Unit-1

Computer Systems and Organization

Basic Computer Organization

Introduction to Computer System

A computer is an electronic device that takes instructions and data from a user as input, processes them,
and produces some meaningful output as a result. Computers are a combination of hardware and
software. Computer systems work on the IPO (Input-Process-Output) Model. They process information
stored as binary digits (0s and 1s) and perform complex tasks with incredible speed and accuracy.

● Hardware are physical components which can be seen and touched (tangible). Examples of
hardware include CPU, mouse, keyboard, monitor, motherboard, cables, CPU case, power supply
unit, RAM, graphics card, sound card etc.
● Various hardware components are interconnected together using a pathway called 'Bus', that
facilitates the transfer of data.
● Software is a set of instructions, its documentation and data, which are stored digitally on the
computer. Examples are Microsoft Windows, Linux, Paint, Word, PowerPoint, Photoshop, VLC
Media Player, VS Code, Python. The software is intangible, i.e cannot be touched.
● A computer system receives instructions from the user (usually a human) using Input Devices.
● The Operating System (OS) is a crucial piece of software that allows users to interact with the
computer hardware and other software easily.
● Computers process data through a series of instructions stored in their memory. The CPU fetches
these instructions, decodes them, and then executes them.
● Computers can talk to other computers through networking. The Internet is one such network.

Advantages of Computers
● Multi-tasking - can perform multiple tasks simultaneously
● Speed - computes data rapidly
● Productivity - automates and streamlines work process to increase productivity
● Accuracy - tasks are performed with high accuracy
● Connectivity - access to vast amount of data and global communication networks
● Education- enhances learning through stores resources
● Storage - can store large amounts of data for a long time
● Reliability - can perform its functions adequately in a controlled environment with high precision

Disadvantages of Computers
● High initial costs of purchase, maintenance

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● Long use may lead to health issues
● Security Risks - vulnerable to hacking, loss and theft of information
● Environmental Impact due to high carbon emissions
● Software issues - problems may arise due to buggy software

Computer Block Diagram

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Input Devices
● The hardware devices that send input data from the user to the CPU are known as Input Devices.
● They are responsible for capturing, and transferring data from the outside world into the computer
system.
● Some of the popular Input Devices are Keyboard, Mouse, Joystick, Scanner, Microphone,
Touchpad, Biometric Sensors, Graphic Tablet, Bar/QR Code Readers, Webcam, Magnetic Ink
Character Reader (MICR) and Optical Character Reader (OCR) devices etc.

Output Devices
1. The hardware devices that are responsible for displaying output from the computer are known
as Output Devices.
2. Some of the popular Output Devices are Display Monitor, Projector, Speaker, Printer, Plotter,
Headphones etc

Central Processing Unit

1. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer.
2. It is responsible for processing the instructions received, and generating the results.
3. The CPU contains three major components, namely an Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), a
Control Unit (CU) and a set of Registers.
4. The ALU performs arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, division, multiplication,
exponentiation etc. It is also responsible for performing logical operations that result in either True
or False.
5. The Control Unit (CU) is responsible for proper operation of the system. It controls the different
operations of the computer by generating control signals.
6. The set of Registers are local/temporary storage for the CPU.

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 7. Registers can be accessed in a single CPU instruction and thus are extremely fast storage.
8. Registers are limited in number and thus data has to be transferred from the main/cache memory to
the registers for processing of data.

Working of the CPU (Additional Reading)

1. The CPU works on the concept of Information Processing Cycle (also known as Instruction
Cycle).
2. Based on a clock signal, the CPU fetches instructions from the main memory.
3. To access the main memory, the CPU transmits signals from the System Bus.
4. The system bus is similar to a road network that connects various peripheral devices to the CPU.
It is made up of Control Bus, Address Bus and the Data Bus. The Control Bus transmits
controlling signals, the addresses are transmitted through the address bus, and the data is put
onto the data bus.
5. The CPU then decodes the instruction into a sequence of operations.
6. It reads the effective address from the memory to fetch the data.
7. Then it performs the operation and stores the result back into the memory.

Memory
1. The location where the computer stores data, instructions, and programs is called the Memory.
2. Computer memory is organized into memory cells, each of which stores a fixed amount of data,
typically represented in binary as 0s and 1s.
3. The Memory of a computer is divided into Primary, Cache and Secondary Memory.

Primary Memory
1. The primary memory is directly accessible by the CPU.
2. It is a high speed memory which can closely match the operational speed of the CPU.

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 3. Due to the high speed, the cost of primary memory is high and the storage capacity of primary
memory is lower in comparison to the secondary memory.
4. There are two kinds of primary memory, namely RAM and ROM.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

1. RAM, also known as the main memory, is a volatile memory, i.e the contents of the memory are
lost as soon as the power to the system is switched off.
2. It is the main memory with which the CPU can interact directly.
3. It stores the instructions and data which are to be processed by the CPU shortly.
4. The data on the memory is stored in a fixed size block address.
5. The addresses on the RAM can be accessed in a random order, hence the name, Random Access.
6. RAM is majorly categorized into SRAM and DRAM.
7. DRAM stands for Dynamic RAM. Its contents have to be refreshed constantly. It is cheaper than
SRAM.
8. SRAM stands for Static RAM. It does not require constant refreshing of the contents and hence is
generally more expensive than DRAM.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

1. ROM is a non-volatile memory.
2. The purpose of ROM is to store the software instructions required for starting up the computer.
3. The startup process is also called bootstrap or booting the computer.
4. It loads a software called Basic Input Output System (BIOS).
5. It is mainly of three types
a. PROM - Programmable ROM
b. EPROM - Erasable Programmable ROM
c. EEPROM - Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM

Cache Memory
1. Cache memory is an intermediate memory between the CPU and the primary memory.
2. The need for cache memory arises from the difference in operational speed of the CPU and the
primary memory.

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 3. Often, the CPU is faster than the RAM/ main memory, and thus has to wait for the next instruction
to be loaded from the memory.
4. To reduce this waiting time, and increase the throughput of the CPU, a cache memory (buffer) is
placed between the CPU and primary memory.
5. The cache holds frequently used instructions and data and makes them readily available to the CPU.

Secondary Memory
1. Secondary memory is also known as permanent memory.
2. It is non-volatile in nature, i.e the data does not get lost even after power is turned off from the
computer.
3. Examples of Secondary memory are Hard Disk Drive, Solid State Drive, USB Flash Drive.
4. The CPU does not interact with the Secondary Memory directly.

Units of Memory
1. The smallest unit of memory is called a binary digit, or a bit.
2. The bit can assume only two values, 0 and 1.
3. A sequence of 4-bits is called a Nibble.
4. A Word is a fixed length sequence of bits which the processor can handle at a time.

Sr. No Unit Remarks

1 Bit (b) Can be 0 or 1

2 Nibble 1 nibble = 4 bits

3 Word Group of bits on which the CPU can work as a single unit. Can be
8 bits, 16 bits, 32 bits or 64 bits depending on CPU Architecture.

4 Byte (B) 1 B = 8 bits

5 KiloByte(KB) 1 KB = 1024 B

6 MegaByte(MB) 1 MB = 1024 KB

7 GigaByte(GB) 1 GB = 1024 MB

8 TeraByte(TB) 1 TB = 1024 GB

9 PetaByte(PB) 1 PB = 1024 TB

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Types of Software

System Software
It is software which controls all the operations of the computer system and interacts with the hardware
connected to the computer. The computer cannot operate without system software. System software is
majorly categorized into: Operating System, System Utilities and Device Drivers.

Operating System
An operating system is system software that acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware
and manages all the resources of a computer. Examples of operating systems are Microsoft Windows,
Ubuntu, Android, Apple iOS etc.

System Utilities
The software that performs maintenance and configuration of the computer system is called
System Utility.
Examples include Antivirus software, Disk Defragmentation Tool, System Restore Utility, Disk
Partitioning Utility etc.

Device Drivers
The software that directly interacts with a particular hardware or peripheral device is called the device
driver. Each hardware has its unique device driver without which the operating system cannot communicate
with the device. Examples include RealTek Audio Driver, NVidia Video Driver, MS USB
Driver etc.

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Language Translators
Languages are majorly divided into two categories: Low Level Languages and High-Level Languages.
● Low Level Languages are nearer to Machine Code than to human-like languages. They are difficult
to understand by humans but easily understandable by machines.
● On the other hand, humans can easily understand high level languages but computers require
language translators to convert high level languages into low level languages which they understand.
● Low level language comprises Binary Language (combination of 0’s and 1’s) and Assembly
Language (uses keywords like ADD, SUB, STR), whereas High Level Language comprises C, C++,
Java, Python etc.
● Software that translates one language to another language is called language translators.
● Language Translators can be divided into Compiler, Interpreter and Assembler.

Compiler, Interpreter and Assembler

● A compiler is a language translator that converts high level language into low level language at
once. It shows all errors together with line number. Once all errors are corrected and object code is
created, compiler is no more required in memory.
● An Interpreter is a language translator that converts high level language into low level language line
by line, instead of converting the entire code at once. It stops at the line where error is found and
requires rectification of same to move forward. It is always required in memory.
● Assembly language code can be converted to machine code (Binary Code) using translator called
Assembler.

Programming Tools
Tools that assist the users/developers in creating, editing, testing and debugging related to the development
of software are known as Programming Tools.
They support completion of tasks during the development phase. It includes development tools, code editors
and translators.
Examples include : Visual Studio Code, Sublime Text, Eclipse etc.

Operating System
An operating system is system software that acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware
and manages all the resources of a computer.

