Course Title : Power Systems 3

Course Code: EEE 342

Class: HND 3

1
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 BUSBAR ARRANGEMENTS

An electrical bus bar is defined as a conductor or a group of conductor used for collecting electric
power from the incoming feeders and distributes them to the outgoing feeders. In other words, it
is a type of electrical junction in which all the incoming and outgoing electrical current meets.
Thus, the electrical bus bar collects the electric power at one location.

The electrical bus bar is available in rectangular, cross-sectional, round and many other shapes.
The rectangular bus bar is mostly used in the power system. The copper and aluminium are used
for the manufacturing of the electrical bus bar.

Figure 2.1

Various types of busbar arrangement are used in the power system. The selection of the bus bar is
depended on the different factor likes reliability, flexibility, cost etc. The following are the
electrical considerations governing the selection of any one particular arrangement.

• The bus bar arrangement is simple and easy in maintenance.

• The maintenance of the system did not affect their continuity.
• The installation of the bus bar is cheap.

2
The small substation where continuity of the supply is not essential uses the single bus bar. But
in a large substation, the additional busbar is used in the system so that the interruption does not
occur in their supply.

The bus bar system consists the isolator and the circuit breaker. On the occurrence of a fault, the
circuit breaker is tripped off and the faulty section of the busbar is easily disconnected from the
circuit. There eight main types of bus-bar arrangements as follows

i. Single Bus-Bar Arrangement

ii. Single Bus-Bar Arrangement with Bus Sectionalization
iii. Main and Transfer Bus Arrangement
iv. Double Bus Double Breaker Arrangement
v. Sectionalized Double Bus Arrangement
vi. One-and-a-Half Breaker Arrangement
vii. Ring Main Arrangement
viii. Mesh Arrangement

i. Single Bus-Bar Arrangement

In this scheme, all incoming and outgoing circuits are connected to a single busbar. It is the
simplest and most economical scheme but lacks redundancy and flexibility for maintenance and
fault handling. All the substation equipment like the transformer, generator, and the feeder are
connected to this bus bar only.

3
 Figure 2.2 : Single Bus-Bar Arrangement
Advantages:
• Simple and economical to implement.
• Requires less space and fewer components.
Disadvantages:
• Lack of redundancy, making the system vulnerable to failures.
• Limited flexibility for maintenance and fault handling as all circuits are connected to a
single busbar.

As at 2017, ECG was expected to expedite ongoing project of converting the single busbar
arrangement at the Adenta substation to the double busbar arrangement. This is expected
to improve flexibility of operation and reliability of supply to Adenta, Kwabenya, Dodowa and
Mampong (Report of 2017 Electricity Supply Plan For Ghana :
http://energycom.gov.gh/files/2017%20Electricity%20Supply%20Plan%20-
%20Final%20Report.pdf )

ii. Single Bus-Bar Arrangement with Bus Sectionalization

The bus-bar may be sectionalized by a circuit breaker and isolating switches so that a fault on one
part does not cause a complete shutdown. In large generating stations, where several units are
installed, it is a common practice to sectionalize the bus as illustrated in Fig. 16.20.

4
 Figure 2.3
Normally the number of sections of a bus-bar are 2 to 3 in a substation, but actually it is limited
by the short-circuit current to be handled. In a sectionalized bus-bar arrangement only one
additional circuit breaker is required which does not cost much in comparison to the total cost of
the bus-bar system.

At times air-break isolators were used in place of circuit breakers as bus-sectionalizer due to
economy, but it must be remembered that any isolation affected by them must be affected under
off-load conditions otherwise it may cause spark.

Advantages

• The faulty section is removed without affecting the continuity of the supply.
• The maintenance of the individual section can be done without disturbing the system
supply
• By adding a current limiting reactor between the sections the fault level (MVA) can be
reduced thereby circuit breakers of lower capacity can be used.

Disadvantages

• The system uses the additional circuit breaker and isolator which increases the cost of the
system.

5
iii. Main and Transfer Bus Arrangement

One busbar can be used for normal operation while the other is reserved for maintenance or fault
handling. It provides redundancy and flexibility for maintenance and fault isolation. Figure 2.4
illustrates the main and transfer bus arrangement in a generating station.

Figure 2.4

Such an arrangement consists of two bus-bars, known as main bus-bar and transfer bus-bar used
as an auxiliary bus-bar. Each generator and feeder may be connected to either bus-bar with the
help of bus coupler which consists of a circuit breaker and isolating switches. In this arrangement
a bus coupler is usually used so that change-over from one bus-bar to the other can be carried out
under load conditions.

Steps in transferring load to the reserve bus

• Close the bus-coupler (circuit breaker) so as to make the two buses at the same potential.
• Close isolators on the reserve bus
• Open isolators on the main bus.
• The load is now transferred to the reserve or auxiliary bus and main bus is disconnected.

This arrangement provides additional flexibility, continuity of supply and allows periodic
maintenance without total shutdown. Hence, this arrangement has been quite frequently adopted
6
where the loads and continuity of supply justify additional costs. Such an arrangement is suitable
for highly interconnected power network in which flexibility is very important.

Advantages:

• Provides redundancy, allowing for maintenance or fault isolation without interrupting

power supply.
• Offers flexibility for reconfiguration and expansion of the system.

Disadvantages:

• Requires more components and space compared to the single busbar scheme.
• Increased complexity may lead to higher installation and maintenance costs.

iv. Double Bus Double Breaker

This type of arrangement requires two bus bar and two circuit breakers. It does not require any
additional equipment like bus coupler and switch. This arrangement is employed in very important
power stations. Such a bus-bar arrangement does not require any bus-coupler and permits switch-
over from one bus to the other whenever desired, without interruption. This bus arrangement is
very costly and its maintenance cost is also high. This arrangement provides maximum flexibility
and reliability as the faults and maintenance interrupt the supply to the minimum. A circuit breaker
can be opened for repairs and usual checks and the load can be shifted on the other circuit breaker
easily. But because of its higher cost, this arrangement is seldom used at the substations.

7
 Figure 2.5

v. Sectionalized Double Bus Arrangement

In this type of bus arrangement, the sectionalized main bus bar is used along with the auxiliary bus
bar. Any section of the busbar removes from the circuit for maintenance and it is connected to any
of the auxiliary bus bars. But such type of arrangement increases the cost of the system.
Sectionalization of the auxiliary bus bar is not required because it would increase the cost of the
system.

8
 Figure 2.6

vi. One and a half Circuit Breaker Arrangement

This system uses three circuit breakers connected between two buses to protect two feeder lines,
hence the name three-halves or one and a half breaker scheme. This scheme is an extension of
the double busbar scheme, where each circuit is connected to both busbars through circuit
breakers. It allows either bus to be taken out of service for maintenance without interrupting
power to the feeders.

Figure 2.7
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZU4y6vsabP4

Advantages of One and a Half Breaker Arrangement

• Offers higher reliability than the double busbar scheme by providing additional circuit
breaker protection.
• Provides enhanced fault tolerance and flexibility for maintenance.

Disadvantages of One and a Half Breaker Arrangement

• Requires additional protection schemes, hence increased complexity and cost

9
vii. Ring Main Arrangement

In this scheme, multiple busbars are interconnected in a ring configuration. It provides redundancy
and multiple paths for power flow, enhancing reliability and fault tolerance. It is commonly used
in substations where high reliability is required. This is an extension of the sectionalized bus-bar
arrangement where the ends of the busbars are returned upon themselves to form a ring, as
illustrated in Figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8
This arrangement provides greater flexibility as each feeder is supplied by two paths, so that the
failure of a section does not cause any interruption of the supply. The effect of fault in one section
is localised to that section alone. The rest of the sections continue to operate. Circuit breakers can
be maintained without interrupting the supply. The cost is also not much as the numbers of breakers
used are nearly the same as that of a single bus-bar system.

Advantages:

• Provides high reliability and fault tolerance by offering multiple paths for power flow.
• Allows for continuous operation even during maintenance or fault conditions.

Disadvantages:

10
 • Requires careful design and coordination to ensure proper load sharing among busbars.
• Higher initial investment and maintenance costs due to the complexity of the ring
configuration.

viii. Mesh Arrangement

In this scheme, multiple busbars are interconnected in a mesh or grid-like configuration. It offers
high reliability and fault tolerance by providing multiple paths for power flow. It is commonly
used in large power systems where reliability is critical. In such type of arrangement, the circuit
breakers are installed in the mesh formed by the buses. The circuit is tapped from the node point
of the mesh. As an illustration consider the mesh arrangement illustrated in the figure 2.9. In the
arrangement, eight circuits are controlled by four circuit breakers. When fault occurs on any
section, two circuit breakers have to open, resulting in opening of the mesh. Comparatively, it
needs fewer circuit breakers than that required by one-and-a-half breaker arrangement. Hence, this
arrangement makes economical use of circuit breakers in a substation.

