3

Math Review

Order of Operations
One of the first items that must be understood is that there is an order to per-
forming any mathematical equation. Included below is an age-old acronym
and saying that can be used to remember the order of operations.

PEMDAS: “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally”

Simply put, PEMDAS identifies the order of operations listed as follows:

1. Parentheses,
2. Exponents,
3. Multiplication,
4. Division,
5. Addition,
6. Subtraction.

For example, in the following equation, there are five operations required.

Correct Method Example

4 + [−1(−2−1)]2
= 4 + [−1(−3)]2 Solve everything inside the parentheses, including
multiplication and subtraction.
= 4 + [3]2 Solve everything inside the parentheses (brackets)
and then solve the exponents.
=4+9 Finally, perform the addition and/or subtraction.
= 13 Final result.

177
178 Safety Professional’s Reference and Study Guide

If not performed in the correct order, you will get a totally different final
result. See the incorrect method.

Incorrect Method Example

4 + [−1(−2−1)]2
= 4 + [−1(−3)]2 Solve everything inside the parentheses, including
multiplication and subtraction.
= 4 + [3]2 Add 4 + 3.
= [4 + 3]2 Finally, square the sum.
= 49 Final result.

Basic Rules of Positive and Negative Numbers

Addition/subtraction

(+) + (+) = (+) Positive plus a positive will equal a positive.

(+) + (−) = (+ or −) Positive plus a negative will equal a positive or negative.
(−) + (−) = (−) Negative plus a negative will equal a negative.

Multiplication/division

(+) × (+) = (+) Positive times a positive will equal a positive.

(+) × (−) = (−) Positive times a negative will equal a negative.
(−) × (−) = (+) Negative times a negative will equal a positive.

Understanding Exponents
An exponent can be defined as a quantity representing the power to which
some other quantity is raised. Exponents do not have to be numbers or
constants; they can be variables. They are often positive whole numbers, but
they can be negative numbers, fractional numbers, irrational numbers, or complex
numbers.
A number with an exponent is written as follows and contains two parts
(the base and the exponent):
Math Review 179

This represents the following:

106 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 1, 000, 000.

When solving for negative exponents, it will be written as

10−6.

This represents the following:

1
10−6 =
10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10
= 0.000001

Scientific Notation
Scientific notation (standard form) is a mathematical way to express values
or numbers too large or too small to be easily written in a standard decimal
notation.
For example, 392,000 can be written in scientific notation as follows:

3.92 × 105.

It can also be written as 3.92 E 05, where E is representative of “×10.”

Another example is the number 0.00432. Written in scientific notation, it
would look like this:

4.32 × 10−3 OR 4.32 E − 03.

Multiplication and Division Using Scientific Notation

Example

( 3.21 × 10 )( 4.88 × 10 )
5 −6

( 5.9 × 10 )
−4

3.21 × 4.88
=
5.9
= 2.65

For now, disregard the exponents and multiply and divide the coefficients.
180 Safety Professional’s Reference and Study Guide

Now, we will solve for the exponents. The exponents in the numerator
(top portion) are 5 and −6, while the exponent in the denominator (bottom
portion) is −4. Therefore, we would ADD the exponents in the numera-
tor (5 + (−6)) and SUBTRACT the exponent in the denominator (−4), as
follows:

5 + (−6) − (−4)

=3

We have now solved this equation, with the result being

2.65 × 103.

Engineering Notation
During the course of your professional career, you will encounter the use of
engineering notation. Engineering notation is a version of scientific notation
in which the power of 10 must be a multiple of three. For example, 106 can
be written as 1,0002. Instead of writing powers of 10, the International System
of Units (SI) uses prefixes to describe numbers. An example of this is 10−1 or
0.01, which is described as deci in the SI system. By way of example, 0.01
(or 10−1) L of a substance is described as a deciliter or dL. Table 3.1 describes
the most often encountered engineering notation terms in the safety and
health profession.

TABLE 3.1
Common Engineering Notation Symbols and Prefixes
10 n Prefix Symbol Decimal
109 giga G 1,000,000,000
106 mega M 1,000,000
103 kilo k 1,000
102 hecto h 100
101 deca d 10
100 None None 1
10−1 deci d 0.1
10−2 centi c 0.01
10−3 milli m 0.001
10−6 micro μ 0.000001
10−9 nano n 0.000000001
10−12 pico p 0.000000000001
Math Review 181

Absolute Values
The absolute value of any number is the value of the corresponding arithmetic
number that is positive. Absolute values are represented mathematically by
two enclosed bars.
For example: |−3| = 3.
Absolute values play a particular role when solving ventilation equations.