Need of Operating System

The main goal of an operating system is to provide a user-friendly environment, to use the available
resources in an optimal and efficient manner and to provide services for building and running applications.

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Examples of Operating System

1. Desktop Operating System

a. Microsoft Windows
b. Apple’s macOS
c. Ubuntu (Linux based open source OS)
d. Google’s ChromeOS

2. Mobile Operating System

a. Google Android
b. Apple iOS
c. Symbian
d. Microsoft Windows RT

Functions of Operating System

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Memory Management
The operating system manages the memory resources of a computer system. It keeps a record of used and
available memory. It includes:

● Memory Allocation, Reallocation and Deallocation

● Memory Mapping
● Memory Swapping

Device Management
Operating system manages communication among all the devices, keeps track of all the devices, allocates
and deallocates devices. It includes:

● Device initialization
● Device Configuration
● Device Scheduling

Process Management
It manages all the programs in execution (processes). It includes:

● Process Creation & Termination

● Process Scheduling
● Context Switching

File Management
The operating system manages all the file management tasks. It keeps track of location, status, storage and
operations of a file. It includes:

● File Creation and Deletion

● File Permissions and Security
● File Compression and Encryption
● File Sharing

Network Management
It provides services to organize and maintain the network. It allows computers in a network to communicate
with each other. It includes:

● Network Configuration
● Network Connectivity
● Network Resource Management

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Security
The operating system protects the system from all the threats, unauthorized access and other vulnerabilities.
It includes:
● Authentication
● Authorization
● Data Encryption
● Firewall Management

Other tasks
Some other tasks performed by OS are Job Accounting, Error Detection, Control over System Performance,
Resource Allocation, Information and Resource Protection, and Handling I/O Operations.

OS User Interface
Operating system acts as an interface between the user and the hardware. There are types of interfaces to
perform different tasks on the basis of requirement.

Command Line Interface

It is the interface where the user interacts with the system through commands. All the operations are carried
out on the basis of commands entered by the user.

Graphical Based User Interface

It is the interface that allows users to interact with the system through graphical icons, menu, taskbar etc.

Gesture Based User Interface

It is the interface that uses physical gestures to operate the computer system. It allows users to perform tasks
without physically touching the system.

Voice Based User Interface

It is the interface that allows users to interact with a computer through voice commands. Examples of Voice
User Interfaces are Google Assistant, Siri and Alexa.

Touch Based User Interface

Touch based user interface requires a physical touch through the input device.

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 Boolean Logic

Boolean Logic is a concept that involves binary variables and operations. It focuses on the values true and
false (1 and 0). It was developed by the English Mathematician and logician George Boole. Boolean Algebra
comprises of following:
1. Boolean Expression
2. Boolean Variable

Boolean Variable
A boolean variable is a variable that holds boolean values True/ False or 1/0.

Boolean Expression
A boolean expression is an expression that consists of a combination of boolean variables, boolean values
and boolean operators. A boolean expression evaluates to either True or False.

Boolean Operators
Boolean operators perform operations on operands (Boolean Variables/Values). The boolean operators are:
AND, OR and NOT.

AND operator - It evaluates to True(1) if all inputs are True(1), otherwise False(0). It is represented by the
dot operator (.)
Example : A.B may be read A AND B

OR operator - It evaluates to True(1) if any of the inputs is True(1), otherwise False(0). It is represented by
the + operator.
Example: A + B may be read as A OR B.

NOT operator - It evaluates to True(1) when the condition is False, and returns False(0) when the condition
is True(1).

Example: A' may be read as A complement.

Ā may be read as A complement.

Truth Table
A truth table is a representation of all possible combinations of the input variables and the corresponding
output values.

The number of rows in a truth table are 2n, where n is no. of input variables.

Example- Here, A and B are the input boolean variables, OR (+) is the operator, F is the output.

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 A B F = A OR B

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

Rules of Boolean Logic (Additional Reading)

Name of Rule AND Version OR Version

Identity Law 1.A=A 0+A=A

Null Law or Dominant Law 0.A=0 1+A=1

Idempotent Law A.A=A A+A=A

Inverse Law A.A’=0 A+A’=1

Commutative Law AB=BA A+B=B+A

Associative Law (AB)C=A(BC) (A+B)+C=A+(B+C)

Distributive Law A+BC=(A+B)(A+C) A(B+C)=AB+AC

Absorption Law A(A+B)=A A+AB=A

De Morgan’s Law (AB)’=A’+B’ (A+B)’=A’.B’

De Morgan’s Laws
DeMorgan’s First Law states that when two input variables are AND’ed and complemented, they are
equivalent to the OR of the complements of the individual variables.

(AB)'=A'+B'

A B A' B' AB (AB)' A'+B'

0 0 1 1 0 1 1

0 1 1 0 0 1 1

1 0 0 1 0 1 1

1 1 0 0 1 0 0

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DeMorgan’s Second Law states that when two input variables are OR’ed and complemented, they are
equivalent to the AND of the complements of the individual variables.

(A+B)'=A'.B'

A B A' B' A+B (A+B)' A'.B'

0 0 1 1 0 1 1

0 1 1 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 1 1 0 0

1 1 0 0 1 0 0

Logic Gates
A logic gate is a device that performs a Boolean Function. One or more inputs in the form of 1/0 are provided
to get the specific output governed by a logic. Examples of Logic Gates are: AND, OR, NOT, NOR, NAND
and XOR.

NAND and NOR are called Universal Gates, as they can implement any Boolean expression.

AND Gate

Logic Gate Diagram

Truth Table
A B A.B

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

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OR Gate

Logic Gate Diagram

Truth Table
A B A+B

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

NOT Gate

Logic Gate Diagram

Truth Table

A A'

0 1

1 0

NAND Gate
Logic Gate Diagram

Truth Table

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NOR Gate

Logic Gate Diagram

A B A+B (A+B)'

0 0 0 1

0 1 0 1

1 0 0 1

1 1 1 0

Truth Table

XOR Gate

Logic Gate Diagram

Truth Table

A B A⊕B

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

XOR is represented as AB' + A'B

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Logic Circuits
A logic circuit is an electronic circuit which performs logical operations on the input boolean variables, and
transforms them into the output using a combination of Logic Gates.

Examples of a circuit diagram are:

Y=(A.B)’BC’

Y Y=?

Number System
There are many possible ways to represent numbers. A number system provides a consistent and unique
method to represent the numbers.

Positional Number System

A positional number system is one way of writing numbers. It has unique symbols for 0 through (b – 1),
where b is the base (also known as radix) of the system. These symbols are called digits.

Some popular positional number systems are:

1. Binary - base 2
2. Octal - base 8
3. Decimal - base 10
4. Hexadecimal - base 16

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Decimal Number System
A decimal number uses base-10 for representing numbers. The numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 are the
digits present in the system. Every number can be represented as a sum of powers of 10, with each power
weighted by a digit.

For example, in the decimal system, 534 can be represented as

534 = 5 x 102+ 3 x 101 + 4 x 100
Fractional numbers can also be represented using similar notation, for example, 123.238 can be represented
as
123.238 = 1 x 102 + 2 x 101 + 3 x 100 + 2 x 10-1 + 3 x 10-2 + 8 x 10-3
The powers of 10, which correspond respectively to the digits in a decimal integer when read from right to
left, are called the place values of the digits.

Binary Number System

The binary number system uses only two symbols, 0 and 1. Each numeral is known as a binary digit or a
bit. It is also known as the base-2 numeral system, where the positional digits are powers of 2.

The binary system is most easily implemented through computer hardware. The binary digits 0 and 1
correspond to the presence or the absence of a digital signal. The manipulation of binary digits is performed
using a combination of boolean logic gates and circuits. Negative numbers can also be represented in the
Binary Number System.

The numbers are represented by creating a sequence of bits, such as 00000, 010100, 011100 etc. Binary
numerals are often subscripted with 2 in order to indicate the base. For example, (110101)2. Numbers that
have no fractional part are called binary integers.

In the figure above, representation of the binary number (101.01)2 is shown. The most significant bit (MSB)
is the bit in a binary number sequence with the largest value. This is usually the bit farthest to the left. The
MSB represents the highest-order place of the binary integer. On the other hand, the Least Significant Bit
(LSB) is the right-most bit of the number.

The maximum possible sequence of binary numbers that can be created using a sequence of n-bits is 2n .

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 Count of possible binary
No. of Bits
numbers

1 21 = 2

2 22 = 4

3 23 = 8

4 24 = 16

Octal Number System

Octal system, or the base-8 system uses 8 unique symbols, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. The place values in the
octal system are powers of 8. We can use 3-bit binary numbers to represent the octal digits, since 23 = 8.

Decimal 3-bit Binary Octal Number

Number Number

0 000 0

1 001 1

2 010 2

3 011 3

4 100 4

5 101 5

6 110 6

7 111 7

For example, an octal number (532.67)8 can be represented in the decimal number system as
(532.67)8 = 5 x 82 + 3 x 81 + 2 x 80 + 6 x 8-1 + 7 x 8-2

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Octal numbers find applications where the number of bits in one word is a multiple of 3. They are also used
as shorthand for representing file permissions on UNIX/Linux operating systems and representation of
UTF8 numbers, etc. The advantage of using Octal numbers is that it uses fewer digits than the decimal
number system. It has fewer computations and is less prone to the computational errors.