Figure 2.9
Advantages
• Offers the highest level of reliability and fault tolerance by providing multiple redundant
paths for power flow.
• Allows for continuous operation even during multiple fault conditions.
Disadvantages:
• Requires sophisticated protection and coordination schemes to ensure proper load sharing
and fault detection.
• Higher initial investment and maintenance costs due to the complexity of the mesh
configuration

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mKiL9lFA-k0

11
https://youtu.be/hScxRYHTmjc

Busbar sizing

Continuous current carrying capacity:

This is the maximum current that the busbar can carry before exceeding the maximum defined
temperature rise ( normaly 70 deg). It is defined by the maximum required cureent capacity of all
the the sources connected to the busbar including transformers/overhead lines/ cables , etc

Example 1

Example 2

12
Example 3

13
Fault current rating : This is the maxium fault current that the busbar can carry for a given period,
usually 1 sec. Fault current are created by generators , but the transformers naturally limit the fault
current that passes through them

100
Short circuit current is given as = ∗ 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Note : The impedance is obtained from the nameplate rating of the transformer as shown below

Example 4

The short circuit current rating is estimated as follows

14
Short circuit current 25* rated Limiting fault current

15
 Busbar Protection

Busbars in the generating stations and sub-stations form important link between the incoming and
outgoing circuits. If a fault occurs on a busbar, considerable damage and disruption of supply will
occur unless some form of quick-acting automatic protection is provided to isolate the faulty
busbar. The two most commonly used schemes for busbar protection are :
(i) Differential protection (ii)Fault bus protection

(i) Differential protection. The basic method for busbar protection is the differential scheme in
which currents entering and leaving the bus are totalised. During normal load condition, the sum
of these currents is equal to zero. When a fault occurs, the fault current upsets the balance and
produces a differential current to operate a relay.

The figure above shows the single line diagram of current differential scheme for a station busbar.
The busbar is fed by a generator and supplies load to two lines. The secondaries of current
transformers in the generator lead, in line 1 and in line 2 are all connected in parallel. The protective
relay is connected across this parallel connection. All CTs must be of the same ratio in the scheme
regardless of the capacities of the various circuits. Under normal load conditions or external fault
conditions, the sum of the currents entering the bus is equal to those leaving it and no current flows
through the relay. If a fault occurs within the protected zone, the currents entering the bus will no
longer be equal to those leaving it. The difference of these currents will flow through the relay and
cause the opening of the generator, circuit breaker and each of the line circuit breakers

(ii)Fault bus protection

It is possible to design a station so that the faults that develop are mostly earth-faults. This can be
achieved by providing earthed metal barrier (known as fault bus) surrounding each conductor
throughout its entire length in the bus structure. With this arrangement, every fault that might occur
must involve a connection between a conductor and an earthed metal part. By directing the flow
of earth-fault current, it is possible to detect the faults and determine their location. This type of
protection is known as fault bus protection. Below show the schematic arrangement of fault bus
protection. The metal supporting structure or fault bus is earthed through a current transformer. A

16
relay is connected across the secondary of this CT. Under normal operating conditions, there is no
current flow from fault bus to ground and the relay remains inoperative. A fault involving a
connection between a conductor and earthed sup-porting structure will result in current flow to
ground through the fault bus, causing the relay to operate. The operation of relay will trip all
breakers connecting equipment to the bus.

17
 CHAPTER THREE
3.0 TRANSMISSION LINES

In order to properly design and operate transmission line, the performance of the transmission line
in terms of the voltage drop, line losses and efficiency should be determined. These values are
however greatly influenced by the transmission line constants: R, L and C. For instance, the voltage
drop in the line depends upon these line constants. Similarly, the resistance of transmission line
conductors is the most important cause of power loss in the line and determines the transmission
efficiency. This section focuses on equipping students with the fundamentals of transmission line
performance within the context of voltage regulation, line losses and efficiency of the transmission
line. In so doing, students will understand the effects of the transmission line parameters on the
bus voltages and the flow of power.

3.1 Transmission line constants

A transmission line has resistance (R), inductance (L) and capacitance (C) uniformly distributed
along the whole length of the line. It is critical to initially elaborate on the transmission line
constants.

(a) (b)

Figure 5.1 The distribution of line constants (resistance and inductance) in a transmission line

i. Resistance: The resistance of the transmission line is uniformly distributed along the
whole length of the line as shown in Figure. 3.1 (a). However, in analyzing the
performance analysis of the transmission line, it convenient to consider the distributed
resistance as lumped as shown in Figure. 3.1 (b).

18
ii. Inductance: When an alternating current flows through a conductor, a changing flux is
set up which links the conductor. Due to these flux linkages, the conductor possesses
inductance. Although, this inductance is uniformly distributed along the length of the
transmission line (Figure 3.1a), in performance analysis, it can be taken to be lumped
as shown in Figure. 3.1(b).

iii. Capacitance: Any two conductors separated by an insulating material constitute a

capacitor. Therefore, any two conductors of an overhead transmission line are separated
by air which acts as an insulation, therefore, capacitance exists between any two
overhead line conductors. Like the resistance and the inductance, the capacitance is
uniformly distributed along the whole length of the line. However, it may be regarded
as a uniform series of capacitors connected between the conductors as shown in Figure.
3.2 (a).

When an alternating voltage is impressed on a transmission line, the charge on the

conductors at any point increases and decreases with the increase and decrease of the
instantaneous value of the voltage between conductors at that point. Consequently,
current flows between the conductors as illustrated in Figure 3.2 b. This current is
known as the charging current. The charging current flows in the line even when there
is no load, and affects the performance of the line (e.g. voltage drop, efficiency, power
factor).

(a) (b)

Figure 3.2 Distribution of line constant ( capacitance) in a transmission lineCharging

current in transmission line

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5.2 Performance of Transmission Lines

The performance of a transmission line is greatly affected by its length. On the bases of the length,
a transmission line can be classified into three categorized as elaborated in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Classification of overhead transmission lines

Type Length (km) Voltage (kV) Comments

Short 50km Less than 20 Due to smaller length and lower voltage, the capacitance
kV effects are small and hence can be neglected

Medium 50-150 km between 20 Due to sufficient length and voltage of the line, the
and 100 kV capacitance effects are taken into account. During system
analyses the distributed capacitance of the line is divided
and lumped in the form of condensers shunted across the
line at one or more points.

Long >150km Above 100 kV In the analyses of such a long transmission line, the line
constants are considered uniformly distributed over the
whole length of the line and rigorous methods are
employed for solution.

a. Voltage Regulation

Voltage regulation (V.R.) is the difference in voltage at the receiving end of a transmission line
between conditions of no load and full load. Voltage regulation is expressed as a percentage of the
receiving end voltage. Preferably, the voltage regulation of a transmission line should be low. This
implies that the increase in load current should make very little difference in the receiving end
voltage.

𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑅 = × 100 % (3.1)
𝑉𝑅

20
 b. Transmission Efficiency

The power obtained at the receiving end of a transmission line is generally less than the sending
end power due to losses in the line resistance. The ratio of receiving end power to the sending end
power of a transmission line is known as the transmission efficiency (𝜂𝑇 ) of the line.

𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝜂𝑇 = × 100 % (3.2)
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜙𝑅
𝜂𝑇 = × 100 % (3.3)
𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑆 cos 𝜙𝑆

where 𝑉𝑅 , 𝐼𝑅 , and cos 𝜙𝑅 are the receiving end voltage, current and power factor ; 𝑉𝑆 , 𝐼𝑆 , and
cos 𝜙𝑆 are the corresponding values at the sending end.

3.2.1 Performance of Short Transmission Lines (Single Phase)

Figure 3.3 shows the equivalent circuit of a single phase short transmission line. In the analyzing
the short transmission line, the effects of line capacitance are neglected. Moreover, the total line
resistance and inductance are shown as concentrated or lumped instead of being distributed.