Logarithms
In working with logarithms, remember that there are three basic rules. These
rules are identified as follows:

• logb(mn) = logb(m) + logb(n)

• logb(m/n) = logb(m) − logb(n)
• logb(mn) = n × logb(m)

Example 1
log(4 × 5) = log 4 + log 5

log(4 × 5) = 0.601 + 0.699

log(4 × 5) = 1.299

Example 2
4
log = log 4 − log 5
5
log 0.8 = 0.602 − 0.6989

log 0.8 = −0.0969

Example 3
log 45 = 5 × log 4

log 45 = 5 × 0.602

log 45 = 3.01
182 Safety Professional’s Reference and Study Guide

Formula or Equation Transpositions

In any equation, the purpose is to determine the value of an unknown vari-
able. The key step in solving for the unknown is to isolate the unknown vari-
able to one side of the equation. Fair and equal treatment to both sides of the
equation is required. In other words, do to one side as you do to the other side.
For example, solving for x in the following equation, we must first isolate
x on one side by itself.

6x + 5 = 29
= 6x + 5 − 5 = 29 − 5 Subtract 5 from both sides.
= 6x = 24 Now we can isolate x by dividing both sides by 6.
6x 24
= =
6 6
=x=4 The value of x = 4.

To illustrate transposition further, the following two examples, using basic

safety calculations, are offered.
In the first example, we will use the ventilation equation Q = VA,

where
Q = volumetric rate (cubic feet per minute or cfm)
V = velocity of air (feet per minute or fpm)
A = cross-sectional area of duct (sf or ft2)

Note: It is extremely important to pay particular attention to the units of mea-

surement when solving safety equations. Many times, the questions on the
Associate Safety Professional (ASP) or Certified Safety Professional (CSP)
examinations are written in different units to test your detailed knowledge
and understanding. For example, the question may give you a duct measure-
ment of 5 in. wide and 8 in. long. You will need to convert into feet in order
to obtain the correct result.
A useful tool for helping to understand how transposition works in a
simple three-variable calculation is shown in Figure 3.1.
Solve for A in the following case, given that the total volume of air flow
is 3,225 cfm and the air flow is 350 fpm. Q = 3,225 cfm; V = 350 fpm; and
A=?

3,225 cfm = (350 fpm) (A), where A is the unknown.

3, 225 cfm (350 fpm)( A) Isolate A by itself by dividing both sides by
= = 350 fpm.
350 fpm (350 fpm)
= 9.21 sf or ft2. Remember that A is represented in square feet.
Math Review 183

FIGURE 3.1
Illustration of simple three-variable ventilation transposition.

The second example of transposition using a basic electrical equation is to

solve for the amperage, given that there are 110 volts (V) and the resistance
(R) is 8 ohms (Ω). The basic equation is

V = IR,
where
V = volts
I = current (measured in amperes or A)
R = resistance (measured in ohms or Ω)

The equation for transposition is also illustrated in Figure 3.2.

Inserting the known values into the equation, we are left with

110 V = (I)(8 Ω) I being the unknown variable.

110 V ( I )(8 Ω) Isolate I by itself by dividing both sides by 8 Ω.
= =
8Ω (8 Ω)
= 13.75 A.

FIGURE 3.2
Illustration of simple three-variable electrical transposition.
184 Safety Professional’s Reference and Study Guide

Factorials
Factorials are quite simple to understand. They are products with an excla-
mation point, such as 6!. It simply means to multiply from 1 to the product in
the factors. For example, 6! is solved as follows: 6! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 = 720.
Perform ordinary mathematical functions using factorials as you would any
other function. For example:

4!
6!
1× 2 × 3× 4
=
1× 2 × 3× 4× 5× 6
24
=
720
= 0.033

Note: For many reasons, 0! is always 1. You should commit this to memory
when working with factorials.

Euler’s Number
Euler’s number is a mathematical constant, which is the base of the natural
logarithm. The actual number is estimated to be 2.71828 and is the limit of
“n” as “n” approaches infinity. It is expressed as “e” and is found on scientific
calculators as a function key. Depending on the calculator, it may be neces-
sary to use the second key.

Common Geometric Equations

Throughout your career and specifically on the ASP and CSP examinations,
you will have the need to determine square feet, cubic feet, or other dimen-
sions of various geometric spaces or containers. It is amazing to me that over
the years, when needed, some of the basic equations have simply vanished
from my mind for the moment and I’ve had to go to a handy reference source
to review the equation. Therefore, I’ve included several of the basic equations
to help you in your review. Many questions on the certification examinations
Math Review 185

will be asked of you on the premise that you already know how to solve for
the unknown and will not directly provide this information in the scenario.
For example, a question may ask you to calculate the required overflow pro-
tection (dike area), given that you have two tanks measuring 4 ft in diameter
and 10 ft long. In order to calculate the required capacity of the dike area,
you must first determine the maximum amount of liquid potentially stored
in the tanks. Then, you must calculate the perimeter and height of the pro-
posed dike.