Hexadecimal Number System

The hexadecimal number system uses 16 unique symbols, 0-9 and A-F for representation of numbers. The
place values in the hexadecimal system are powers of 16. Each hexadecimal digit has a unique 4-bit
representation since 24 = 16, so all possible digits can be represented with 4 bit binary numbers. The
hexadecimal numbering system is often used by programmers to simplify the binary numbering system
since large binary numbers can be organized and written neatly in their respective hexadecimal notations.
Decimal 4-Bit Binary Hexadecimal
Number Number Number

0 0000 0

1 0001 1

2 0010 2

3 0011 3

4 0100 4

5 0101 5

6 0110 6

7 0111 7

8 1000 8

9 1001 9

10 1010 A

11 1011 B

12 1100 C

13 1101 D

14 1110 E

15 1111 F

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Some popular uses of Hexadecimal numbers are:
● Representation of addresses in memory.
● Representation of colors on web pages.
● Representation of Media Access Control (MAC) addresses.
● Display error messages.

Number System Conversions

1) Decimal Number System to Other Base
a) Decimal Number System to Binary Number System
b) Decimal Number System to Octal Number System
c) Decimal Number System to Hexadecimal Number System
2) Other Base to Decimal Number System
a) Binary Number System to Decimal Number System
b) Octal Number System to Decimal Number System
c) Hexadecimal Number System to Decimal Number System
3) One Base to Other Base System
a) Binary Number System to Hexadecimal Number System
b) Hexadecimal Number System to Binary Number System
c) Binary Number System to Octal Number System
d) Octal Number System to Binary Number System
e) Hexadecimal Number System to Octal Number System
f) Octal Number System to Hexadecimal Number System

Decimal Number System to Binary Number System Conversion

Steps for the Integer part
1. For the integral part of the number, repeatedly divide the number by 2, and save the remainder.
2. Repeat the process until no further division is possible.
3. Read the remainders from the bottom to top to get the binary number.

Steps for the fractional part

1. Repeatedly multiply the fractional part by 2 and note the integer and fractional part of the product.
2. Repeatedly multiply the fraction part by 2 and note the integer part from top to the bottom. (Stop if
you get 0)
3. Repeat this procedure till sufficient precision is reached (usually 2 to 3 places after the radix point).

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Ques 1 - Convert decimal number 75 to binary number.

=(1001011)2

Ques 2- Convert decimal number 142.67 to a binary number.

.67 x 2 = 1.34 1 .34

.34 x 2 = 0.68 0 .68
.68 x 2 = 1.36 1 .36
.36 x 2 = 0.72 0 .72

= (10001110.1010)2

Decimal Number System to Octal Number System Conversion

Steps for the Integer part
1. For the integral part of the number, repeatedly divide the number by 8, and save the remainder.
2. Repeat the process until no further division is possible.
3. Read the remainders from the bottom to top to get the binary number.

Steps for the fractional part

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 1. Repeatedly multiply the fractional part by 8 and note the integer and fractional part of the product.
2. Repeatedly multiply the fraction part by 8 and note the integer part from top to the bottom. (Stop if
you get 0)
3. Repeat this procedure till sufficient precision is reached (usually 2 to 3 places after the radix point).

Ques 1 - Convert decimal number 104 to octal number.

= (150)8

Ques 2 - Convert decimal number 563.93 to octal number.

.93 x 8 = 7.44 7 .44

.44 x 8 = 0.88 0 .88
.88 x 8 = 7.04 7 .04
.04 x 8 = 0.32 0 .32

= (1063.7070)8

Decimal Number System to Hexadecimal Number System Conversion

Steps for the Integer part
1. For the integral part of the number, repeatedly divide the number by 16, and save the remainder.
2. Repeat the process until no further division is possible.
3. Read the remainders from the bottom to top to get the binary number.

Steps for the fractional part

1. Repeatedly multiply the fractional part by 16 and note the integer and fractional part of the product.
2. Repeatedly multiply the fraction part by 16 and note the integer part. (Stop if you get 0)

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 3. Repeat this procedure till sufficient precision is reached (usually 2 to 3 places after the radix point).

Ques 1 - Convert decimal number 600 to hexadecimal number.

= (258)16

Ques 2 - Convert decimal number 49 to hexadecimal number.

= (31)16

Binary Number System to Decimal Number System Conversion

Steps:
1. Multiply each digit with its respective weighted power of 2.
2. Calculate its sum.

Ques 1 - Convert Binary Number 101101 into Decimal Number.

101101
= 1x25 + 0x24 + 1x23 + 1x22 + 0x21 + 1x20
= 32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1
= 45

Ques 2 - Convert Binary Number 110101.010 into Decimal Number.

110101.010
= 1 x 25 + 1 x 24 + 0 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 + 0 x 2-1 + 1 x 2-2 + 0 x 2-3
= 32 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 0.25 + 0
= 53.25

Octal Number System to Decimal Number System Conversion

Steps:

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 1. Multiply each digit with its respective weighted power of 8.
2. Calculate its sum.

Ques 1 - Convert Octal Number 156 into Decimal Number.

156
= 1 x 82 + 5 x 81 + 6 x 80
= 64 + 40 + 6
= 110

Ques 2 - Convert Octal Number 78.12172 into Decimal Number.

78.12
= 7 x 81 + 8 x 80 + 1 x 8-1 + 2 x 8-2
= 56 + 8 + 0.125 + 0.03125
= 64.15625

Hexadecimal Number System to Decimal Number System Conversion

Steps:
1. Multiply each digit with its respective weighted power of 16.
2. Calculate its sum.

Ques 1 - Convert Hexadecimal Number 0.87 into Decimal Number.

0.87
= 0 x 160 + 8 x 16-1 + 7 x 16-2
= 0 + 0.5 + 0.02734375
= 0.52734375

Binary Number System to Hexadecimal Number System

There are two ways to convert a binary number to a hexadecimal number:
1. Convert binary number to decimal number, and then convert to hexadecimal number.
2. Using grouping of bits.

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 Binary Number Hexadecimal Number Binary Number Hexadecimal Number

0000 0 1000 8

0001 1 1001 9

0010 2 1010 A(10)

0011 3 1011 B(11)

0100 4 1100 C(12)

0101 5 1101 D(13)

0110 6 1110 E(14)

0111 7 1111 F(15)

For the integer part, make groups of four bits together starting from the left side of the radix point, and for
the fractional part, make groups of four bits towards the right side of the radix point.
Replace each group with the corresponding hexadecimal number, we get the hexadecimal equivalent of the
given binary number.

NOTE: Add any number of 0’s in the left most bit for integer part, and 0’s in right most bit for fractional
part required to complete the grouping of 4 bits.
Ques 1 - Convert binary number 1000110101110 to hexadecimal number.
Converting Binary Number into Decimal Number:
= (1000110101110)2
= 1 x 212 + 0 x 211 + 0 x 210 + 0 x 29 + 1 x 28 + 1 x 27 + 0 x 26 + 1 x 25 + 0 x 24 + 1 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 +
0 x 20
= 4096 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 256 + 128 + 0 + 32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 0
= (4526)10

Converting Decimal into Hexadecimal Number:

= (11AE)16

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Ques 2 - Convert Binary number 10010111101101 into Hexadecimal Number.

0010 0101 1110 1101

2 5 E D

= (25ED)16

Ques 3 - Convert Binary number 101100100.100111 into Hexadecimal Number.

0001 0110 0100 . 1001 1100

1 6 4 9 C
Hence the equivalent Hexadecimal Number is (164.9C)16

Hexadecimal Number System to Binary Number System

A hexadecimal number can be converted to Binary Number through any of the two methods:
1. Converting Hexadecimal Number to Decimal Number, and then converting Decimal Number to
Binary number.
2. Using Conversion Table

Ques 1 - Convert Hexadecimal Number 7B316 to Binary Equivalent Number.

7 B 3 1 6

0111 1011 0011 0001 0110

= 0111 1011 0011 0001 0110

Hence the equivalent binary number is (01111011001100010110)2

Ques 2 - Convert Hexadecimal Number D2.92AB to Binary equivalent Number.

D 2 . 9 2 A B

1101 0010 1001 0010 1010 1011

= 1101 0010 1001 0010 1010 1011

Hence the equivalent binary number is (11010010.1001001010101011)2

29
Binary Number System to Octal Number System
There are two ways to convert a binary number to a hexadecimal number:
1. Convert binary number to decimal number or octal number, and then convert to octal number.
2. Using grouping of bits
Binary Number Octal Number

000 0

001 1

010 2

011 3

100 4

101 5

110 6

111 7

For the integer part, make groups of three bits together starting from the left side of the radix point, and for
the fractional part, make groups of three bits towards the right side of the radix point.

NOTE: Add any number of 0’s in the left most bit for integer part, and 0’s in the right most bit for fractional
part required to complete the grouping of 3 bits.

Ques 1 - Convert binary number 1011011010 to octal number.

001 011 011 010

1 3 3 2
= (1332)8

Octal Number System to Binary Number System

An Octal number can be converted to Binary Number through any of the two methods:
1. Converting Octal Number to Decimal Number, and then converting Decimal Number to Binary
number.
2. Using Conversion Table

30
Ques 1 - Convert Octal Number 767 to Binary Equivalent Number.
7 6 7

111 110 111

= 111 110 111

Hence the equivalent binary number is (111110111)2

Ques 2 - Convert Octal Number 4716.15 to Binary Equivalent Number.

4 7 1 6 . 1 5

100 111 001 110 001 101

= (100111001110.001101)2

Hexadecimal Number System to Octal Number System

Steps:
1. Convert each digit of the hexadecimal number into a 4 bit binary equivalent number.
2. Combine 3 bits from the LSB, and convert each group of 3 bits into octal using a table.
Ques 1 - Convert Hexadecimal Number 4B2A into Octal Number.

