.
rudimentary in the sense that only free-males of
Athens could cast their votes but not women and
slaves

FEDERAL FORM OF GOVERNMENT

Features of the federal government .
A federal system has following features:

1. In the first place under federal system there is supremacy of the constitution . The
powers of the duties of the central as well as sate government are detailed out in the
constitution . The supremacy of constitution is also warranted to ensure that both the
central and sates governments carry out their terms of agreement . The government as
the center as in the sate is carried on in accordance with the provision of the
constitution , which cannot easily changed by the by the central of the government
single handedly .

2. Secondly , federal government implies government divisions of power between the

center and the units . Generally subjects of national importance such as , defence ,
currency, foreign affairs etc are vested in the central government and subjects of local
or regional importance such as agriculture, health, police etc

3. Thirdly , federal government presupposes the existence of an independents

judiciary which resolves the conflicts between the center and the units and well as the
units themselves. In the U.S.A as well as India an independent supreme court has been
provided , which is independent of the central as well as regional governments and
tries to ensure that the two operate within the limitation set by the constitution . mIf
the actions there either conflict with the provisions of the constitution , the supreme
court can declare them as ultra vires.

4. Fourthly , the federal government implies the existence of a bicameral legislature .

Generally the members of the lower house are elected by the people and various units
are accorded representation on the basis of population . On the other hand the upper
house represents the units as such . In certain countries like the U.S.A , Switzerland
and USSR the units are given equal representation irrespective of their size and
population . On the other hand in Indian and Canadian federation and units have not
been provided equal representation .

5. Finally , generally in a federation a citizen enjoys double citizenship viz.., the

citizenship of the federation and respective state to which he belongs. In Switzerland
as well as U.S.A citizens enjoys double citizenship. However , in India all the citizens
have been granted single citizenship viz.., the citizenship of India.

Merits of the federal government .

The main merits of federal government are as follows:
1. Firstly , a federal government reconciles national unity with local diversity and
autonomy . Under this system small and militarily weak states can join hands to creat
a central government and also retain their independence and autonomy .

2. Secondly , the federal system of government is based on divisions of powers

between which leads to administrative efficiency. Generally the local matters are
tackled by the state governments and central governments concentrate only on
problems of national importance . This imparts efficiency to administration .

3. Thirdly , under the federal government due to the existence of dual polity and
division of power there is very little chance for the central government to become
despotic. In other words the federal system there is no danger of despotism .

4. Fourthly , the federal government is most suitable for countries with vast territories
and inhabited by people of different races , cultures etc. It enables these groups to
retain their individual entity along with national unity.

5. Fifthly , the federal government is also economically beneficial . Under this system
small independent states can pool their resources and achieve rapid development . The
elimination of inter- state tariff barriers amongst the state also contributes towards the
property of the state increasing their trade personalities. In the foreign spheres the
federal government leads to a greater economy because they are saved from the
burden of maintaining separate representatives and embassies.

6. Sixthly , the federal government can also serve as a model for world government . It
is admitted at all hands that though the idea of a world-state does not seem to be
realizable in the near future of a world state were ever to emerge it would certainly be
the pattern of the federal system.
7. Federal system imparts greater political education to the people by affording them
an opportunity to participate with governmental activities at the central as well as state
levels. 8. Finally, the federal government enables the state governments to experiment
with different methods of administration and laws in the listed spheres thereby
minimizing the risk of damage. Once these experiments prove successful they can be
easily adopted at the national level.

Demerits of federal government

1. In the first place the federal government is a weak government because it is based
on division of powers. Further there is also the problem of constantly balancing one
state of federation against another.

2. Secondly, in the foreign sphere also the federal government is rather weak. The
state government can pose obstruction in the way the central government with regard
to implementation of treaties. It is well known that the government of West Bengal
strongly opposed the transfer of Bera Bori to Pakistan even after the conclusion of
agreement by the government of India with Pakistan.

3. Thirdly, under the federal system there is always scope for conflicts between the
national and local interest. While the states tend to their local interest, the central
government adopts policy which is national interest. As a result, there are bound to be
conflicts between the two sets of policies.