(a) Equivalent circuit (b) Phasor diagram

Fig 3.3. Short transmission line

where, 𝐼 = Load current ; 𝑅 = loop resistance (i.e. resistance of both conductors) ; 𝑋𝐿 = loop
reactance ; 𝑉𝑅 = receiving end voltage ; cos 𝜙𝑅 = receiving end power factor (lagging) ; cos 𝜙𝑆 =
sending end power factor

(𝑂𝐶)2 = (𝑂𝐷)2 + (𝐷𝐶)2 (5.4)

21
(𝑉𝑠 )2 = (𝑂𝐸 + 𝐸𝐷)2 + (𝐷𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶)2 (5.5)
(𝑉𝑆 )2 = (𝑉𝑅 cos 𝜙𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝑉𝑅 sin 𝜙𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 )2 (5.6)
𝑉𝑆 = √(𝑉𝑅 cos 𝜙𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝑉𝑅 sin 𝜙𝑅 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 )2 (5.7)

Therefore, the following can be deduced

𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅
i. 𝑉𝑅 = × 100 % (5.8)
𝑉𝑅
𝑂𝐷 𝑉𝑅 cos 𝜙𝑅 +𝐼𝑅
ii. Sending end p.f. cos 𝜙𝑠 = = (5.9)
𝑂𝐶 𝑉𝑆
iii. Power delivered = 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜙𝑅 (5.10)
Line losses = 𝐼 2 𝑅 (5.11)
Power sent out = 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜙𝑅 + 𝐼 2 𝑅 (5.12)
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
Transmission efficiency = × 100 % (5.13)
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜙𝑅
= × 100 % (5.14)
𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜙𝑅 + 𝐼 2 𝑅

1.2.1.1 Approximate method

An approximate expression for the sending end voltage 𝑉𝑠 can be derived by drawing a
perpendicular from B and C on OA produced as shown in Figure. 5.4a. From the Figure, it can be
appreciated that OC is approximately equal to OF

(a) Approximate method (b) Complex notation

Fig 5.4 Phasor diagram of a short transmission line

Thus, the following could be deduced

OC = OF = OA + AF (5.15)
= OA + AG + GF (5.16)

22
 = OA + AG + BH (5.17)
VS = VR + I R cos∅R + I XL sin∅R (5.18)

1.2.1.2 Complex notation approach

Alternatively, the sending end voltage (𝑉𝑠 ) can be derived in complex notation as follows; In this
case, the ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 is treated as the reference phasor (Figure 5.4 b). From the figure, ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑠 is the phasor
sum of ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑍

∗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j 0 (5.19)
𝐼 = 𝐼 ∠ -𝜙𝑅 = 𝐼 (cos∅R − jsin ∅R ) (5.20)
⃗⃗⃗
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗 𝑋𝐿 (5.21)
⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑠 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑍 (5.22)
= ( 𝑉𝑅 + j 0) + 𝐼(cos∅R − jsin ∅R )(𝑅 + 𝑗 𝑋𝐿 ) (5.23)
= (VR + I R cos∅R + I XL sin∅R ) + 𝑗 (I XL cos∅R - I R sin∅R ) (5.24)
= √(𝑉𝑅 + I R cos∅R + I 𝑋𝐿 sin∅R )2 + (I 𝑋𝐿 cos∅R − I R sin∅R )2 (5.25)

The second term in the above equation is quite small and can be neglected. Therefore, the sending
end voltage as derived by the complex notation can be approximated as:

VS = VR + I R cos∅𝑅 + I XL sin∅𝑅 (5.26)

Note: The approximate expression for VS should be used for lagging p.f. only. This is because
appreciable error is caused for leading power factors.

5.2.1.3 Three phase transmission lines

The three phase system may be regarded as consisting of three single phase units. Therefore,
expression for regulation, efficiency, etc. derived for a single phase line can also be applied to a 3-
phase system. However, since only one phase is considered, phase values of 3-phase system should
be taken.

23
 (a) (b)

Figure 5.5. a. Three phase transmission line b. Single phase transmission line

a. The effect of the load p.f on the regulation on the transmission line

The expression for voltage regulation of a short transmission line is given by:

𝐼 𝑅 cos∅𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑋𝐿 sin∅𝑅
𝑉𝑅 = × 100 % (for lagging p.f.) (5.27)
𝑉𝑅
𝐼 𝑅 cos∅𝑅 − 𝐼 𝑋𝐿 sin∅𝑅
𝑉𝑅 = × 100 % (for leading p.f.) (5.28)
𝑉𝑅

Based on the above equations derived the following conclusion can be made

i. When the load p.f. is lagging or unity (i.e., IR cos∅𝑅 > I XL sin∅𝑅 ), then voltage regulation
is positive. In other words, receiving end voltage VR will be less than the sending end
voltage VS.
ii. For a given VR and I, the voltage regulation of the line increases with the decrease in p.f.
for lagging loads.
iii. When the load p.f. is leading (i.e., I XL sin∅𝑅 > I R cos∅𝑅 ), then voltage regulation is
negative. In other words, the receiving end voltage VR is more than the sending end voltage
VS.
iv. For a given VR and I, the voltage regulation of the line decreases with the decrease in p.f.
for leading loads.

24
Example 5.1

An overhead 3-phase transmission line delivers 5000 kW at 22 kV at 0·8 p.f. lagging. The
resistance and reactance of each conductor is 4 Ωand 6 Ωrespectively. Determine:
i. sending end voltage
ii. percentage regulation
iii. transmission efficiency

Solution 5.1

25
Example 5.2

Estimate the distance over which a load of 15000 kW at a p.f. 0·8 lagging can be delivered by a
3-phase transmission line having conductors each of resistance 1 Ωper kilometre. The voltage at
the receiving end is to be 132 kV and the loss in the transmission is to be 5%

Solution 5.2

Example 5.3

A short 3-φtransmission line with an impedance of (6+ j 8) Ωper phase has sending and receiving
end voltages of 120 kV and 110 kV respectively for some receiving end load at a p.f. of 0·9 lagging.
Determine
i. power output and
ii. sending end power factor

Solution 5.3

26
Example 5.4

What is the maximum length in km for a 1-phase transmission line having copper conductor of
0·775 cm2 cross-section over which 200 kW at unity power factor and at 3300 V are to be
delivered? The efficiency of transmission is 90 %. Take specific resistance as 1.725 cm2 .

Solution 5.4

Receiving end power = 200 kW, Transmission efficiency = 0.9

200000
Sending end power = = 222, 222W
0.9
Line losses = 222222 – 200000 = 22 222
200 × 103
Line current = = 60.6 A
3 300×1
Let R, be the resistance of one conductor.
Then, Line losses = 2 × 𝐼 2 𝑅
22 222 = 2 × 60.62 × 𝑅
𝑅 = 3.025 Ω
𝜌𝑙 𝑅 ×𝑎
Considering that 𝑅 = ; 𝑙=
𝑎 𝜌
3.025 ×0.775
=
1.725 ×10−6
6
= 1.36 × 10 cm

Example 5.5

A single phase overhead transmission line delivers 1100 kW at 33 kV at 0·8 p.f. lagging. The total
resistance and inductive reactance of the line are 10 Ω and 15 Ω respectively. Determine;
27
 i. sending end voltage
ii. sending end power factor
iii. transmission efficiency

Solution 5.5 (Method 1)

Load power factor (cos 𝜙𝑅 ) = 0.8 (lagging) (sin 𝜙𝑅 = 0.6)

Total line impedance, ⃗⃗⃗
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗 𝑋𝐿 = 10 + 𝑗 15
Receiving end voltage, VR = 33kV

𝑘𝑊 × 10 3 1100 × 10 3
The line current = = = 41.67 A
𝑉𝑅 cos∅𝑅 33000 ×0.8

From equation 5.19, i.e., ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j 0
= 33 000 V
From equation 5.20, i.e., 𝐼 = 𝐼 (cos∅R − jsin ∅R )
= 41.67 (0.8 – j0.6)
= 33.33 – j 25

i. Sending end voltage,

From equation (5.22), ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑠 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑍
= 33000 + (33.33 - j25) (10 + j15)
= 33 000 + 333.3 - j 250 + j 500 + 375
= 33708.3 + j 250
Therefore, magnitude of 𝑉𝑠 = √(33 708.3 )2 + (250)2
= 33 709 V

ii. Angle between ⃗⃗⃗

𝑉𝑠 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 is shown as 𝛼 (see Figure 5.4 b)
250
tan 𝛼 = 33708.30
−1 250
𝛼 = tan 33708.30
= 0.42°
The sending end power factor angle is
𝜙𝑠 = 𝜙𝑅 + 𝛼
= 36.87° + 0.42° = 37.29 °

Therefore, sending end p.f. cos 𝜙𝑠 = cos 37.29°

= 0.7956 lagging

28
 iii. Line losses = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 41.672 × 10 = 17. 364 kW
Output power delivered = 11 00 kW
Therefore the power sent = 11 00 kW + 17.364 kW
= 1117.364 kW
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
From equation 5.13, i.e., Transmission efficiency = × 100 %
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡
11 00
Therefore transmission efficiency = × 100 % = 98.44 %
1117.364

Solution 5.2 (Method 2, i.e., approximate method)

The 𝑉𝑠 and ∅𝑠 can be estimated as follows:

From equation, (5.25), i.e., VS = VR + I R cos∅𝑅 + I XL sin∅𝑅

= 33 000 + 41.67 × 10 × 0.8 + 41.67 × 15 × 0.6

= 33 000 + 333.36 + 375.08
= 33708.39
𝑉𝑅 cos∅𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑅
cos 𝜙𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠
33 000× 0.8+41.67 × 10
= 33708.39
= 0.7958

5.2.2 Medium Transmission Lines

As the length and voltage of the line increases, the capacitance gradually becomes of greater
importance and cannot be neglected, unlike the negligible capacitance in the case of the short
transmission line. This is because, medium transmission lines have sufficient length (typically, 50-
150 km) and usually operate at voltages greater than 20 kV. However, although the capacitance
is uniformly distributed over the entire length of the line, for the purpose of simplicity, the line
capacitance is assumed to be lumped or concentrated in the form of capacitors shunted across the
line at one or more points. The localized capacitance methods applied are:

i. End Condensor method

ii. Nominal T method
iii. Nominal pi method

5.2.2.1 End condenser method

29
In this method, the capacitance of the transmission line is lumped or concentrated at the receiving
end or load (see Figure 5.6). However, it is worth noting that this method of localizing the line
capacitance at the load end overestimates the effects of capacitance.