4 B (11) 2 A (10)

0100 1011 0010 1010

= 0100 1011 0010 1010

=0 100 101 100 101 010

= 000 100 101 100 101 010

= (45452)8

Ques 2 - Convert Hexadecimal Number FE6 into Octal Number.

F E 6

31
 1111 1110 0110

= 1111 1110 0110

= 111 111 100 110

= (7746)8

Octal Number System to Hexadecimal Number System

Steps:
1. Convert each digit of the octal number into a 3 bit binary equivalent number.
2. Combine 4 bits from the LSB, and convert each group of 4 bits into hexadecimal using a table.

Ques 1 - Convert Octal Number 2106 into Hexadecimal Number.

2 1 0 6

010 001 000 110

= 010 001 000 110

= 0100 0100 0110

= (446)16
Ques 2 - Convert Octal Number 765 into Hexadecimal Number.

7 6 5

111 110 101

= 111 110 101

=1 1111 0101

= 0001 1111 0101

= (1F5)16

32
 Encoding Schemes

Encoding is defined as the process to convert data from one form to another. Computers only understand
binary language. There is a need to convert popularly used languages by humans into machine
understandable format. Textual characters (letters, numbers and symbols) are assigned unique numerical
codes. Some of the popular encoding schemes are ASCII, ISCII and Unicode.

ASCII
● ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
● It was developed in the United States of America by American Standards Association (ASA).
● It is used to represent textual information in computers.
● ASCII uses 7-bits for encoding.
● A maximum of 128 characters may be encoded. Out of these 128 characters, only 95 are printable
including the digits 0-9, lowercase and uppercase characters a-z A-Z and punctuation marks. The
rest of the characters are Control Characters.

ISCII
● ISCII stands for Indian Script Code for Information Interchange (ISCII).
● ISCII is an extended version of the ASCII code and uses 8 bits for encoding.
● It was developed by the Bureau of Indian Standards, India.
● It represents various languages from India.
● Some of the supported scripts are Devanagari (Hindi, Marathi, Sanskrit, Konkani), Gujarati,
Kannada, Punjabi, Malayalam, Telugu, Tamil, Oriya, Bengali-Assamese etc.

Unicode
● Unicode Standard is developed and managed by the Unicode Consortium, which is a non-profit
organization composed of members from Software Development companies such as Apple, Adobe,
Google, IBM, Microsoft etc.
● It aims to provide a universal platform for encoding characters of various languages from the world.
● It assigns a unique Code Point to every character, independent of the CPU architecture/platform, or
the underlying software.
● Unicode covers most writing scripts across the world. As of now, over 161 scripts are included in
the latest version of Unicode.
● Unicode defines two mapping methods: the Unicode Transformation Format (UTF) encodings, and
the Universal Coded Character Set (UCS) encodings.
● Various versions of UTF are UTF-8, UTF-16, UTF-32.
● All UTF encodings map code points to a unique sequence of bytes.

33
 ○ UTF-8 uses 8-bits or 16-bits or 24-bits or 32-bits for each code point.
○ UTF-16 uses 16-bits or 32-bits for each code point.
○ UTF-32 uses 32-bits for each code point.

Questions and Answers

Very Short Answer Questions

Q. What is a computer?
A. Computer is an electronic device that takes instructions and data from a user, processes them, and
produces some meaningful output as a result.

Q. What is hardware?
A. Hardware are physical components which can be seen and touched (tangible). Examples of hardware
include CPU, mouse, keyboard, monitor, motherboard, cables, CPU case, power supply unit, RAM, graphic
card, sound card etc.

Q. What is software?
A. Software is a set of instructions, its documentation and data, which are stored digitally on the computer.
The software is intangible, i.e cannot be touched. Examples are Microsoft Windows, Linux, Paint, Word,
PowerPoint, Photoshop, VLC Media Player, VS Code, Python.

Q. What is an Operating System?

A. An operating system is a system software that acts as an interface between the user and the computer
hardware and manages all the resources of a computer.

Q. Give 2 examples of Mobile OS and Desktop OS each.

A. Mobile OS - Android & Apple iOS. Desktop OS - Microsoft Windows, Ubuntu.

Q. What is a mouse?
A. The mouse is an input device responsible for the movement of the cursor on the computer’s screen.

Q. What is a keyboard?
A. The keyboard is an input device based on the traditional typewriter, which uses an arrangement of keys.
Keyboards come in various layouts and languages.

Q. What is a scanner?
A. Scanner is an input device that optically scans and digitally captures images from physical photographic
prints, documents, posters etc. Commonly used office scanners use light beams to scan documents placed
on a glass flatbed.

Q. What is a volatile memory?

34
A. The memory where the contents get erased as soon as the power is turned off is called volatile memory.

Q. What is a non-volatile memory?

A. The memory where the contents do not get erased when the power is turned off is called non-volatile
memory.

Q. What is the full form of BIOS?

A. Basic Input Output System.

Q. What are the two types of primary memory?

A. Two types of primary memory are RAM and ROM.

Q. How many binary digits are there?

A. There are two binary digits, 0 and 1.

Q. What is a nibble?
A. A sequence of 4-bits is called a nibble.

Q. What is a byte?
A. A sequence of 8 bits is called a Byte (B).

Q. What does ISCII stand for?

A. ISCII stands for Indian Script Code for Information Interchange.

Q. What are the base values of the octal and hexadecimal number system?
A. The Octal number system uses base-8 whereas the Hexadecimal number system uses base-16.

Q. Write 2 examples of High Level Programming Languages.

A. Python and C++.

Q. Write 2 examples of Low Level Programming Languages.

A. Binary Language and Assembly Language.

Q. What are the different types of RAM?

A. RAM can broadly be classified in two types, Static RAM (SRAM) and Dynamic RAM (DRAM).

Q. What are the different types of ROM?

A. ROM can be classified into PROM, EPROM and EEPROM.

Q. Differentiate between Data and Information.

35
A. Data is any sequence of one or more symbols. In other words, raw facts and figures constitute data.
Whereas, Data when processed or interpreted is known as Information.

Q. What is Encoding?
A. Encoding is a system that maps characters, symbols, or textual elements to numeric values or bit patterns
for digital representation and storage. It is used to represent human-readable text and symbols as binary
data, which can be processed, transmitted, and stored in computers and other digital systems.

Q. Which number system is used in our day to day life?

A. Decimal Number System.

Q. Differentiate between Program and Process.

A. A Program is a set of instructions stored in the memory whereas a process is a program under execution.

Q. Write 4 examples of Program Development Tools.

A. Microsoft VS Code, Sublime Text, PyCharm, Spyder.

Q. What are Registers?

A. Registers are local or temporary storage for the CPU. They are present on the CPU itself and can be
accessed quickly.

Short Answer Questions

Q. What are the components of a computer?
A. The major components of a computer are the Central Processing Unit (CPU), Memory (RAM, and
ROM), Storage devices (HDD, SSD, Optical Drives, Flash Drives), Input Devices, Output Devices,
Motherboard and the Power Supply Unit.

Q. What is the difference between Hardware and Software?

A. The devices that are tangible in nature (can be touched) are called Hardware Devices, whereas Software
being digital cannot be touched. Hardware is a physical component of a computer, whereas Software is a
set of instructions to a computer to perform a specific task.
Hardware includes Input and Output Devices, Storage Devices, Internal tangible Components of a
Computer. Software includes Programming Software, Application Software, Operating system etc.

Q. What are the components of the CPU?

A. The CPU is made up of Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU), Set of Registers, Cache
Memory and the Bus Interface.

Q. How does ALU work?

36
A. ALU is responsible for performing arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division) and logical operations (AND, OR, NOT) on binary data. ALUs are designed to work with binary
numbers, where each bit represents a value of either 0 or 1.

Q. How does CU work?

A. CU is responsible for controlling and coordinating the operations of the entire CPU and the overall
execution of instructions. The primary function of the Control Unit is to fetch, decode, and execute
instructions stored in memory.

Q. What is the purpose of registers in the CPU?

A. Set of Registers serve as fast, high-speed storage units directly accessible by the CPU. They are used for
temporary storage of data and instructions during the execution of programs. Registers provide several
benefits such as storage of intermediate Data/Instruction/Addresses.

Q. Convert 32 MB into Bytes.

A. 32 MB = 32 x 1024 KB
= 32 x 1024 x 1024 B
= 3,35,54,432 B

Q. Convert 512 GB into TB.

A. 512 GB = 512 / 1024 TB
= 0.5 TB
Q. Convert 256 TB into KB.
A. 256 TB = 256 x 1024 GB
= 256 x 1024 x 1024 MB
= 256 x 1024 x 1024 x 1024 KB
= 2,74,87,79,06,944 KB

Q. How is software classified?

A. Software is classified into four categories:
1. System Software - The software that provides basic functionality to operate a computer system
through its hardware is called System Software. It is further classified into Operating System,
Device Drivers, Utilities.
2. Application Software - The software that is developed as per end user requirements to run a
particular application is called Application Software. It is further classified into General Purpose
and Customized Software.
3. Language Translators - The software that translates programs in one language to another language
is called translator. Types of translators are - Assembler, Compiler and Interpreter.
4. Programming Tools - Softwares used for typing, editing, building, compiling and debugging
programs are called Programming Tools.

37
Q. What is the purpose of the system bus?
A. The system bus provides a path facilitating the flow of data between the central processing unit (CPU),
memory, and various peripheral devices. The system bus is typically divided into three main types of buses,
Address Bus, Control Bus and the Data Bus.