4. Fourthly, federal government is more expensive because it demands double set of

government. Apart from financial burden the double set of government leads to delays
and causes unnecessary irritation.

5. Fifthly, the federal government is not able to change according to the requirements
of the time due to presence of a written and rigid constitution. No doubt there is
always provision for amendment of the constitution, but under the federal system it is
always possible that different political parties may be in power at the center and the
units and it may not be easy to affecting necessary amendments in the constitution.
This rigidity stands in the way of progress.

6. Sixthly, federal system due to division in the law making power between the center
and the states there is always the possibility of a variety of laws on the same matter.
Presidential System of Government
In a presidential system, the head of the government leads an executive, that is distinct
from the legislature. Here, the head of the government and the head of the state are
one and the same. Also, a key feature is that the executive is not responsible to the
legislature.

Features of the Presidential System

1. The executive (President) can veto acts by the legislature.

2. The President has a fixed tenure and cannot be removed by a vote of
no-confidence in the legislature.
3. Generally, the President has the power to pardon or commute judicial sentences
awarded to criminals.
4. The President is elected directly by the people or by an electoral college.

Merits of Presidential System

The advantages of the presidential system are given below:

● Separation of powers: Efficiency of administration is greatly enhanced since

the three arms of the government are independent of each other.
● Expert government: Since the executive need not be legislators, the President
can choose experts in various fields to head relevant departments or ministries.
This will make sure that people who are capable and knowledgeable form part
of the government.
● Stability: This type of government is stable. Since the term of the president is
fixed and not subject to majority support in the legislative, he need not worry
about losing the government. There is no danger of a sudden fall of the
government. There is no political pressure on the president to make decisions.
● Less influence of the party system: Political parties do not attempt to dislodge
the government since the tenure is fixed.

Demerits of Presidential System

The disadvantages of the presidential system are given below:

● Less responsible executive: Since the legislature has no hold over the
executive and the president, the head of the government can turn authoritarian.
 ● Deadlocks between executive and legislature: Since there is a more strict
separation of powers here, there can be frequent tussles between both arms of
the government, especially if the legislature is not dominated by the president’s
political party. This can lead to an erosion in efficiency because of wastage of
time.
● Rigid government: Presidential systems are often accused of being rigid. It
lacks flexibility.
● Spoils system: The system gives the president sweeping powers of patronage.
Here, he can choose executives as per his will. This gives rise to the spoils
system where people close to the president (relatives, business associates, etc.)
get roles in the government.

Parliamentary System of Government

India chose a parliamentary form of government primarily because the
constitution-makers were greatly influenced by the system in England. Another reason
the founding fathers saw was that the parliamentary model would only work to
accommodate the varied and diverse groups within our population. Also, the strict
separation of powers in the presidential system would cause conflicts between the two
branches, the executive and the legislature, which our newly-independent country
could ill-afford.

There are more parliamentary forms of government in the world than there are
presidencies. In this system, the parliament is generally supreme and the executive is
responsible to the legislature. It is also known as the Cabinet form of government, and
also ‘Responsible Government’.

Features of the parliamentary system

1. Close relationship between the legislature and the executive: Here, the
Prime Minister along with the Council of Ministers form the executive and the
Parliament is the legislature. The PM and the ministers are elected from the
members of parliament, implying that the executive emerges out of the
legislature.
2. Executive responsible to the legislature: The executive is responsible to the
legislature. There is a collective responsibility, that is, each minister’s
responsibility is the responsibility of the whole Council.
 3. Dual executive: There are two executives – the real executive and the titular
executive. The nominal executive is the head of state (president or monarch)
while the real executive is the Prime Minister, who is the head of government.
4. Secrecy of procedure: A prerequisite of this form of government is that
cabinet proceedings are secret and not meant to be divulged to the public.
5. Leadership of the Prime Minister: The leader of this form of government is
the Prime Minister. Generally, the leader of the party that wins a majority in the
lower house is appointed as the PM.
6. Bicameral Legislature: Most parliamentary democracies follow bicameral
legislature.
7. No fixed tenure: The term of the government depends on its majority support
in the lower house. If the government does not win a vote of no confidence, the
council of ministers has to resign. Elections will be held and a new government
is formed.