(a) Equivalent Circuit (b) Phasor Diagram

Figure 5.6. Medium transmission line; End Condensor method

Let 𝐼𝑅 = load current per phase

𝑅 = resistance per phase
𝑋𝐿 = inductive reactance per phase
𝐶 = capacitance per phase
cos 𝜙𝑅 = receiving end power factor (lagging)

The phasor diagram for the circuit is shown in Figure 5.6 (b). Taking the receiving end voltage
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 as the reference;

Let 𝑉𝑠 represent the sending end voltage per phase

⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j 0 (5.29)

Load current,
⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 (cos∅R − j sin ∅R ) (5.30)
Capacitive current 𝐼⃗⃗𝑐 = 𝑗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 𝜔𝐶 = 𝑗 2 𝜋𝑓 𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 (5.31)

From the Figure 5.6 a

⃗⃗𝐼𝑆 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶 (5.32)

30
 = 𝐼𝑅 (cos∅R − j sin ∅R ) + 𝑗 2 𝜋𝑓𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 (5.33)
=𝐼𝑅 cos∅R + j (− 𝐼𝑅 sin ∅R + 2 𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 ) (5.34)
Voltage drop/ phase = ⃗⃗𝐼𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑍𝑆 = ⃗⃗𝐼𝑆 ( 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 ) (5.35)
Sending end voltage, ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑆 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + ⃗⃗𝐼𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑍𝑆 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + ⃗⃗𝐼𝑆 (𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 ) (5.36)
Therefore the voltage regulation and transmission efficiency are given as follows:
𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑅 = × 100 % (5.37)
𝑉𝑅
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
Voltage transmission efficiency = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 + 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠𝑠/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 100 (5.38)
𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos∅𝑅
Voltage transmission efficiency = 𝑉 2 × 100 % (5.39)
𝑅 𝐼𝑅 cos∅𝑅 + 𝐼𝑆 𝑅

Limitations of the end condenser method are as follows:

Although end condenser method for the solution of medium lines is simple to work out
calculations, yet it has the following drawbacks:
• There is a considerable error (about 10%) in calculations because the distributed
capacitance has been assumed to be lumped or concentrated.
• This method overestimates the effects of line capacitance.

5.2.2.3 Nominal T method

In this method, the whole line capacitance is assumed to be concentrated at the middle point of the
line and half the line resistance and reactance are lumped on its either side (see Fig. 5.7a).
Therefore, in this arrangement, full charging current flows over half of the line.

(a) Equivalent Circuit (b) Phasor Diagram

Figure 5.7. Medium transmission line; Nominal T method

31
Here;
𝐼𝑅 = load current per phase R = resistance per phase
𝑋𝐿 = inductive reactance per phase C = capacitance per phase
cos∅R = receiving end power factor (lagging) VS = sending end voltage/phase
𝑉1 = voltage across capacitor C
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j 0 (5.40)
⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 (cos∅R − j sin ∅R ) (5.41)

Voltage across C,
⃗⃗⃗
𝑉1 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 𝑍⁄2 (5.42)
𝑅 𝑋𝐿
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 (cos∅R − j sin ∅R ) ( 2 + j ) (5.43)
2
Capacitive current, ⃗⃗𝐼𝑐 = 𝑗 𝜔𝐶𝑉⃗⃗⃗1 = 𝑗 2 𝜋𝑓 𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉1 (5.44)
Sending end current, 𝐼⃗⃗𝑆 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶 (5.45)
𝑍 𝑅 𝑋
Sending end voltage, ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑠 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉1 + ⃗⃗𝐼𝑠 2 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉1 + ⃗⃗𝐼𝑠 ( 2 + j 2𝐿) (5.46)

5.2.2.4 Nominal 𝜋 method

In this method of analyzing the medium transmission line, capacitance of each conductor (i.e., line
to neutral) is divided into two halves. One half is lumped at the sending end while the other half is
placed at the receiving end (see Figure 5.8). In this case, the capacitance at the sending end has no
effect on the line drop. However, the charging current of this capacitance must be added to line
current in order to obtain the total sending end current.

(a) Equivalent Circuit (b) Phasor Diagram

Figure 5.8. Medium transmission line; Nominal 𝜋 method

32
To analyze the medium transmission line using the nominal 𝜋 approach, let;

𝐼𝑅 = load current per phase

𝑅 = resistance per phase
𝑋𝐿 = inductive reactance per phase
𝐶 = capacitance per phase
cos∅R = receiving end power factor (lagging)
𝑉𝑆 = sending end voltage per phase

Taking the receiving end voltage as the reference phasor,

⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 + j 0 (5.47)
Load current is given as
⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 (cos∅R − j sin ∅R ) (5.48)

Charging current at the load end

𝐼⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑐1 = 𝑗 𝜔 (𝐶 ⁄2) ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑗 𝜋𝑓 𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 (5.49)
Line current, ⃗𝐼⃗𝐿 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶1 (5.50)
Sending end voltage, ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑠 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐿 𝑍 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + ⃗𝐼⃗𝐿 (𝑅 + j𝑋𝐿 ) (5.51)

Charging current at the sending end is

⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑐2 = 𝑗 𝜔 (𝐶 ⁄2) ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑆 = ⃗⃗⃗𝑆
𝑗 𝜋𝑓 𝐶 𝑉 (5.52)

Therefore, the sending end current is computed as

⃗⃗𝐼𝑆 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐿 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐶2 (5.53)

5.2.3 Long Transmission Line

As initially indicated, the line constants of the transmission line are uniformly distributed over the
entire length of the line. In the case of short and medium transmission lines, reasonable accuracy
can be obtained in line calculations even if these constants are considered as lumped. However,
for a long transmission line, this assumption of lumped constants leads to considerable error.
Therefore, in order to obtain fair degree of accuracy in the performance calculations of long
transmission lines, the line constants are considered as uniformly distributed throughout the length
of the line. Thus, rigorous mathematical treatment is required for the solution of such lines.
Students should note that, for the sake of brevity and also for the reason that the focus is not on
the rigorous mathematics, only a summary of the transmission line parameters will be given. A
detailed analysis of the long transmission line is available in the referencing materials.

33
Figure 5.9 shows the equivalent circuit of a 3-phase long transmission line on a phase-neutral basis.
It could be observed that the whole line length is divided into 𝑛 sections, each section having line
constants 1⁄𝑛𝑡ℎ of those for the whole line.

Figure 5.9 Equivalent circuit of a 3-phase long transmission line on a phase-neutral basis.

The following points are worth noting:

i. The line constants are uniformly distributed over the entire length of line.
ii. The resistance and inductive reactance are the series elements.
iii. The leakage susceptance (B) and leakage conductance (G) are shunt elements.
The leakage susceptance is due to the capacitance between line and neutral while the
leakage conductance accounts for the energy losses occurring through leakage over the
insulators or due to corona effect between conductors. Admittance =√𝐺 2 + 𝐵 2

The sending end voltage 𝑉𝑠 and 𝐼𝑠 are given in equation (5.54) and (5.55), respectively.
𝑍
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 cosh √𝑌𝑍 + 𝐼𝑅 √𝑌 sinh √𝑌𝑍) (5.54)

𝑌
𝐼𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 √𝑍 sinh √𝑌𝑍 + 𝐼𝑅 cosh √𝑌𝑍) (5.55)
Where 𝑌 = total shunt admittance of the line
𝑍 = total series impedance of the line

The hyperbolic sine and cosine are expanded in terms of their power series follows

𝑍𝑌 𝑍 2𝑌 2
cosh √𝑌𝑍 = (1 + + + ….) (5.56)
2 24
𝑌𝑍 3⁄2
sinh √𝑌𝑍 = (√𝑌𝑍 + + ….) (5.57)
6

34
5.3 Generalized Constants for Transmission lines

A transmission line can be considered as a 4-terminal network; two input terminals where power
enters the network and two output terminals where power leaves the network. Generally in any
four terminal network, the input voltage and input current can be expressed in terms of output
voltage and output current. Therefore, the sending end voltage and sending end current of a
transmission line can be generally expressed as
⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵 ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 (5.58)
⃗⃗𝐼𝑠 = 𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + 𝐷 𝐼𝑅 (5.59)

Where A, B, C and D (generally complex numbers) are the constants known as generalized circuit
constants of the transmission line. The values of these constants depend upon the particular method
adopted for solving the transmission line. Once the values of these constants are known,
performance calculations of the line can be easily worked out. The following point should be noted:
i. A, B, C and D are generally complex numbers.
ii. A and D are dimensionless whereas unit of the B and C are ohms and siemen,
respectively.
iii. For a given transmission line, A = D
iv. For a given transmission line, A D − B C = 1

As an illustration, the A, B, C and D constants of a short transmission line will be derived in the
following section. It must be recalled that, for a short transmission line the effect of the capacitance
can be neglected. Therefore, the short transmission line is presented as shown in Figure 5.10:

Figure 5.10: Equivalent Circuit of three Phase Transmission Line on Single phase Basis

From the figure 5.10

⃗⃗𝐼𝑠 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 (5.60)
From equation 5.22
⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑠 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅 𝑍 (5.61)
Comparing equation 5.60 and 5.61 to equations 5.58 and 5.59: 𝐴 = 1; 𝐵 ⃗ = 𝑍 𝐶 = 0 and 𝐷⃗ =1
⃗ . Moreover, it is observed that 𝐴 𝐷
It could be observed that 𝐴 =𝐷 ⃗ -𝐵
⃗ 𝐶 = (1 ×1) – (𝑍 × 0) = 1

35
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Overhead Transmission Lines

4.1 Main Components of Overhead Lines

An overhead line may be used to transmit or distribute electric power. The successful and
continuous operation of an overhead line depends to a great extent upon the mechanical and
electric design of the line. In this chapter, the mechanical design of an overhead transmission line
will be discussed.