Q. Differentiate between compiler and interpreter.

A. Both Compiler and Interpreter are language translators that convert High Level Programming Language
into Low Level Language. A compiler converts the source code into Low Level Language all at once,
whereas an interpreter translates the source code line by line.
Example of Compiler: GCC Compiler
Example of Interpreter: Python Interpreter

Q. What is the primary objective of an Operating System?

A. The primary objective of an operating system is to provide services for building and running application
programs, and to provide a user interface.

Q. What is primary memory?

A. Primary memory is the computer's immediate and directly accessible storage that holds data and
instructions that the central processing unit (CPU) can quickly access during program execution. All
instructions and data has to be loaded onto the primary memory before it can be sent to the CPU for
processing.

Q. What is Cache memory?

A. A very high speed, small sized memory placed between CPU and primary memory is known as Cache
Memory. It stores frequently accessed data, thus reducing access time and speeding up overall performance
of the system.

Q. What is secondary memory?

A. Secondary Memory is a non volatile memory used to store data and programs. It is also known as
Auxiliary Memory. It has larger storage capacity than primary memory, but slower and cheaper than the
main memory. Examples of secondary memory are - Hard Disk Drive, Memory Card, CD/DVD, Magnetic
Tapes etc.

Q. Explain the types of system software.

A. The System Software is further classified as - Operating Systems, System Utilities and Device Drivers.
Operating Systems - It manages and controls various resources of the computer system and provides an
user-friendly environment to interact with the hardware of the computer.
System Utilities - These are the programs used for maintenance and configuration of the computer system.
These are used to monitor system performance, manage files and storage, diagnosing issues, and
maintaining system security.

38
Device Drivers - It is an interface between a particular device and the operating system. It ensures proper
functioning of the device, overall management of a particular device.

Q. What are the types of programming languages?

A. There are two types of programming languages - High Level Language and Low Level Language
Low Level Languages are the languages that are close to the hardware architecture. These are used for
system level programming, device drivers, embedded systems.
High Level Languages are the languages that are close to natural human languages, and not close to the
hardware.
Examples of Low Level Languages are Machine Language, Assembly Language
Examples of High Level Languages are C++, Java, Python etc.

Q. What is the difference between Operating System and Device Driver?

A. A device driver facilitates the interaction between the OS and the hardware devices. Whereas, the OS is
responsible for the interaction between the user and the hardware.

Q. What is the reason for grouping the 4 bits in a binary number to form a Hexadecimal number?
A. The hexadecimal number system uses 16 unique symbols (base-16) for representing numbers, and with
4 bits, each digit in the hexadecimal system can be represented uniquely. Therefore, 4-bit binary sequences
are sufficient to represent all possible symbols in the hexadecimal number system.

Q. Which input device is most suitable for the OS with the following user-interface (UI)?
1. Graphical UI
2. Command Line UI
3. Gesture Based Interface
4. Voice Based Interface
5. Touch Based Interface

ANS. 1. Mouse
2. Keyboard
3. Camera/Webcam
4. Microphone
5. Touch-screen

Q. Why is an Operating system called a Resource Manager?

A. The OS is responsible for managing various hardware and software resources in a computer system,
therefore it can be called a resource manager. It performs the following functions, Memory management,
CPU Scheduling, Device management, Storage management, Network Management etc.

Q. What is a HDD and SSD?

39
A. HDD stands for Hard Disk Drive. It is a mechanical non-volatile secondary storage device. SSD stands
for Solid State Drive, which is a non-volatile memory that stores data without moving parts. SSDs are faster,
more durable, more compact, quieter, and consume less energy.

Q. What is OCR?
A. OCR stands for Optical Character Recognition. It is a pattern recognition technology that identifies the
text present in digital form, such as an image, document etc.

Q. What is MICR?
A. MICR stands for Magnetic Ink Character Reader. It is a device that reads a special kind of ink which is
sensitive to magnetic fields. It is often used to verify the originality of cheques and other documents.

Q. What are some of the applications of the Hexadecimal Number System?

A. Hexadecimal numbers are commonly used in various applications due to their compact representation
and ease of conversion to and from binary. They are also used to represent addresses in memory, to represent
colors on web pages, to display error messages etc.

Q. Write a few advantages of computers.

A. Few of the advantages of computers are as follows,
● Multi-tasking
● Speed
● Productivity
● Accuracy
● Connectivity
● Education
● Storage
● Reliability

Long Answer Questions

Q. Explain the organization of computer systems.

Q. What are input devices? List 5 input devices.
Q. What are output devices? List 5 output devices.
Q. What is the IPO Cycle?
Q. Explain the functions of the Operating System.

40
Q. Explain different types of OS User Interface.
Q. Explain the difference between primary memory and secondary memory.
Q. What is the need of Cache memory?
Q. How are high level languages converted into low level languages?
Q. Write down some advantages of computers.
Q. Convert the following numbers from one number system to another:
1. (945)10 = (?)2 Ans. (1110110001)2
2. (42)10 = (?)8 Ans. (52)8
3. (194)10 = (?)16 Ans. (C2)16
4. (10110)2 = (?)10 Ans. (22)10
5. (745)8 = (?)10 Ans. (485)10
6. (E1A)16 = (?)10 Ans. (3610)10
7. (0010111)2 = (?)16 Ans. (17)16
8. (6FA2)16 = (?)2 Ans. (0110111110100010)16
9. (101111)2 = (?)8 Ans. (57)8
10. (532)8 = (?)2 Ans. (101011010)2
11. (C45D)16 = (?)8 Ans. (142135)8
12. (165)8 = (?)16 Ans. (75)16

Fill in the Blanks

1. The binary language has two digits namely 0 and 1 .
2. The full form of the CPU is the Central Processing Unit.
3. The full form of ALU is the Arithmetic Logic Unit.
4. The full form of CU is the Control Unit.
5. Set of Registers are temporary and local storage for the CPU.
6. The System Bus provides a way for the CPU to communicate with the connected devices.
7. Encoding Schemes transforms text into number codes that facilitate the communication among
computers.
8. Unicode is the encoding standard that is capable of representing multiple scripts.
9. The CPU is the brain of the computer responsible for executing instructions.
10. RAM stands for Random Access Memory
11. The CPU register is a temporary storage area that holds data and instructions while they are being
processed.

41
 12. The cache memory stores the most frequently used data and instructions to improve system
performance.
13. The ROM (Read-Only Memory) is a non-volatile memory that retains its data even when the
power is turned off.
14. The central processing unit (CPU) consists of the control unit and the arithmetic logic unit (ALU).
15. The system bus is responsible for managing communication between the CPU and other
components.
16. The primary purpose of an operating system is to manage computer resources.
17. A group of eight bits is known as a byte.
18. An instruction is a basic arithmetic or logical operation that the CPU can perform.
19. The physical components of a computer system are referred to as hardware.
20. A cache is a small, high-speed memory located close to the CPU that stores frequently accessed
data.
21. A software is a collection of programs and data that enables a computer to perform a specific task.

State True or False

Q. Microphone is an Input Device. (True)
Q. Hardware cannot be seen or touched physically. (False)
Q. Software cannot be seen or touched physically. (True)
Q. Operating System is the interface between the User and the Hardware. (True)
Q. MICR stands for Magnetic Ink Character Reader. (True)
Q. ALU stands for Arithmetic and Logic Unit. (True)
Q. Registers are permanent storage. (False)
Q. Computer memory is organized into memory cells, each of which stores a fixed amount of data,
typically represented in binary as 0s and 1s. (True)
Q. RAM is categorized as DRAM and SRAM. (True)
Q. EEPROM stands for Electronic Erasable Primary ROM. (False)
Q. A sequence of 4-bits is called a byte. (False)
Q. The compiler converts high level language into low level language at once. (True)
Q. Gesture Based User Interface allows users to perform tasks without physically touching the system.
(True)

42
Q. Boolean OR Operator results True if both the inputs are true, otherwise false. (False)
Q. A logic circuit is an electronic circuit used in computers to perform a logical operation using Logic
Gates. (True)
Q. The Control Unit is responsible for Arithmetic and Logical Operations. (False)
Q. System Bus is a pathway for signals to travel from one location to another in the Computer System.
(True)
Q. The CPU directly interacts with the Secondary Memory. (False)
Q. Typically, RAM is faster than Hard Disk Drives. (True)
Q. RAM is larger in size than the Secondary Memory. (False)
Q. Static RAM needs constant refreshing to preserve the data. (False)
Q. RAM is non-volatile in nature. (False)
Q. ROM stores the software that is used to start-up the computer. (True)
Q. BIOS stands for Basic Input Output System. (True)
Q. Cache memory reduces the access time of RAM by storing the frequently accessed items. (True)
Q. The base of binary, octal, decimal and hexadecimal number systems are 2,8,10 and 16 respectively.
(True)
Q. A binary number is made of a sequence of bits. (True)
Q. 1 KiloByte (KB) = 1024 MegaBytes (MB) (False).
Q. Each hexadecimal digit has a unique 4-bit representation. (True)
Q. 1 MegaByte (MB) = 1024 KiloBytes (KB) (True)
Q. Interpreter is a System Utility software. (False)
Q. Compiler is a Language Translator Software. (True)
Q. Microsoft Windows is an example of Application Software. (False)
Q. Device Drivers translate code from high level language to low level language. (False)
Q. Compiler and Interpreter convert high level languages to low level languages. (True)
Q. Command Line User Interface uses Graphical Icons and Menus for navigation. (False)