Although India follows this system chiefly influenced by the British model, there are a
few differences between the Indian and British systems. They are:

● In India, the PM can be from either the Rajya Sabha or the Lok Sabha. In
Britain, the PM will always be from the lower house, the House of Commons.
● In Britain, the speaker once appointed, formally resigns from his/her political
party. In India, the speaker continues to be a member of his/her party though
he/she is expected to be impartial in the proceedings.
● The concept of a shadow cabinet is absent in India. In Britain, the opposition
forms a shadow cabinet that scrutinises the actions and policies of the
government. It also offers alternative programmes.

Merits of Parliamentary System

The advantages of the parliamentary system are as follows:

● Better coordination between the executive and the legislature: Since the
executive is a part of the legislature, and generally the majority of the
legislature support the government, it is easier to pass laws and implement
them.
● Prevents authoritarianism: Since the executive is responsible to the
legislature, and can vote it out in a motion of no confidence, there is no
authoritarianism. Also, unlike the presidential system, power is not
concentrated in one hand.
 ● Responsible government: The members of the legislature can ask questions
and discuss matters of public interest and put pressure on the government. The
parliament can check the activities of the executive.
● Representing diverse groups: In this system, the parliament offers
representation to diverse groups of the country. This is especially important for
a country like India.
● Flexibility: There is flexibility in the system as the PM can be changed easily
if needed. During the Second World War, the British PM Neville Chamberlain
was replaced by Winston Churchill. This is unlike the presidential system
where he/she can be replaced only after the entire term or in case of
impeachment/incapacity.

Demerits of Parliamentary System

The disadvantages of the parliamentary system are as follows:

● No separation of powers: Since there is no genuine separation of powers, the

legislature cannot always hold the executive responsible. This is especially true
if the government has a good majority in the house. Also, because of
anti-defection rules, legislators cannot exercise their free will and vote as per
their understanding and opinions. They have to follow the party whip.
● Unqualified legislators: The system creates legislators whose intention is to
enter the executive only. They are largely unqualified to legislate.
● Instability: Since the governments sustain only as long as they can prove a
majority in the house, there is instability if there is no single-largest party after
the elections. Coalition governments are generally quite unstable and
short-lived. Because of this, the executive has to focus on how to stay in power
rather than worry about the state of affairs/welfare of the people.
● Ministers: The executive should belong to the ruling party. This rules out the
hiring of industry experts for the job.
● Failure to take a prompt decision: Since there is no fixed tenure enjoyed by
the Council of Ministers, it often hesitates from taking bold and long-term
policy decisions.
● Party politics: Party politics is more evident in the parliamentary system
where partisan interests drive politicians more than national interests.
● Control by the bureaucracy: Civil servants exercise a lot of power. They
advise the ministers on various matters and are also not responsible to the
legislature.
CONFEDERAL GOVERNMENT
Definition
A confederation can be described as a group of independent states that come together
in the form of a flexible federation where more power is retained by the regional units
than the central government.

In 1981, Gambia and Senegal came together to form the Senegambia Confederation
which later collapsed in 1989.

FEATURES OF A CONFEDERAL GOVERNMENT

Weak Central Government
One of the features of a confederation is that the central government is usually weak
while the component units are rather strong. The powers that are delegated to the
central government are usually fewer and less serious.

Power sharing
In a confederation, the component states are vested with exclusive powers, especially
foreign affairs, while the residual powers are reserved for the central government.

Status of component units

Under a confederal system of government, the component states are allowed to remain
as separate international entities. Therefore, it retains the power to handle its own
foreign policy. This is unlike in a federal system where such powers are reserved
exclusively for the central government.

Units provide resources to defend the union

Another feature of a confederal government is that the confederal government
depends upon the component states to contribute soldiers and resources to defend the
confederation.

Membership
Another feature of a confederation is that it is made up of two or more independent
states. The Senegambian Confederation, for example, was made up of two
independent countries.