Area
Square or rectangle L (length) × W (width)
Circle πr2, where π is 3.14159
Triangle 1/2 b (base) × h (height)
Note: Area of an object will always result in sq. ft., sq. inches, or other
units of measurement.

Distance
Circle (also called circumference) πd (diameter) or 2πr (radius)
Square or rectangle 2L + 2W

Volume
Square or rectangle L×W×H
Cylinder πr2 × h
Sphere 4/3πr3
Cone πhr 2
3

Pythagorean Equation
The Pythagorean equation is extremely useful in solving many problems
encountered in the safety and health profession. It is used to determine the
lengths of any side of a right triangle and can be used further to identify the
calculated degree of any angle. Fortunately, for the examination candidate,
this equation is provided on the examination reference sheet, so you will not
have to commit this one to memory (Figure 3.3).
186 Safety Professional’s Reference and Study Guide

FIGURE 3.3
Right triangle.

The Pythagorean equation is as follows:

a2 + b2 = c 2

Note: The hypotenuse of any right triangle is always the longest side.
A practical safety example using the Pythagorean equation is a ladder lean-
ing against a building. At the base, the ladder is 4 ft from the wall. It touches
the wall at the top at a height of 12 ft. How long is the ladder?
Inserting the known values into the equation, we have the following:

a = 4 ft, b = 12 ft, and c = ?

Therefore,

42 + 12 2 = c 2
= 16 + 144 = c 2 There are no parentheses, so we solve for the exponents.
= 160 = c 2 c2 is isolated, but we now need to solve for c by obtaining the
square root of both sides of the equation.
= 160 = c 2
= 12.65 ft = c The length of the ladder is 12.65 ft.

Basic Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometry can help solve a lot of problems seen in on the certification
examination or in everyday safety practice. Therefore, it is necessary to at
least understand the basics of sine, cosine, tangent, arcsine, arccosine, and
arc-cotangent. A simple way to remember the equations for each is to use
“SOH-CAH-TOA.” The abbreviations are represented as follows:
SOH
Opposite
Sine =
Hypotenuse
Math Review 187

CAH
Adjacent
Cosine =
Hypotenuse

TOA
Opposite
Tangent =
Adjacent

Sine
The sine (sin) of an angle is equal to the opposite (length) divided by the
hypotenuse (length). For example:
∠bc

b c

∠bc represents the angle (∠) created by the intersection of sides b and c.
Given the following information, solve for ∠bc:

a = 3 ft
b = 4 ft
c = 5 ft (the hypotenuse)

Using sine (sin), we input the following data into the equation:

3 Remember that the sine is equal to the opposite side divided by the
sin ∠bc =
5 hypotenuse.
sin ∠bc = 0.6 The sin of ∠bc is 0.6. However, this does not provide us with the angle.
To obtain the angle, we need to determine the arcsine.
Note: The arcsine is the inverse function of sine.

Now that we have determined the sin ∠bc = 0.6, we use the inverse function
(arcsine) to calculate the angle. It is usually written as arcsin or sin−1. By way
of example, we take the sin ∠bc above, which is 0.6, and obtain the arcsin or
sin−1. We do this by inputting 0.6 into the calculator and hitting the inverse
or second key for sin, giving us an angle of 36.87° and rounding off to 37°.
188 Safety Professional’s Reference and Study Guide

Cosine
The cosine (cos) of an angle is determined by dividing the adjacent side
(length) by the hypotenuse (length). Given the same data as discussed under
the “Sine” section, we can determine the angle by using the cosine function,
as follows:

4 Remember that the cosine is equal to the adjacent side divided

cos ∠bc =
5 by the hypotenuse.
= cos ∠bc = 0.8 The sin of ∠bc is 0.8. However, this does not provide us with the
angle. To obtain the angle, we need to determine the arccosine.

Now that we have determined that the cos ∠bc = 0.8, we use the inverse func-
tion (arccosine) to calculate the angle. It is usually written as arccos or cos−1. By
way of example, we take the cos ∠bc above, which is 0.8, and obtain the arccos
or cos−1. We do this by inputting 0.8 into the calculator and hitting the inverse or
second key for cos, giving us an angle of 36.87° and rounding off to 37°.

Tangent
The tangent (tan) of an angle is determined by dividing the opposite side
(length) by the adjacent (length). Given the same data as discussed under the
“Sine” section, we can determine the angle by using the tangent function, as
follows:

3 Remember that the tangent is equal to the opposite side divided

tan ∠bc =
4 by the adjacent side.
= tan ∠bc = 0.75 The tan of ∠bc is 0.75. However, this does not provide us with the
angle. To obtain the angle, we need to determine the arctangent.