43
 Multiple Choice Questions
(Choose any one out of four choices)
1. Which of the following translators converts high level language into low level language at
once?
a. Assembler
b. Compiler
c. Interpreter
d. None of the above
2. Which of the following is a System Utility?
a. Windows
b. iOS
c. Symbian
d. Anti-Virus

3. Which of the following is not a role of the Operating System?

a. Memory Management
b. Storage Management
c. Language Translation
d. Process Management

4. Which of the following is an Output Device?

a. Mouse
b. Keyboard
c. Speakers
d. Joystick

5. Which of the following is not an Operating System?

a. Microsoft Windows
b. Instagram
c. Ubuntu
d. Apple macOS

6. Which of the following is a Language Translator?

a. Compiler
b. Defragmentation Tool
c. Anti-Virus
d. System Restore Utility
7. 1 MB is equal to
a. 1024 GB
b. 1024 MB

44
 c. 1024 KB
d. 1024 B

8. A symbol in the binary number system can assume how many values?
a. 2
b. 7
c. 8
d. 10

9. Nibble is a sequence of bits of length

a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
10. Which of the following is not an example of High-Level Programming Language?
a. Java
b. Python
c. Binary Language
d. C++

11. ___________ is a non-volatile memory

a. RAM
b. ROM
c. EPROM
d. EEPROM

12. _______________ memory requires constant refreshing to preserve its contents.

a. ROM
b. PROM
c. DRAM
d. SRAM

13. Which of the following is not a type of Memory?

a. Primary
b. Secondary
c. Tertiary
d. Cache

14. IPO stands for:

a. Input-Process-Output
b. Input-Program-Output

45
 c. Instruction-Program-Outcome
d. Information-Process-Outcome

15. Which of the following is not a component of the CPU?

a. ALU
b. DVD
c. CU
d. Registers

16. Which of the following is not an advantage of Computers?

a. Multi-tasking
b. Reliability
c. Accuracy
d. High Cost

17. The number (1000)2 in decimal number system is equivalent to

a. 8
b. 4
c. 16
d. 7

18. Arrange in ascending order of size:

a. MB, KB, Byte, Nibble
b. Nibble, KB, MB, GB
c. Bit, MB, Nibble, KB
d. Bit, GB, KB, MB

19. Whenever the computer is started or a software application is launched, the required
program is loaded into ___________ for processing.
a. ROM
b. CPU
c. RAM
d. CU

20. If S is a Boolean variable, determine the incorrect Boolean statement

a. S + 1 = S
b. S + 1 = 1
c. S + 0 = S
d. S + S = S

21. ASCII stands for ______________________

46
 a. American Standard Coding For Information Interdiscipline
b. American Standard Code For Information Initiative
c. American Standard Code For Information Interchange
d. American Simple Code For Information Interchange

22. The output of the two-input NAND gate is 1

a. if one input is 1 and the other is 0
b. if both the inputs are 1
c. if at least one input is 0
d. if both the inputs are 0

23. XOR is represented as

a. A.B
b. A+B
c. AB' + A'B
d. AB + A'B'

ASSERTION (A) AND REASON (R) BASED QUESTIONS

Mark the correct choice as

1. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation for A.
2. Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation for A.
3. A is True but R is False.
4. A is False but R is True.

Q.
Assertion (A): Computers perform complex tasks with incredible speed and accuracy.
Reason (R): The smallest unit of memory is called a bit.

Answer: Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation for A.

Q.
Assertion (A): File Management is one of the roles performed by the OS of a system.
Reason (R): An Operating System is an interface between the user and the hardware and manages all
the resources of a computer.

Answer: Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation for A.
Q.
Assertion (A): NAND and NOR are called the Universal Gates.

47
Reason (R): OR operator results True(1) if both the inputs are True(1), otherwise False(0).

Answer: A is True but R is False.

Q.
Assertion (A): Each symbol in a hexadecimal number system can be represented by a unique 4-bit
binary number.
Reason (R): The hexadecimal number system has 16 unique symbols.
Answer: Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation for A.
Q.
Assertion (A): Computers understand our language, and hence there is no need to convert into
machine language.
Reason (R): Encoding is defined as the process to convert data from one form to another.

Answer: A is False but R is True.

Q.
Assertion (A): The software that allows maintenance and configuration of the system is called System
Utility.
Reason (R): MS windows is an example of System Utility.

Answer: A is True but R is False.

48
 Unit II
Computational Thinking and Programming - I

Problem and Problem Solving

In computer science, "problem" refers to a task or challenge that requires a solution. The process of
identifying a problem, developing an algorithm, and implementing an algorithm to develop a computer
program is called Problem Solving. Computers may be used to solve various daily life problems such as
Train Ticket Booking, Online Shopping and Net-Banking etc.

Steps required for solving a problem

● Analyzing the problem
● Developing an Algorithm
● Coding
● Testing and Debugging

Analyzing the Problem

This stage focuses on understanding the problem. If we do not have a clear understanding of the problem,
we may develop a computer program that cannot solve the problem correctly. In this stage, we figure out
the inputs, the outputs and the processing required to convert the input into the output.

Developing Algorithm
This stage focuses on creating a logical sequence of instructions, called an Algorithm. The algorithm can
be executed by a computer to generate the desired output. An algorithm has a distinct start and end point,
as well as a defined number of steps. For a given problem, more than one algorithm may be possible and
the most suitable algorithm may be chosen.

Algorithm for finding whether a number is Even or Odd

START
Step 1 → Take an integer number A
Step 2 → Divide A by 2, and store the remainder as r
Step 3 → If r is equal to 0, A is an Even Number
Step 4 → Else it is an Odd Number
STOP

Algorithm for finding whether a number is a Prime number or Not

START
Step 1 → Take an integer number A
Step 2 → Set divisor as 2
Step 3 → Set flag_value as True

49
Step 4 → Repeat from divisor to A-1
4a. divide A by divisor and store the remainder as r
4b. If r is zero, set flag_value to False
4c. Increment divisor by 1
Step 3 → If flag_value is False, A is not prime
Step 4 → Else A is prime
STOP

Coding
Coding is the process of creating computer programs.

Testing
Testing is a process to check if an application is working as expected (and not working abnormally). The
main objective of Testing is to find errors.

Debugging
Debugging is the activity to fix the errors found in the application during the testing phase.

Representation of Algorithms
There are two common methods of representing an algorithm —flowchart and pseudocode.

Flowchart
● A flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm.
● A flowchart contains various shapes which are connected by arrows, which shows the flow of
control.

50
Shapes used in Flowchart

Shape Shape Name Usage

Oval Start/Stop

Rectangle Process

Parallelogram Input/Output

Diamond Decision/Condition

Arrow Flow of Control /

Connections

Draw a flow-chart to identify whether a number taken as the input from the user is an even number
or an odd number?
Algorithm Flow Chart

START
Step 1 → Take an integer number A as input
Step 2 → Divide A by 2, and store the
remainder as r
Step 3 → If r is zero, Display 'Even'
Step 4 → Else Display 'Odd'
STOP

51
Pseudocode
● Pseudocode is a way of representing an algorithm in readable and easy language.
● Pseudocode is not an actual program. So, it cannot be executed.
● Some of the frequently used keywords while writing pseudocode are INPUT, COMPUTE, PRINT
IF/ELSE, START, STOP

Advantages of Pseudo-Code:
1. Easily convertible to a Programming Language
2. Easy to understand and read

Write a pseudocode for identifying if a number is even or odd?

INPUT number A
COMPUTE remainder as r = A%2
IF r ==0 PRINT 'Even'
ELSE PRINT 'Odd'

Decomposition
Decomposition is the process of breaking a complex computer problem into smaller parts that are easily
manageable and solvable.

Familiarization with the basics of Python programming

Computer Program:
A computer program is a set of instructions that can be executed by the computer to perform and solve a
certain task. These programs are written in a special language known as Programming Language.

Computer Programming:
It is the process to create a computer program.

Python Programming Language:

Python is an interpreted, high-level programming language. It was developed by Guido van Rossum. It is
user-friendly and is most popular for its easy-to-use syntax and readable code.

Features of Python
● High-level Programming language.
● Interpreted language (as Python programs are executed by an interpreter)

52
 ● Easy to use
● Simple Syntax
● Python programs are generally written with fewer Lines of Code as compared to other
programming languages.
● Case-sensitive. For example, 'NUMBER' and 'number' are treated differently in Python.
● Portable programming language - has ability run programs on many computer architectures and
operating systems.

Syntax: Set of rules for framing a valid statement in a programming language.

Working in Python
● Install Python on the computer (https://www.python.org/downloads/). Refer Appendix for
installation instructions.
● Use Python IDLE (Integrated Development and Learning Environment) for developing python
Programs.

How to Display Data

print( ) function is used to print a message on the screen.

A Simple Hello World Program

print("Hello World")

Modes of working in Python

● Interactive Mode
● Script Mode

Interactive Mode
In Interactive Mode, a python statement is executed in a command-line shell. It provides instant feedback
for each statement while keeping prior statements in memory.

Script Mode
In script mode, the instructions are saved in a file with a '.py' extension and executed from the beginning of
the file. This mode is suitable for creating and running large programs. In script mode, all commands are
stored in the form of a program or a script.

Character Set:
A character set is a collection of valid characters that can be recognized by a language. Python Language
recognises the following characters as valid:

53
Letters : A-Z, a-z
Digits : 0-9
Special Symbol : + / @ ! - = <> == etc.
Whitespaces : '\n', '\t' etc.

Tokens
Tokens are the smallest individual units of a program.