In general, the main components of an overhead line are:

• Conductors which carry electric power from the sending end station to the receiving end
station.
• Supports which may be poles or towers and keep the conductors at a suitable level above
the ground.
• Insulators which are attached to supports and insulate the conductors from the ground.
• Cross arms which provide support to the insulators.
• Miscellaneous items such as phase plates, danger plates, lightning arrestors, anti-climbing
wires, etc.

Figure 4.1. Components of Overhead Transmission ine

36
4.1.1 Conductor Materials

The choice of a particular material will depend upon the cost, the required electrical and
mechanical properties and the local conditions. The conductor material used for transmission and
distribution of electric power should have the following properties;

• high electrical conductivity,

• high tensile strength in order to withstand mechanical stresses,
• low cost so that it can be used for long distance and
• low specific gravity so that weight per unit volume is small.

All above requirements are not found in a single material. Therefore, while selecting a conductor
material for a particular case, a compromise is made between the cost and the required electrical
and mechanical properties.

a. Features of Conductors for transmission lines

Conductors used for overhead lines are preferably stranded in order to increase the flexibility.
Solid wires are only used when area of X-section is small. If solid wires are used for larger X-
section and longer spans, continuous vibrations and swinging would produce mechanical fatigue
and they would fracture at the points of support. In stranded conductors, there is generally one
central wire and round this, successive layers of wires containing 6, 12, 18, 24 ...... wires. Thus, if
there are n layers, the total number of individual wires is 3n(n+ 1) + 1.

Figure 4.2: Stranded Cables

The most commonly used conductor materials for overhead lines are

37
 i. Copper
ii. Aluminium
iii. Steel-cored aluminium,
iv. Galvanised steel and
v. Cadmium copper.

i. Copper.

Copper is an ideal material for overhead lines owing to its high electrical conductivity and greater
tensile strength. It has high current density i.e., the current carrying capacity of copper per unit of
X-sectional area is quite large. This leads to two advantages. Firstly, smaller X-sectional area of
conductor is required and secondly, the area offered by the conductor to wind loads is reduced.
Moreover, this metal is quite homogeneous, durable and has high scrap value. Although Copper is
an ideal material for transmission and distribution of electric power. However, due to its higher
cost and non-availability, it is rarely used for these purposes. Hence, the trend is to use Aluminium
in place of copper.

ii. Aluminium.

Aluminium is cheap and light as compared to copper but it has much smaller conductivity and
tensile strength.

Copper and Aluminium Compared

• The conductivity of aluminium is 60% that of copper. Hence for a transmission efficiency,
the X-sectional area of conductor must be larger in aluminium than in copper. This larger
X-section increases wind pressure effects on the conductor. Therefore, supporting towers
must be designed for greater transverse strength.
• The specific gravity of aluminium (2·71 gm/cc) is lower than that of copper (8·9 gm/cc).
Therefore, an aluminium conductor has almost one-half the weight of equivalent copper
conductor. For this reason, the supporting structures for aluminium need not be made so
strong as that of copper conductor.
• Aluminium conductor being light, is liable to greater swings and hence larger cross-arms
are required.
• Due to lower tensile strength and higher co-efficient of linear expansion of aluminium, the
sag is greater in aluminium conductors.

Considering the combined properties of cost, conductivity, tensile strength, weight etc., aluminium
has an edge over copper. Therefore, it is being widely used as a conductor material. It is particularly
profitable to use aluminium for heavy-current transmission where the conductor size is large and
its cost forms a major proportion of the total cost of complete installation.

38
 iii. Steel Cored Aluminium.

Due to low tensile strength, aluminium conductors produce greater sag. This prohibits their
use for larger spans and makes them unsuitable for long distance transmission. In order to
increase the tensile strength, the aluminium conductor is reinforced with a core of galvanised
steel wires. The composite conductor thus obtained is known as steel cored aluminium and is
abbreviated as A.C.S.R. (aluminium conductor steel reinforced).

Advantages A.C.S.R :

• The reinforcement with steel increases the tensile strength but at the same time keeps the
composite conductor light. Therefore, steel cored aluminium conductors will produce
smaller sag and hence longer spans can be used.
• Due to smaller sag with steel cored aluminium conductors, towers of smaller heights can
be used.

Example 4.1

A standard ACSR panther conductor is represented as 30/7/3.00 mm. It means the conductor has
30 aluminum strands, 7 steel strands and each of the strands for both aluminum and steel has a
diameter of 3 mm. Therefore, the total number of strands in the conductor is 30 + 7 = 37

iv. Galvanised steel.

Steel has very high tensile strength. Therefore, galvanised steel conductors can be used for
extremely long spans or for short line sections exposed to abnormally high stresses due to climatic
conditions. They have been found very suitable in rural areas where cheapness is the main
consideration. Due to poor conductivity and high resistance of steel, such conductors are not
suitable for transmitting large power over a long distance.

4.1.2 Line Supports

The choice of supporting structure for a particular case depends upon the line span, X-sectional
area, line voltage, cost and local conditions. In general, the line supports should have the following
properties :

• High mechanical strength to withstand the weight of conductors and wind loads etc.
• Light in weight without the loss of mechanical strength.
• Cheap in cost and economical to maintain.

39
 • Longer life.
• Easy accessibility of conductors for maintenance.

The line supports used for transmission and distribution of electric power includes wooden poles,
steel poles, R.C.C. poles and lattice steel towers. The characteristics of the various types of line
supports are given below

i. Wooden poles.

These are made of seasoned wood (sal or chir) and are suitable for lines of moderate X-sectional
area and of relatively shorter spans, say up to 50 m. The wooden poles generally tend to rot below
the ground level, as a preventive measure, the portion of the pole below the ground level is
impregnated with preservative compounds like creosote oil.

Advantages

• Cheap
• Availability
• provide insulating properties

Due to the above listed properties of wood, they supports, they are widely used for distribution
purposes in rural areas as an economical proposition.

Disadvantages

• tendency to rot below the ground level

• comparatively smaller life (20-25 years)
• cannot be used for voltages higher than 20 kV
• less mechanical strength
• require periodical inspection.
ii. Steel poles.

The steel poles are often used as a substitute for wooden poles. They possess greater mechanical
strength, longer life and permit longer spans to be used. They are generally used for distribution
purposes in the cities. This type of supports need to be galvanised or painted in order to prolong
its life.

iii. RCC poles.

The reinforced concrete poles have greater mechanical strength, longer life and permit longer
spans than steel poles. Moreover, they give good outlook, require little maintenance and have good

40
insulating properties. The main difficulty with the use of these poles is the high cost of transport
owing to their heavy weight.

iv. Steel towers.

In practice, wooden, steel and reinforced concrete poles are used for distribution purposes at low
voltages (≤11 kV). However, for long distance transmission at higher voltage, steel towers are
invariably employed.

Steel towers have greater mechanical strength, longer life, can withstand most severe climatic
conditions and permit the use of longer spans. The risk of interrupted service due to broken or
punctured insulation is considerably reduced owing to longer spans. Tower footings are usually
grounded by driving rods into the earth. This minimises the lightning troubles as each tower acts
as a lightning conductor.

Selection of line configuration

The selection of the basic tower configuration for an overhead line depends on various parameters
such as the voltage, the number of circuits per tower, including the type of conductors or bundles
to be used.

For selecting tower configuration for high-voltage lines with reduced environmental criteria,
consideration should be given to the maximum acceptable electrical and magnetic fields, radio
interference and audible noise, as well as to aesthetics and visual perception of the line and its
insertion into the landscape.

Figure 4.3

In case of medium voltages, the selection of the towers or supports is dependent on the number
of circuits per tower, as the acquisition of new rights-of-way is becoming increasingly difficult.
In medium-voltage lines consideration is usually given to lattice towers, concrete poles, steel poles

41
and even wood poles. The investment and reliability requirements as well as the assessed life time
form the most important parameters in this case.