Now that we have determined that the tan ∠bc = 0.8, we use the inverse func-
tion (arctangent) to calculate the angle. It is usually written as arctan or tan−1. By
way of example, we take the tan ∠bc above, which is 0.75, and obtain the arctan
or tan−1. We do this by inputting 0.75 into the calculator and hitting the inverse
or second key for tan, giving us an angle of 36.87° and rounding off to 37°.

Arcsine, Arccosine, and Arctangent

As mentioned previously, the arcsine, arccosine, and arctangent are all inverse
functions of sine, cosine, and tangent, respectively. Mathematically, they can
be written as follows:

Arcsine: arcsin = sin−1

Arccosine: arccos = cos−1
Arctangent: arctan = tan−1
Math Review 189

As a practical safety application, we have a ramp that rises 4 ft in a 10-ft run.

What is the angle of the ramp?

c ∠ca
4 ft b

10 ft a

Since we know the lengths of the adjacent side and opposite side (remem-
ber that c in this case is the hypotenuse), we will solve for the tangent
of ∠ca.

4(opposite)
tan ∠ca = = 0.4
10(adjacent)

or written another way:

∠ca = tan −1 = 0.4.

Now that we have determined that the tan ∠ca = 0.4, we use the inverse func-
tion (arctangent) to calculate the angle. It is usually written as arctan or tan−1.
By way of example, we take the tan ∠ca above, which is 0.4, and obtain the
arctan or tan−1. We do this by inputting 0.4 into the calculator and hitting
the inverse or second key for tan, giving us an angle of 21.8° and rounding
off to 22°. Therefore, the ramp is on a 22° incline.
Another example calculating sling loads is as follows:

c
30°
a

1200 lb

In the example above, we have an object weighing 1,200 lb supported by

two slings at 30° angles. We divide the weight by the number of slings (2),
which is 600 lb. Now we have the weight at side a (the opposite). We also
know that the angle is 30°. By using the sine function, we can determine the
weight at each leg of the sling.
190 Safety Professional’s Reference and Study Guide

600 Isolate c by itself by multiplying both sides by c.

sin 30° =
c
(600)(c) Now divide both sides by sin 30°
= sin 30°(c) =
(c )
= sin 30°(c) = 600 Now divide both sides by sin 30°
sin 30°(c) 600
= =
sin 30° sin 30°
600 Now use the sin function key and divide 600 by 0.5.
=c=
sin 30°
600
=c=
0.5
= c = 1,200 The weight on each sling is 1,200 lb.

Quadratic Equation
Solving for multiple unknowns can often be difficult. It is for this reason that
the safety professional must know how to calculate them using the quadratic
equation. The quadratic equation uses the numerical coefficients from the fol-
lowing: ax2 + bx + c = 0. We are simply setting each factor to 0. The value of x
is given by the following (quadratic equation):

−b ± b 2 − 4 ac
x1 , x2 = .
2a

Using 2x2 − 4x − 3, we can solve for x using the quadratic equation.

The coefficients are as follows: a = (2), b = (−4), and c = (−3).
We insert the coefficients into the quadratic equation as follows:

Remember the order of operations, and begin

−(−4) ± (−4)2 − 4(2)(−3)
x1 , x2 = solving the equation. We will solve for x.
2(2)
4 ± 16 + 24
x1 , x2 =
4
4 ± 40
x1 , x2 =
4
4 ± 6.32 Complete the math and then solve for x.
x1 , x2 =
4
4 ± 6.32 10.32 x1 = 2.58. Now we will solve for x2
x1 = = = 2.58
4 4
4 − 6.32 −2.32 x2 = −0.58
x2 = = = −0.58
4 4
Math Review 191

Calculator
One of the single most important items that you are allowed to bring with
you when taking the examination is your calculator. It is recommended that
you bring two in case the battery in one is used up. In the latest version of
the BCSP (Board of Certified Safety Professionals) guidelines, you are autho-
rized to bring any of the following types of calculators:

• Casio models (FX-115, FX-250, FX-260, FX-300),

• Hewlett-Packard models (HP 9, HP10, HP12, HP30),
• Texas Instruments models (TI30, TI-34, TI-35, TI36).

It is recommended that regardless of the calculator you use, you should

spend a good deal of time practicing with it before taking the examination.
This will help in saving valuable test-taking time and will also allow you to
know the specific functions and capabilities of the calculator.

Summary
This chapter has been included to provide a basic review of math required
to perform more complex equations throughout the course of this book.
Hopefully, it has laid the groundwork for preparing you to move forward.
If, however, you are having difficulty at this point, it may be wise to con-
sider taking a more in-depth course in algebra and trigonometry at the local
community college before attempting to take the examination. With a good
understanding of the information provided in this chapter, you should be
able to solve any of the equations or problems listed throughout the book,
which will show how to work each and every equation listed on the CSP
examination reference sheet.
Taylor & Francis
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