Keywords
Keywords are reserved words with special meaning (known to the interpreter). These can not be used as
identifiers in a program.
Example: for, while, else, if

Identifier
A variable, function, class, module, or other objects are identified by a name known as identifier.
Rules for naming an identifier:
1. First character of a variable can be an alphabet(A-Z or a-z) or an underscore(_).
2. Next characters of a variable can be an alphabet(A-Z or a-z), an underscore(_) or a digit.
3. Keywords cannot be used as variables.
4. First character cannot be a digit.
5. Special characters including white spaces are not allowed.

Literals:
Literals are data-items that have a fixed value of a certain data type, such as a number, string, boolean, or
None. They are also known as Constants.
Example :
String literals (Text) : 'Hello World'
Numeric literals (Numbers) : 3.14
Boolean literals (Truth Value) : True/False
None Literal : The None keyword is used to define a null value
or absence of a value. None is different from 0.

54
Operators and Operands
Operators are symbols (or keywords) that perform various operations on the operands. An operand is a
variable or a literal on which the operation is performed.
Example: 50 + 20
Here 50 and 20 are operands, and + is the operator.

Arithmetic Operators : Arithmetic operators perform mathematical operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, floor division, exponent and modulus. (+,-,*,/,//,**,%)

Relational Operators:

Relational operators perform comparison between values. An expression having relational operators
evaluates to either True or False. Example >, <, >=, <=, ==, !=

Python Comments

Comments are descriptions about the code. They help other programmers understand the functionality of
the code. Comments are ignored by the Python interpreter, and are only relevant to the programmer.

Variable

Variables refer to an object (data items like int, float, list, dictionary etc) stored in the memory. Value stored
in a variable can be changed during the program execution.
Rules for naming a variable are the same as the rules for naming an Identifier.
Example: pri = 5
Here pri is a variable with value 5.

Valid variable name examples : name, Age, _total

Invalid variable name examples : print value (whitespace not allowed), 1_gender (cannot start
with a digit)

Concept of L Value and R Value

In Python, the l-value refers to the left-hand side of an assignment operator, while the r-value refers to the
right-hand side of an assignment operator.
The l-value is associated with a valid memory location in the computer. The memory location can be
checked by using the id( ) function.
The r-value may be any valid expression which is executed by the interpreter.
Consider the following assignment statement:

55
x = 5+2
In the statement above, the l-value is 'x' as it is on the left-hand side of the = operator.
The r-value is 7 as it is on the right-hand side of the = operator, and is generated by performing the addition
operation on 5 and 2.
The memory location of x may be checked by executing the command id(x).

Knowledge of Data Types

Data Type
Data type represents the type of data a Variable or a Literal is referring to. Each data type has specific
characteristics and operations associated with it. In Python, there are various data types, including number,
string, boolean, list, tuple, and dictionary.

Mutable and Immutable Data Objects

Python variables are memory references. It may be required to change or update the value of an object
referenced by a variable. However, for certain data objects, Python does not allow us to change the value
of an object.

Mutable Objects:

Mutable data objects are objects that can be changed after they are created. It is possible to add, remove, or
modify elements within these data types. Example of mutable data types: List, Set and Dictionary.

Immutable Objects :

Objects whose values cannot be changed after they are created are called immutable objects. To change the
value, a new object is created. Example of immutable data types: Number (Integer, Float), String, and Tuple.

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Numeric Data Types (Number)
Python has three numeric data types:
1. Integer
2. Float
3. Complex

Integer
● Numbers with No Fractional Part
● Can be Positive or Negative
● In Python 3, the int type has no max limit. Values can be as large as the available memory allows.
● Example 100, 0o55 (octal number), 0x68(hexadecimal number)

Float
● Numbers with Fractional Part
● Example 3.14, .314E01

Complex
● Numbers with both real and imaginary components
● A complex number is represented by "x + yj". Example 10 + 9j

Boolean
A boolean data type can assume one of the two possible values : True or False.

57
Sequence: Sequence is an ordered collection of items or elements which includes several built-in types
as String, List, and Tuple. Values in the sequence are called elements/items. Each element in a sequence
has a unique index.

String:
● A string is an ordered sequence of characters enclosed in single/double/triple quotes.
● Single Line String : Terminates in a single line. Example – 'This is an example of single line'
● Multi Line String : Does not terminate in a single line. A multiline string may be created using three
quotes

Example -
'''This is a
Multiline
string'''

List:
● List is an ordered sequence data type which can store values of any data type.
● List is mutable.
● List is enclosed in square brackets [ ]
● Example : [ ] is an empty List,
[5, 6.5, True, 'Hello'] is a List having 5, 6.5, True and 'Hello' as four
elements.

Tuple:
● Tuple is an ordered sequence which can store values of any data type.
● They are immutable, i.e the items of a Tuple cannot be updated after creation.
● Tuple is enclosed in parenthesis ( )
● Example : t=( ) is an empty Tuple
t=(9,) is a Tuple with 9 as an item
t=(8, 5, 9.5, False) is a Tuple with 8, 5, 9.5, False as four items

Dictionary:
● Dictionary in Python stores items in the form of key-value pairs
● Syntax is dict_variable = {key1:value1, key2:value2, …, key-n:value-n}
● Items in a dictionary are enclosed in curly brackets { } and are separated by commas
● In a key-value pair, the key is separated from the value using a colon (:)
● To access any value in the dictionary, specify the key as the index using square brackets [ ].
● Example : { } is an empty dictionary,
D = {'name':'Python','version':'3.7.2', 'OS': 'Windows'}
print(D['version']) # shows 3.7.2 as output

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Special Data-type: None
The None data type/keyword is used to indicate absence of a value (No value or Missing Value).

Operand: Value(s) required for operation of operator.

Operators: Operators can manipulate the value of operands (variables or values). Various symbols are
used as operators.
a = 5
b = 6
sum = a + b
In above example, + and = are the operators, a, b are operands and sum is a variable.

Expression
An expression is combination of operators, operands, literals and parenthesis. An expression produces a
value when evaluated.
Python Statement
In Python, a statement is an instruction that the interpreter can execute.
Types of Operators
1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Relational Operators
3. Logical Operators
4. Assignment Operators
5. Identity Operators
6. Membership Operators
Arithmetic operators: Arithmetic operators perform mathematical operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, and modulus.

59
Modulo Operator
The modulo operator (%) evaluates the remainder of the operation when the operand on the left is divided
by the operand on the right of the modulo operator.
Example
15 % 7 = 1
13 % 7 = 6

Relational Operators: Relational operators compare the operands. They evaluate to either True or
False.

Logical operators:
Logical operators combine logical values of true or false into a logical expression. They evaluate to either
True or False. There are three basic types of logical operators: 'NOT', 'AND', and 'OR'.

Assignment operators:
Variables are assigned values using assignment operators.

Example :
sum = 5 + x
result += 5

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Here, the sum variable is assigned the sum of 5 and x. And, the result variable is assigned the sum of
result and 5.

Identity Operators

The identity operators in Python are "IS" and "IS NOT". They check whether the two objects are of the
same data type and share the same memory address.
Example :
x = 5
y = 5
if x is y:
print("x and y are the same object")
else:
print("x and y are different object")

Output will display x and y are the same object because both of them reference the same memory location.

Membership Operators

The membership operators in Python are 'IN' and 'NOT IN'. They check whether the operand on the left
side of the operator is a member of a sequence (such as a list or a string) on the right side of the operator.

Example :

x = ['Red', 2, 'Green']
if 'Red' in x:
print("Found")
else:
print("Not Found")

Output will display Found because the item 'Red' is a member of the List x.

Operator Precedence

Operator precedence determines the priority of operators in an expression. The precedence of various
operators is shown in the Precedence Table.

61
For example, x = 7 + 3 * 2; will result in 13, not 20, because operator * has higher precedence than +. The
expression is evaluated as 7 + 6.

Associativity of Python Operators

Associativity refers to the order in which operators of the same precedence are evaluated. The associativity
of an operator may be left-to-right or right-to-left.
Precedence Table

Evaluation of Expression
1. Evaluate the expression 50 + 20 * 30
Evaluation:
= 50 + (20 * 30) #precedence of * is more than that of +
= 50 + 600
= 650
2. Evaluate the expression 100 - 20 + 50
Evaluation:
The two operators (–) and (+) have equal precedence and the associativity is from left to right so the left
operator (i.e. -) will be evaluated first.
= (100 – 20) + 50
= 80 + 50
= 130

3. Evaluate the expression 9 + 3 ** 2 * 4 // 3

Evaluation:
= 9 + (3 ** 3) * 4 // 3

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= 9 + 27 * 4 // 3 (* and // has left to right associativity)
= 9 + 108 // 3
= 9 + 36
= 45

Type conversion
It is the process of converting the value from one data type into another. Python supports two ways of Type
conversion:
● Implicit conversion
● Explicit conversion

Implicit conversion
This type of conversion is performed by Python Interpreter automatically without the user's intervention.
Example:
num1 = 20 # num1 is integer
num2 = 30.5 # num2 is float
sum1 = num1 + num2 # sum1 will use float to avoid
# loss of fractional part during addition
print(sum1)
print(type(sum1))

Output:
50.5
<class 'float'>

Explicit Conversion:
This type of conversion is performed by the user manually. It is also known as type-casting. Explicit type-
casting is performed using functions such as int( ), float( ), str( ) etc.
Syntax : new_data_type (expression)
Example
num1 = input("Enter a number : ") # takes a string input by default
var1 = int(num1) #converts string to integer
var1 = var1 * 3
print(var)

Output
Enter a number : 2
6

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 Input and Output in Python
Data Input:
input( ) function is used for getting input from the user. It returns the input as a String data type by default.
Explicit type casting is required to convert the input string into any other data type if required.