Loyalty to component units

In a confederal system of government, the citizens tend to be loyal to the component
states rather than the central government. This is in spite of the fact that the central
government controlled the two levels of government.
Right of Secession
Unlike in the federal system of government where the right of secession is denied, in a
confederation, the constitution allows for any of the component units to secede at any
time if it so desires.

QUASI FEDERAL FORM OF GOVERNMENT

Quasi federalism

Federal theorist K.C. Wheare has argued that the nature of Indian Constitution is
quasi-federal in nature.
The SC in Sat Pal v State of Punjab and Ors (1969) held that the Constitution of India
is more Quasi-federal than federal or unitary.

What is Quasi-federalism?
Quasi-federalism means an intermediate form of state between a unitary state and a
federation. It combines the features of a federal government and the features of a
unitary government.

Why India opted for Quasi Federalism/centralized federalism

● First was the partition of India and the immediate concerns.
● The second reason was the reconstitution of social relations in a highly
hierarchical and discriminatory society towards forging a national civic identity
● The third reason concerns the objective of building a welfare state and
● The final reason was to alleviate inter-regional economic inequality.
● To achieve the above mentioned objectives, centralized federalism was
essential

What are the Quasi federal features of Indian State?

● Article 3 – Destructible nature of states, unlike in other federations, the states
in India have no right to territorial integrity. The parliament can change the
area, boundaries, or name of any state.

● Single Constitution, it is applicable to both the Union as a whole and the

Stares. In a true federation, there are separate constitutions for the union and
the States.
 ● In Rajya Sabha, the States do not have equal representation. The populous
States have more representatives in the Rajya Sabha than the less populous
States.
● The emergency provisions are contained in Part XVIII of the Constitution of
India, from Articles 352 to 360. In the emergency provisions, the central
government becomes all-powerful and the states go into total control of the
Centre.

● All India Services violate the principle of federalism under the constitution.

● The governor is appointed by the president. He also acts as an agent of the

Centre. Through him, the Centre exercises control over the states.

● India has a unified or integrated judicial system. The High Court’s which
work in the States are under the Supreme Court of India.

● Union veto over State Bills: The governor has the authority to hold certain
sorts of laws passed by the state legislature for presidential consideration.

Advantages of Quasi Federal System

● National Integration – With the various provisions like Article 356, separatist
tendency can be tackled
● Cooperation and Coordination: A Quasi Federal structure allows Centre to
coordinate National level programmes. For instance, Canter and State
collaborated in their against pandemic
● Resolving Inter State Conflicts: A quasi federal structure allows centre to act
as an arbiter in case of Inter State dispute. For example Border dispute and
River Water dispute

Challenges
● Abuse of Power by Centre: The federal provisions of the Constitution can
only be amended with consent of the States. But Center often violates this
provision. For instance, the recent Farm Laws.
● Misuse of Governor Office: imposition of constitutional Emergency in a state,
reserving bills for President assents etc
● Other problems: delayed disbursal of resources and tax proceeds, bias
towards electorally unfavorable States, evasion of accountability, blurring
spheres of authority, weakening institutions etc.
All these signal towards the diminishing of India’s plurality or regionalization of
the nation — a process that is highly antithetical to the forging of a supra-local and
secular national identity that preserves and promotes pluralism.

RULE OF LAW
Characteristics of rule of law
The doctrine of rule of law comprises several characteristics which are as follows:

● The Rule of Law explicitly condemns arbitrary actions by men. The foundation
of the Rule of Law is safeguarded when authorities are not permitted to govern
as per their inclinations and eccentricities while practising their authority.
● No one can be prosecuted or severely punished under the concept of the Rule
of Law unless and until he has violated the laws.
● As per the Rule of Law, everybody is equal before the law. No one is above the
law. Law does not change itself depending on the person before the law. Rich,
poor, white, or black plays no role in the implementation of law and it provides
justice to everyone irrespective of their caste, creed, status, gender, etc.
● The Rule of Law is a fundamental basis of most democracies around the world
because it is pervasive in its applicability and has been a component of most
judicial systems around the globe.
● As per the doctrine of Rule of Law, an individual could only be penalised if he
is accused of a violation of any law and that accusation is proven by an
autonomous entity, such as a court.