When dealing with lines in densely populated areas such as urban and suburban regions compact
structures, generally with double circuit vertical conductor configuration, have been generally
adopted. Steel polygonal poles or concrete poles are in general a good option in such cases.

Figure 4.4

For high and extra-high voltage lines a wide variety of line configuration is in use worldwide.
Depending on the requirements for availability and necessary right-of-way single circuit, double
circuit or multi-circuit lines are erected. In densely populated areas bundling of circuits is required
resulting in lines comprising four and more circuits also with different voltages and different
owners.

4.1.3. Insulator

There are several types of insulators but the most commonly used are

• Pin type
• suspension type
• strain insulator
• shackle insulator

a. Pin type b. Suspension c. Strain type d. Shackle type

42
 Figure 4.5

1. Pin Type Insulator: This kind of insulator is used in distribution systems. The voltage capacity
of this insulator is 11kV. It is designed with a high mechanical strength material. These are
connected in vertical as well as horizontal positions. The construction of this insulator is simple
and needs less maintenance as compared with other types.

2 Suspension type insulators. This also called disc insulator and the designing of these insulators
can be done using materials like porcelain or glass. The cost of pin type insulator increases rapidly
as the working voltage is increased. Thus beyond 33 kV it becomes uneconomical to use the pin
type insulator. The voltage capacity of suspension insulator ranges from 11 kV to 765 kV. This
insulator uses various discs based on the level of voltage. Hence only damaged disc are replaced
as the other remaining discs are in good condition.

Advantages

• Suspension type insulators are cheaper than pin type insulators for voltages beyond 33 kV.
• Each unit or disc of suspension type insulator is designed for low voltage, usually 11 kV.
Depending upon the working voltage, the desired number of discs can be connected in
series
• If any one disc is damaged, the whole string does not become useless because the damaged
disc can be replaced by the sound one.
• The suspension arrangement provides greater flexibility to the line. The connection at the
cross arm is such that insulator string is free to swing in any direction and can take up the
position where mechanical stresses are minimum.
• In case of increased demand on the transmission line, it is found more satisfactory to
supply the greater demand by raising the line voltage than to provide another set of
conductors. The additional insulation required for the raised voltage can be easily obtained
in the suspension arrangement by adding the desired number of discs.

3. Strain insulators. This is similar to suspension type insulators. However it is placed in bend
otherwise arm place It is more suitable for there is a dead end of the line ,corners or sharp curve.

Shackle Insulators : For low voltage lines (< 11 kV), shackle insulators are used as strain insulators.

Other types of Insulators

• Polymer Insulator
• Glass Insulator

4.2 Causes of Insulator Failure

Insulators are required to withstand both mechanical and electrical stresses. The latter type is
primarily due to line voltage and may cause the breakdown of the insulator. Once breakdown

43
voltage is applied to insulator then it will become conductive so this is known as insulation
breakdown. The electrical breakdown of the insulator can occur either by flash-over or puncture.

• Flashover

In flashover, an arc occurs between the line conductor and insulator pin (i.e., earth) . This is
illustrated in the figure below

Figure 4.6

In case of flash-over, the insulator will continue to act in its proper capacity unless extreme heat
produced by the arc destroys the insulator.

• Puncture

In case of puncture, the discharge occurs from conductor to pin through the body of the insulator.
When such breakdown is involved, the insulator is permanently destroyed due to excessive heat.

4.2.1 Safety Factor

In practice, sufficient thickness of porcelain is provided in the insulator to avoid puncture by the
line voltage. The ratio of puncture strength to flashover voltage is known as safety factor i.e.,

4.2.2 String Efficiency

The voltage applied across the string of suspension insulators is not uniformly distributed across
various units or discs. The disc nearest to the conductor has much higher potential than the other
discs. This unequal potential distribution is undesirable and is usually expressed in terms of string
efficiency as;

44
Where the voltage across the string is equal to phase voltage i.e., The greater the string efficiency,
the more uniform is the voltage distribution.

a. Improving String Efficiency: The string efficiency can be improved by the following methods

• By using longer cross-arms

• By grading the insulators. In this method, insulators of different dimensions are so chosen
that each has a different capacitance. The insulators are capacitance graded i.e. increases
progressively towards the conductor.
• By using a guard ring. The potential across each unit in a string can be equalised by using
a guard ring which is a metal ring electrically connected to the conductor and surrounding
the bottom insulator as shown

Figure 4.6

4.3 Insulation Testing

Proper operation of a transmission or distribution line is highly dependent upon the proper working of
insulators. A good insulator should:

• have a good mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical load and stresses.
• have a high dielectric strength to withstand operating and flashover voltages.
• Be free from pores or voids, which may damage it.

Therefore, to ensure desired performance of insulators, each insulator has to undergo various tests. Some
of these tests are:

i. Flashover tests
ii. Performance tests
iii. Routine tests

4.3.1 Flashover tests of insulators

Three types of flashover tests are conducted before the insulator is said to have passed the flashover test.

1. Power frequency dry flashover test

2. Power frequency wet flashover test

45
 3. Impulse frequency flashover test

Power frequency dry flashover test

The insulator to be tested is mounted in the same manner in which it is to be used. Then, a variable
voltage source of power frequency is connected between the electrodes of the insulator. The voltage is
gradually increased up to the specified voltage. The voltage at which surrounding air of the insulator
breaks down and become conductive is known as flashover voltage. The insulator must be capable of
withstanding the specified voltage for one minute without flashover.

Power frequency wet flashover test (Rain test)

A variable voltage source of power frequency is connected between the electrodes. Additionally, in this
test, the insulator is sprayed with water at an angle of 45° in such a manner that its precipitation should
not be more than 5.08 mm/min. The voltage is then gradually increased up to the specified voltage. The
voltage is maintained at the specified value for 30 seconds or one minute and the insulator is observed for
puncture or breakdown. If the voltage is maintained for one minute, this test is also called as one-minute
rain test.

Impulse frequency flashover test

This test is to ensure that the insulator is capable of sustaining high voltage surges caused by lightning. The
insulator under test is mounted in the same manner as in above tests. An impulse voltage generator which
generates a very high voltage at a frequency of several hundred kilohertz is connected to the insulator. This
voltage is applied to the insulator and spark-over voltage is noted. The ratio of impulse spark-over voltage
to spark-over voltage at power frequency is called as the impulse ratio. This ratio should be approximately
1.4 for pin type insulators and 1.3 for suspension type insulators.

4.3.2 Performance tests of insulators

i. Temperature cycle test

ii. Puncture voltage test
iii. Mechanical strength test
iv. Electro-mechanical test
v. Porosity test

Temperature cycle test

In this test, the insulator under test is first heated in water at 70° for one hour. Then the insulator is
immediately cooled to 7° for another hour. This cycle is repeated three times. Subsequently, the insulator
is dried and its glazing is thoroughly observed for any damages or deterioration.

Puncture voltage test

The purpose of this test is to determine the puncture voltage. The insulator to be tested is suspended in
insulating oil. A voltage is applied and increased gradually until the puncture takes place. The voltage at

46
which insulator starts to puncture is called as puncture voltage. This voltage is usually 30% higher than that
of the dry flash-over voltage for a suspension type insulators.

Mechanical strength test

In this test, the insulator is subjected to a tension of about 250% of the maximum working load for one
minute.

Electro-mechanical test
This test is conducted only for suspension type insulators. In this test, a tensile stress of 250% of maximum
working tensile stress is applied to the insulator. After this, the insulator is tested for 75% of dry spark-over
voltage.

Porosity test
In this test, a freshly manufactured insulator sample is broken into pieces. These pieces are then immersed
into a 0.5% to 1% alcohol solution fuchsine dye under pressure of 150 kg/cm 2 for several hours (say 24
hours). After that, the pieces are removed from the solution and examined for the penetration of the dye
into it. This test indicates the degree of porosity.

4.3.3 Routine tests of insulators

The routine tests includes

1. High voltage test

2. Proof load test
3. Corrosion test

47
4.4 Sags in transmission lines

While erecting an overhead line, it is very important that conductors are under safe tension. If the
conductors are too much stretched between supports in a bid to save conductor material, the stress
in the conductor may reach unsafe value and in certain cases the conductor may break due to
excessive tension. In order to permit safe tension in the conductors, they are not fully stretched but
are allowed to have a dip or sag. The difference in level between points of supports and the lowest
point on the conductor is called sag.

In an overhead line, the sag should be so adjusted that tension in the conductors is within safe
limits. The tension is governed by conductor weight, effects of wind, ice loading and temperature
variations. It is a standard practice to keep conductor tension less than 50% of its ultimate tensile
strength i.e., minimum factor of safety in respect of conductor tension should be 2. Analysis of sag
and tension of a conductor could be categorized under the following two conditions:

i. supports are at equal levels and

ii. supports are at unequal levels.

This course focusses on sag conditions when supports are at equal levels.