Data Output:
print( ) function is used for displaying output on the screen.

Example-1
num1 = int(input("Enter a Number : ")) # type casting the input from
String to Int
print("The Number is : ", num1)

Example-2
num = int(input("Enter a Number : "))
num_cube = num*num*num
print("The cube is : ",num_cube)

Errors

An error is a problem that occurs in a program. Error sometimes halt the program execution, or produce
unexpected results, and cause the program to behave abnormally.
● Syntax error
● Logical error
● Runtime error

Syntax Error

Syntax are the rules for framing statements in a programming language. Any violations in the rules while
writing a program are known as Syntax Errors. They prevent the code from executing and are detected by
the Python interpreter before the execution of the program begins.
Some of the Common Syntax Errors are

64
 ● Parenthesis Mismatch
● Misspelled keyword
● Incorrect Indentation

Logical Error
Logical errors occur when the code runs without any errors, but the output is not as expected. Logical errors
are caused by a problem in the logic of the code.
Example : Average = mark_1 + mark_2 / 2 # incorrect calculation of average marks
Corrected Code : Average = (mark_1 + mark_2 ) / 2

Runtime Error
A runtime error causes abnormal termination of the program during the execution. Runtime error occurs
when the statement is correct syntactically, but the interpreter cannot execute it.

Example: 'division by zero'

num1 = 5.0
num2 = int(input("num2 = ")) #if the user inputs zero, a runtime error
will occur
print(num1/num2)

Flow of Control

Flow of Control refers to the order in which statements are executed in a program.

Sequential Flow

The default control flow in a program is sequential flow, in which statements are executed line-by-line one
after the other in a sequence in which they are written.

Example

x = 6
y = 7
z = y - x
print(z)

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Conditional Flow

Conditional flow refers to execution of certain statements only if a specific condition is met. This is
accomplished by the use of conditional statements such as if, if-else, and if-elif-else.

Example
num = int(input("Enter a number : "))
if(num>5):
print("Number is greater than 5")
else:
print("Number is less than 5")

Output
Enter a number : 55
Number is greater than 5

Iterative Flow

Iteration means 'repetition'.

Iterative flow repeats statements in a block of code. Repetition or looping can be performed a fixed number
of times or until a certain condition is met. This is accomplished through the use of iterative statements: for
and while.

Example-1
name = input("Enter your name : ")
for x in range(5): # range function creates a sequence of integers from 0 to 4
print("Hello", name)

Example-2
name = input("Enter your name : ")
i=1
while i<=5:
print("Hello", name)
i +=1

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 Conditional Statements

Conditional statements execute specific blocks of code based on certain conditions. In Python, conditional
statements are implemented using the keywords if, if-else, and if-elif-else.

Terminology
Indentation
Indentation refers to the spaces at the beginning of a line.
Example
if a<5:
print(a)
print('Inner Block')
print('Outside block')

Block of code
A block of code is a set of statements that are grouped together and executed as a single unit. A block of
code is identified by the indentation of the lines of code.

if statement
The if statement is used to execute a block
of code only if a certain condition is true.

Syntax:
if <condition>:
Set of Statements

Flow Chart of if-statement

Example-

age = int(input("Enter your age : "))

if age>=18:
print('Congratulations')
print('You are allowed to vote')

67
Program
Write a python Program to find the absolute value of the number entered by the user.
num = int(input("Enter any number : "))
if num>=0:
abs_num = num
else:
abs_num= -num
print(abs_num)

Output
Enter any number : -5
5

Program
Write a python Program to sort three numbers entered by a user.
a = float(input("Enter the first number : "))
b = float(input("Enter the second number : "))
c = float(input("Enter the third number : "))
if a > b:
a,b = b,a
if a > c:
a,c = c,a
if b > c:
b,c = c,b
print (a, "<", b, "<", c)
Output
Enter the first number : 30
Enter the second number : 25
Enter the third number : 20
20.0 < 25.0 < 30.0

if-else statement

The if-else statement is used to execute one block of code if a certain condition is true, and another block
of code if the condition is false.

68
Syntax of if-else

if <condition>:
set of statements
else:
set of statements

Example

age = int(input("Enter your age : "))

if age>=18:
print('Congratulations')
print('You are allowed to vote')
else:
print('You are not allowed to vote')
print('Thanks')

Flowchart of if-else statement

69
Program
Write a python Program to check if a number entered by a user is divisible by 3.
num=int(input("Enter a number : "))
if num % 3 == 0:
print(num,"is divisible by 3")
else:
print(num,"is not divisible by 3")
Output
Enter a number : 601
601 is not divisible by 3

if-elif-else statement
if-elif-else statement is used to check multiple conditions.
Program

per = int(input("Enter Percentage : "))

if per >= 75:
print("Distinction")
elif per >= 60:
print("Grade-A")
elif per >= 50:
print("Grade-B")
elif per >= 40:
print("Grade-C")
else:
print("Grade-D")

Flowchart of if-elif-else statement

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 Iterative Statement
Iterative statements execute a set of instructions multiple times. 'for' and 'while' loops are the iterative
statements in Python.

while Loop
The while loop repeatedly executes a block of code as long as the specified condition is true.
The while loop is an exit controlled loop, i.e. the user is responsible for exiting the loop by changing the
value of the condition to False. While loop may run infinitely if the condition remains true.
Syntax:
while (condition):
block of statements

Flowchart of while loop

Example
Write a Python Program (using a while loop) to Find the Sum of First 10 Natural Numbers.
num=1
sum=0
while (num <= 10):
sum = sum + num
num = num+1
print ("Sum of Natural Numbers : ", sum)

Example
Write a Python Program (using the while loop) to Find the Sum of First N Natural Numbers where N is
entered by the user.
num=1
sum=0
n = int(input("Enter the value of n : "))
while (num <= n):
sum = sum + num
num = num+1
print ("Sum of Natural Numbers : ", sum)

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range( ) Function
range( ) is a built-in function that returns a sequence of numbers.
Syntax
range(start, stop, step)
start: The starting value of the sequence (inclusive). If not specified, it defaults to 0.
stop: The ending value of the sequence (exclusive).
step: The difference between two consecutive elements. Its default value is 1.
The range( ) function can be used in for loops to iterate over a sequence of numbers.

Case-1 Case-2 Case-3 Case-4

x = list(range(5)) x = list(range(3,6)) x = list(range(3,20,2)) x = list(range(0, -9, -1))
print(x) print(x) print(x) print(x)
Output Output Output Output
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4] [3, 4, 5] [3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, [0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -
19] 8]

for Loop
The for loop is used to iterate over a sequence (such as a list, tuple, string, etc.) and execute a block of code
for each item in the sequence.

Syntax
for <control_variable> in <sequence>:
Block of code

Flowchart of for loop

72
Example-1 Example-2
list1 = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10] str1 = 'India'
for var1 in list1: for each_character in str1:
print(var1) print(each_character)

Program-1
Write a Python Program (using for loop) to Find the Sum of First 10 Natural Numbers.
sum=0
for num in range(1,11):
sum = sum + num
print ("Sum of Natural Numbers : ", sum)
Output:
Sum of Natural Numbers : 55

Program-2
Write a Python Program (using for loop) to Find the Sum of First N Natural Numbers where N is entered by the
user.
sum=0
n = int(input("Enter the value of n : "))
for num in range(1, n+1):
sum = sum + num
print ("Sum of Natural Numbers : ", sum)

Output:
Enter the value of n : 20
Sum of Natural Numbers : 210

Program-3
Write a Python Program (using for loop) to find the factorial of a number.
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
factorial = 1
if num < 0:
print("Sorry, factorial does not exist for negative numbers")
else:
for i in range(1, num + 1):
factorial *= i
print("The factorial of", num, "is", factorial)

Output
Enter a number: 5
The factorial of 5 is 120

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Break and Continue Statement
Break Statement: The break statement is used to terminate a loop immediately. It is typically used with
conditional statements.
Continue Statement: The continue statement skips all the remaining statements in the current iteration of
the loop and moves the control to the beginning of the next iteration.
Example :
fruits = ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']
for x in fruits:
if x == 'banana':
break
print(x)

Example :
Write a program in Python to check if a number entered by a user is a prime number or not.
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
flag=False
if num > 1:
for i in range(2, num):
if (num % i) == 0:
flag=True
break
if flag==True:
print(num, "is not a prime number")
else:
print(num, "is a prime number")

Example :
Write a program in Python to print all natural numbers from 1 to 10 except 7.
for i in range(1,11):
if i==7:
continue
print(i)

Example :
Write a program in Python to print all natural numbers between 1 and 50 (both inclusive) which are not
multiple of 3.
for x in range(1, 51):
if x % 3 ==0 :
continue
print(x)

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Nested loops
Nested loops refers to a loop within a loop.
Example: Generating a pattern
n = int(input("Enter the number of rows: "))
for i in range(n):
for j in range(i+1):
print("*", end="")
print()

Output
Enter the number of rows: 5
*
**
***
****
*****

String
String: String is a sequence of UNICODE characters. A string can be created by enclosing one or more
characters in single, double or triple quotes (' ' or '' '' or ''' ''').
Example
>>> str1 = 'Python'
>>> str2 = "Python"
>>> str3 = '''Multi Line
String'''
>>> str4 = """Multi Line
String"""

Terminology

Whitespace Characters: Those characters in a string that represent horizontal or vertical space.
Example: space (' '), tab ('\t'), and newline ('\n')

75