Basic principles of rule of law

The doctrine of rule of law comprises several basic principles. Some of them are as
follows:

● Supremacy of Law. Law is above everyone irrespective of an individual’s rank,

status or position.
● Whims and Fancies play no role in a state where rule of law prevails. All the
actions of the legislature and the executive are held in accordance with laws.
● No person shall suffer due to the arbitrariness of another. One can be punished
only by the procedure established by law and for the violation of such law.
● The absence of arbitrariness and discretionary decision-making is the heart and
soul of the Rule of Law.
● The rule of law entails equality before the law and equal protection of the law.
 ● There are powers provided to people holding specific authority. Such power
shall be exercised keeping in mind the limitations and boundaries that are set
by the law itself.
● Law provides protection and justice against any tyrannical action taken by the
executive.
● The judiciary is the preserver as well as the protector of the rule of law. It is
meant to be independent and free from biases.
● For every action taken by the executive, just procedure should be followed, and
fair treatment should be provided to all the individuals.
● A speedy trial is the basic component of rule of law. It entails ‘Justice delayed
is justice denied’.

A.V DICEY’S THEORY OF RULE OF LAW

Albert Venn Dicey, a Britain-based constitutional jurist, is given the credit for
propounding the concept of rule of law which was originally introduced by Sir
Edward Coke. In 1885, Dicey in his book – ‘The Law of the Constitution’ enumerated
the concept of Rule of Law which made a differentiation between the law of
administration and the rule of law.

He gave several real-life examples to explain his theory. He stated that the essence of
rule of law is equality and equal treatment. He took the instance of the person in
power, say, the Prime Minister, and an ordinary citizen of a country working in a 9 to
5 job. He said that in a state where rule of law prevails both the prime minister as well
as an ordinary citizen of a country working in a 9 to 5 job shall be treated equally
irrespective of the position they are holding.

Hence, the same laws should be enforced for everybody, there should be no distinction
under the rule of law based on certain defined variables. The rule of law advocates the
supremacy of law. A.V Dicey proposed three postulates of Rule of Law, which are as
follows:

● Supremacy of Law
● Equality before the Law
● The predominance of legal spirit
Postulates of rule of law

Supremacy of Law
It is the first postulate of Dicey’s theory of rule of law. It indicates that the law is
supreme over all individuals. It also includes the individuals who are making,
administering, or executing the laws. As per the words of Dicey, the rule of law is
constituted by absolute supremacy of the laws in contrast to the tyrannical power
exercised by the government. In brief, an individual must only be penalised for a
specific violation of the laws, and not for something else. The individual must not be
prosecuted by the state just on the ground of its unilateral arbitrary will. One can only
be punished in accordance with established legislation.

Furthermore, Dicey claimed that personal discretion can have no place where the rule
of law is supreme. Discretion, he believes, is linked to arbitrary nature. According to
Dicey, whenever a decision is taken through personal discretion, there is ample
opportunity for the state’s arbitrary nature as well as discretionary control to
undermine the fundamental liberty of the individuals.

Equality before Law

The second postulate of Dicey’s theory of Rule of Law is Equality before law. It states
that every individual, regardless of status or rank, is subject to ordinary laws of the
land as well as the jurisdiction of the ordinary court, not any special court. All the
special courts offering competence under special laws, in his opinion, are a danger to
the values of equality. As a result, he believes that all individuals should be governed
under the same code of norms and values and be legally challenged by the very same
civil courts.

Even the Indian Constitution states the second pillar of Dicey’s theory of rule of law.
Under Article 14 of the Constitution of India, it is stated that –

Equality before Law – “The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law
or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India.”

The predominance of the legal spirit

The third postulate of Dicey’s theory of Rule of Law is the predominance of legal
spirit. As per Dicey, for the rule of law to prevail, there has to be an enforcement
institution, which he recognised in the court system. He felt that because the courts are
the actual enforcers of the rule of law, they should be devoid of bias and extraneous
intervention. The autonomy of the judicial system is thus a critical component for the
functioning of the rule of law. He claimed that the institutions of law, rather than the
codified constitution, are the supreme guardians for the protection of the fundamental
rights of the individuals.