4.4.1 When supports are at equal levels as shown in Figure 4.8 below. Let l = Length of span ; w
= Weight per unit length of conductor ; T = Tension in the conductor.

Figure 4.8

Example 4.1

A 132 kV transmission line has the following data:

Wt. of conductor = 680 kg/km ; Length of span = 260 m

Ultimate strength = 3100 kg ; safety factor = 2

Calculate the height above ground at which the conductor should be supported. Ground clearance
required is 10 meters.

Solution 4.1
48
49
 CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Underground cables

Electric power can be transmitted or distributed either by overhead system or by underground

cables. There are several advantages associated with underground cable, which are:
i. less liable to damage through storms or lightning
ii. low maintenance cost
iii. less chances of faults
iv. smaller voltage drop
v. better general appearance.

However, the major drawback is that they have greater installation cost and introduce insulation
problems at high voltages compared with the equivalent overhead system. For this reason,
underground cables are employed where it is impracticable to use overhead lines. Such locations
may be thickly populated areas where municipal authorities prohibit overhead lines for reasons of
safety, or around plants and substations or where maintenance conditions do not permit the use of
overhead construction.

Over the years, underground cables have been mainly used for distribution of electric power in
congested urban areas at comparatively low or moderate voltages. However, recent improvements
in the design and manufacture have led to the development of cables suitable for use at high
voltages. This has made it possible to employ underground cables for transmission of electric
power for short or moderate distances

5.1 Desired characteristics of underground cables

In general, a cable must fulfill the following requirements:

i. The conductor used in cables should be tinned stranded copper or aluminium of high
conductivity. (note : Stranding is done so that conductor may become flexible and carry
more current)
ii. The conductor size should be such that the cable carries the desired load current without
overheating and causes voltage drop within permissible limits.
iii. The cable must have proper thickness of insulation in order to give high degree of safety
and reliability at the voltage for which it is designed.
iv. The cable must be provided with suitable mechanical protection so that it may withstand
the rough use in laying it.
v. The materials used in the manufacture of cables should be such that there is complete
chemical and physical stability throughout.

50
5.2 The construction of the underground cable

The various parts of a 3-conductor cable are shown in the Figure 5.1 below

Figure 5.1 Construction of Underground Cables

i. Cores or Conductors. A cable may have one or more than one core (conductor)
depending upon the type of service for which it is intended (e.g. 3-conductor cable is
used for 3-phase service). The conductors are made of tinned copper or aluminium and
are usually stranded in order to provide flexibility to the cable.

ii. Insulation. Each core or conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of insulation,
the thickness of layer depending upon the voltage to be withstood by the cable. It
protects the cable from moisture, gases or other damaging liquids (acids or alkalies) in
the soil and atmosphere. It is composed of impregnated paper, varnished cambric or
rubber mineral compound. Also, metallic sheath of lead or aluminium is provided over
the insulation.

iii. Bedding. Over the metallic sheath is applied a layer of bedding which consists of a
fibrous material like jute or hessian tape. The purpose of bedding is to protect the
metallic sheath against corrosion and mechanical injury due to armouring

iv. Armouring. Over the bedding, armouring is provided which consists of one or two
layers of galvanised steel wire or steel tape. Its purpose is to protect the cable from
mechanical injury while laying it and during the course of handling. However,
armouring may not be done in the case of some cables

v. Serving. In order to protect armouring from atmospheric conditions, a layer of fibrous

material (like jute) similar to bedding is provided over the armoring.

In summary, bedding, armouring and serving are only applied to the cables for the
protection of conductor insulation and to protect the metallic sheath from mechanical
injury.

51
5.3 Classification of Underground Cables

Cables for underground service may be classified in two ways according to the

i. type of insulating material used

ii. voltage for which they are manufactured.

However, the method of using voltage classification is generally preferred. Therefore, cable can
be classified based on voltages as

Table 5.1: Voltage classification of Underground Cables

Low tension (L.T.) cables < 1000
High tension (H.T) cables <11000
Super-tension (S.T.) cables From 22kV to 33kV
Extra high-tension (E.H.T) cables From 33kV to 66kV
Extra super voltage cables >132kV

5.4 Cables for 3-phase Service

In practice, underground cables are generally required to deliver 3-phase power. For voltages up
to 66 kV, 3-core cable (i.e., multi-core construction) is preferred due to economic reasons.
However, for voltages beyond 66 kV, 3-core-cables become too large and unwieldy and, therefore,
single-core cables are used. The following types of cables are generally used for 3-phase service:

i. Belted cables — up to 11 kV
ii. Screened cables — from 22 kV to 66 kV
iii. Pressure cables — beyond 66 kV

5.5 Limitations of solid type cables

The belted and screened cables are referred to as solid type cables because solid insulation is used
and no gas or oil circulates in the cable sheath. The voltage limit for solid type cables is 66 kV due
to the following reasons:

a. As a solid cable carries the load, its conductor temperature increases and the cable
compound (i.e., insulating compound over paper) expands. This action stretches the lead
sheath which may be damaged.

b. When the load on the cable decreases, the conductor cools and a partial vacuum is formed
within the cable sheath. Moist air may be drawn into the cable if the pinholes are present
in the lead sheath. This moisture reduces the dielectric strength of insulation and may
eventually cause the breakdown of the cable.

52
 c. During operating conditions, the voids are formed as a result of the differential expansion
and contraction of the sheath and impregnated compound. The breakdown of this void
result in the chemical and thermal effects of ionisation causing permanent damage to the
paper insulation.

5.6 Pressure Cables

For voltages beyond 66 kV, solid type cables are unreliable because there is a danger of breakdown
of insulation due to the presence of voids. When the operating voltages are greater than 66 kV,
pressure cables are used. In such cables, voids are eliminated by increasing the pressure of
compound; hence, they are called pressure cables. Oil-filled cables and gas pressure cables are
commonly used.

Figure 5.2 a Figure 5.2 b

Oil Filled Cables

Advantages of oil filled cables

i. formation of voids and ionization are avoided.

ii. allowable temperature range and dielectric strength are increased.
iii. if there is leakage, the defect in the lead sheath is at once indicated and the possibility of
earth faults is decreased.

Disadvantages

The major disadvantages are the high initial cost and complicated system of laying

53
 CHAPTER SIX

6.0 Over Voltage in Electrical Power System

There are several instances when the elements of a power system (e.g. generators, transformers,
transmission lines, insulators, etc.) are subjected to overvoltages i.e. voltages greater than the
normal value. Increase in voltage for the very short time in power system is called as the over
voltage. It is also known as the voltage surge or voltage transients. These overvoltages on the
power system may be caused due to many reasons such as lightning, the opening of a circuit
breaker, the grounding of a conductor etc. Hence, transient over voltages can be generated at
high frequency (load switching and lightning), medium frequency (capacitor energizing), or
low frequency. The voltage stress caused by over voltage can damage the lines and equipment’s
connected to the system.

6.1 Causes of over voltage in Power System

There are two types of causes of over voltage in power system.

i. Over voltage due to external causes

ii. Over voltage due to internal causes

Over voltage due to external causes:

This type of over voltages originates from atmospheric disturbances, mainly due to lightning.
This takes the form of a surge and has no direct relationship with the operating voltage of the line.
It may be due to any of the following causes:

a. Direct lightning stroke

b. Electromagnetically induced over voltages due to lightning discharge taking place near the
line, called ‘side stroke’.
c. Voltages induced due to atmospheric changes along the length of the line
d. Electrostatically induced voltages due to presence of charged clouds nearby.
e. Electrostatically induced over voltages due to the frictional effects of small particles like
dust or dry snow in the atmosphere or due to change in the altitude of the line.

Surges due to lightning are very severe and may increase the system voltage to several times the
normal value. If the equipment in the power system is not protected against lightning surges, these
surges may cause considerable damage. In fact, in a power system, the protective devices provided
against overvoltages mainly take care of lightning surges. There are two main ways in which a
lightning may strike the power system (e.g. overhead lines, towers, sub-stations etc.), namely:

i. Direct stroke: In the direct stroke, the lightning discharge (i.e.current path) is directly from
the cloud to the subject equipment e.g. an overhead line. The overvoltages set up due to
the stroke may be large

54
 enough to flashover this path directly to the ground.
ii. Indirect stroke: Indirect strokes result from the electrostatically induced charges on the
conductors due to the presence of charged clouds. This is illustrated in Fig. 6.1. A
positively charged cloud is above the line and induces a negative charge on the line by
electrostatic induction. It may be worthwhile to mention here that majority of the surges
in a transmission line are caused by indirect lightning strokes.

Figure 6.1

Internal Over voltages

Internal causes do not produce surges of large magnitude. Typically, surges due to internal causes
hardly increase the system voltage to twice the normal value. Hence, surges due to internal causes
are taken care of by providing proper insulation to the equipment in the power system.

1. Internal causes

• Switching surges: The overvoltages produced on the power system due to switching
operations are known as switching surges. These are caused when some major load gets
disconnected from the long line under normal or steady state condition. Also overvoltages
can be caused during the phenomenon of current chopping (i.e., when breaking low
currents e.g., transformer magnetising current, with air-blast breaker, the de-ionising effect
of air-blast causes the current to fall abruptly to zero well before the natural current zero is
reached.)

• Insulation failure: The most common case of insulation failure in a power system is the
grounding o conductor (i.e. insulation failure between line and earth) which may caus
overvoltages in the system.

• Resonance: Resonance in an electrical system occurs when inductive reactance of the

circuit becomes equal to capacitive reactance. In the usual transmission lines, the
capacitance is very small so that resonance rarely occurs at the fundamental supply
frequency. However, if emf wave produced by alternator is distorted, the trouble of

55
 resonance may occur due to 5th or higher harmonics. At these frequencies of 5th or higher
harmonics, a critical situation in the system so appears, that inductive reactance of the
system becomes just equal to capacitive reactance of the system. As these both reactance
cancel each other the system becomes purely resistive and consequently, surge in the
system voltage.

• Arcing ground: The phenomenon of intermittent arc taking place in line-to-ground fault
of a 3φsystem with consequent production of transients

6.2 Overvoltage Protection

As earlier discussed, over voltages in the power system systems are caused by both internal and
external factors. The over voltage conditions caused by internal factors in the electrical power
system such switching surge, insulation failure, arcing ground and resonance are not very large
in magnitude. These over voltages hardly cross twice of the normal voltage level.

Generally, proper insulation to the different equipment of power system is sufficient to prevent
any damage due to these over voltages. However, over voltages occur in the power system due to
lightning is very high. If over voltage protection is not provided to the power system, there may
be high chance of severe damage. Hence all over voltage protection devices used in power system
mainly due to lightning surges.

Harmful Effects of Lightning

Lightning stroke on a transmission line produces a steep-fronted voltage wave on the line. The
voltage of this wave may rise from zero to peak value (perhaps 2000 kV) in about 1 µs and decay
to half the peak value in about 5µs (see typical wave-form of a typical lightning surge in Figure
6.2)

Figure 6.2: Waveform of a typical lightning surge

56
Such a steep-fronted voltage wave will initiate travelling waves along the line in both directions
with the velocity dependent upon the Land C parameters of the line.

• The travelling waves produced due to lightning surges will shatter the insulators and may
even wreck poles.
• If the travelling waves produced due to lightning hit the windings of a transformer or
generator, it may cause considerable damage
• If the arc is initiated in any part of the power system by the lightning stroke, this arc will
set up very disturbing oscillations in the line. This may damage other equipment connected
to the line.

Methods of Protection against Lightning

The three main methods generally used for protection against lightning are elaborated below

i. Earthing Screen

Earthing screen is generally used over electrical substation. In this arrangement a net of GI wire is
mounted over the sub-station. The GI wires, used for earthing screen are properly grounded
through different sub-station structures. This network of grounded GI wire over electrical
substation, provides very low resistance path to the ground for lightning strokes. This method of
high voltage protection is very simple and economic. However, the main drawback is, it cannot
protect the system from travelling wave which may reach to the sub-station via different feeders.

ii. Overhead Earth Wire

This method of over voltage protection is similar as earthing screen. The only difference is, an
earthing screen is placed over an electrical sub-station, whereas, overhead earth wire is placed over
electrical transmission network. One or two stranded GI wires of suitable cross-section are placed
over the transmission conductors. These GI wires are properly grounded at each transmission
tower. These overhead ground wires or earth wire divert all the lightning strokes to the ground
instead of allowing them to strike directly on the transmission conductors. As an illustration see
Figure 6.2.

57
 Figure 6.3

The most effective method of providing protection to transmission lines against direct lightning
strokes is by the use of overhead ground wires as shown in Fig. 6.3. For simplicity, one ground
wire and one line conductor are shown. The ground wires are placed above the line conductors at
such positions that practically all lightning strokes are intercepted by them (i.e. ground wires). The
ground wires are grounded at each tower or pole through as low resistance as possible. Due to their
proper location, the *ground wires will take up all the lightning strokes instead of allowing them
to line conductors. It must be noted that that the degree of protection provided by the ground wires
depends upon the footing resistance of the tower

Advantages

• It provides considerable protection against direct lightning strokes on transmission lines.

• A grounding wire provides damping effect on any disturbance travelling along the line
• It provides a certain amount of electrostatic shielding against external fields. Thus it
reduces the voltages induced in the line conductors due to the discharge of a neighbouring
cloud.

Disadvantages

• It requires additional cost.

• There is a possibility of its breaking and falling across the line conductors, thereby
causing a short-circuit fault. This objection has been greatly eliminated by using
galvanised stranded steel conductors as ground wires which provides sufficient strength
to the ground wires.

iii. Lightning Arrester

The previously discussed two methods, i.e. earthing screen and over-head earth wire are very
suitable for protecting an electrical power system from directed lightning strokes but system
from directed lightning strokes but these methods cannot provide any protection against high
voltage travelling wave which may propagate through the line to the equipment of the
sub-station. The lightning arrester is a devices which provides very low impedance path to the
ground for high voltage travelling waves.

The concept of a lightning arrester is very simple. This device behaves like a nonlinear electrical
resistance. The resistance decreases as voltage increases and vice-versa, after a certain level of
voltage.

58
Principle of operation

The functions of a lightning arrester or surge dividers can be listed as below. Under normal
voltage level, these devices withstand easily the system voltage as electrical insulator and
provide no conducting path to the system current. On occurrence of voltage surge in the system,
these devices provide very low impedance path for the excess charge of the surge to the ground.
After conducting the charges of surge, to the ground, the voltage returns to its normal level. Then
lightning arrester regains its insulation properly and prevents further conduction of current, to the
ground.

There are different types of lightning arresters used in power system, such as rod gap arrester,
horn gap arrester, multi-gap arrester, expulsion type LA, value type LA. In addition to these the
most commonly used lightning arrester for over voltage protection now-a-days gapless ZnO
lightning arrester.

6.3 Insulation Coordination

Insulation Coordination in Power System was introduced to arrange the electrical insulation
levels of different components in the electrical power system including transmission network, in
such a manner, that the failure of insulator, if occurs, confines to the place where it would result
in the least damage of the system, easy to repair and replace, and results least disturbance to the
power supply.

When any over voltage appears in the electrical power system, then there may be a chance of
failure of its insulation system. Probability of failure of insulation, is high at the weakest
insulation point nearest to the source of over voltage. In power system and transmission
networks, insulation is provided to the all equipment and components. Insulators in some points
are easily replaceable and repairable compared to other. However, insulation in some points are
not so easily replaceable and repairable and the replacement and repairing may be highly
expensive and require long interruption of power. Moreover, failure of insulator at these points
may causes bigger part of electrical network to be out of service.

It is therefore desirable that in situation of insulator failure, only the easily replaceable and
repairable insulator fails. The overall aim of insulation coordination is to reduce to an
economically and operationally acceptable level the cost and disturbance caused by insulation
failure. In insulation coordination method, the insulation of the various parts of the system
must be so graded that flash over if occurs it must be at intended points. Some basic
terminologies related to insulation coordination in power systems are explained below.

Nominal System Voltage: Nominal System Voltage is the phase to phase voltage of the
system for which the system is normally designed. Such as 11 kV, 33 kV, 132 kV, 220 kV, 400
kV systems.

59
Maximum System Voltage :Maximum System Voltage is the maximum allowable power frequency
voltage which can occurs may be for long time during no load or low load condition of
the power system. It is also measured in phase to phase manner. List of different nominal
system voltage and their corresponding maximum system voltage is given below for reference,

Nominal System Voltage in (kV) 11 33 66 132 220 400

Maximum System Voltage (kV) 12 36 72.5 145 245 420

It is observed from above table that generally maximum system voltage is 110 % of
corresponding nominal system voltage up to voltage level of 220 KV, and for 400 KV and above
it is 105 %.

Protection level voltage of protective device

Over voltage protective device like surge arrestors or lightning arrestors are designed to
withstand a certain level of transient over voltage beyond which the devices drain the
surge energy to the ground and therefore maintain the level of transient over voltage up to a
specific level. Thus transient over voltage cannot exceed that level. The protection level of over
voltage protective device is the highest peak voltage value which should not be exceeded at the
terminals of over voltage protective device when switching impulses and lightning impulses are
applied

Insulation Level

Every electrical equipment has to undergo different abnormal transient over voltage situation in
different times during its total service life period. The equipment may have to withstand
lightning impulses, switching impulses and/or short duration power frequency overvoltages.
Depending upon the maximum level of impulse voltages and short duration power frequency
over voltages that one power system component can withstand, the insulation level of high
voltage power system is determined.

During determining the insulation level of the system rated less than 300 kV, the lightning
impulse withstand voltage and short duration power frequency withstand voltage are considered.
For equipment rated more or equal 300 kV, switching impulse withstand voltage and short
duration power frequency withstand voltage are considered.

60