THE UNIFORM PLANE

WAVE
1. Introduction

 We apply Maxwell’s equations to introduce the fundamental theory of wave

motion.
 A uniform plane wave is one of the simplest applications of Maxwell’s
equations which illustrates the principle behind the propagation of energy.
 In the analysis of the uniform plane wave, we shall introduce the following:
 a. the velocity of propagation
 b. Wavelength
 c. the wave equation
 d. wave impedance
 e. phase and attenuation constants
 f. power density (Poynting vector theorem)
 In the next chapter, we will consider the transmission and the reflection of the
plane wave.
2. Wave Motion in Free Space

 In the previous chapter we discussed the behavior of field at the boundary and the boundary
conditions.
 We used Maxwell’s equations to find solutions.
 We employ the same technique in the analysis of the uniform plane wave.
 Solutions are obtained first for perfect dielectrics, then for lossy dielectrics and finally for good
conductors.
 To consider wave motion in free space, we write Maxwell’s equations in terms of E and H only as
follows:
𝑑𝐸
𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝜀0
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐻
𝛻 × 𝐸 = −𝜇0
𝑑𝑡

𝛻. 𝐸 = 0

𝛻. 𝐻 = 0
 Now assume that we have a sinusoid that varies with time.
 The sinusoid can be represented by complex notation and phasors
(discussed in previous chapter).
 Lets assume some electric field component of E to be given as:
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑥𝑦𝑧 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
where 𝐸𝑥𝑦𝑧 is real and function of x,y,z and perhaps 𝜔, and 𝜑 is the phase
angle, which may also be a function of x,y, z and 𝜔.
 Making use of Euler’s identity:
𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = cos(𝜔𝑡) + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)
 We let:
𝐸𝑥 = 𝑅𝑒(𝐸𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜑) ) = 𝑅𝑒(𝐸𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑒 𝑗𝜑 )
Where Re is the real part of the quantity taken.
 Now suppose we drop the Re() and suppress 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 , the field quantity
becomes a phasor or complex quantity E(s) such that:
𝐸𝑥 (𝑠) = 𝐸𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜑
where 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 (𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦).

 When given a phasor, we can obtain the corresponding real quantity by

multiplying the phasor by 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 , and taking the real part of the resultant
expression.
 Now differentiating 𝐸𝑥 with respect to time we get:
𝑑𝐸𝑥 𝑑[𝐸𝑥𝑦𝑧 cos(𝜔𝑡+𝜑)]
 = = −𝜔[𝐸𝑥𝑦𝑧 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)]=Re(s𝐸𝑥 (𝑠)𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ) = Re[𝑗𝜔𝐸𝑥 (𝑠)𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ]
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 We realize that taking the partial derivative of any field quantity with
respect to time is equivalent to multiplying the corresponding phasor by
𝑗𝜔.
 Example, if:
𝑑𝐸𝑥 1 𝑑𝐻𝑦
=
𝑑𝑡 𝜀0 𝑑𝑧
The corresponding phasor equation is:
1 𝑑𝐻𝑦 (𝑠)
𝑗𝜔𝐸𝑥 𝑠 =
𝜀0 𝑑𝑧
where𝐸𝑥 𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻𝑦 (𝑠) may both be complex quantities.
 Expressing a vector as a phasor is therefore no more complicated than
expressing a single phasor.
 Using Maxwell’s equations:
𝑑𝐸
𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝜀0 𝑑𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝛻 × 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑗𝜔𝜀0 𝐸(𝑠) (1)

𝑑𝐻
𝛻 × 𝐸 = −𝜇0 becomes 𝛻 × 𝐸(𝑠) = −𝑗𝜔𝜇0 𝐻(𝑠) (2)
𝑑𝑡

𝛻. 𝐸 = 0 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝛻. 𝐸 𝑠 = 0 (3)

𝛻. 𝐻 = 0 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝛻. 𝐻 𝑠 = 0 (4)
 The four equations (1) to (4) on the right hand side are Maxwell’s equations
in phasor notation for sinusoidal time variation in free space.
3. The Wave Equation
 The wave equation is an important equation.
 It is a convenient starting point for many other investigations on EM waves and
fields.
 It can be obtained by simply determining 𝛻 × 𝛻 × 𝐸(𝑠).

 𝛻 × 𝛻 × 𝐸 𝑠 = 𝛻 𝛻. 𝐸 𝑠 − 𝛻 2 𝐸 𝑠 = 𝛻 × (−𝑗𝜔𝜇0 𝐻 𝑠 )=−𝑗𝜔𝜇0 (𝛻 × 𝐻 𝑠 ).
 But 𝛻. 𝐸 𝑠 =0
 Then, −𝛻 2 𝐸 𝑠 =−𝑗𝜔𝜇0 𝛻 × 𝐻 𝑠 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇0 𝑗𝜔𝜀0 𝐸 𝑠 = 𝜔2 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐸(𝑠).
 Therefore:
−𝛻 2 𝐸 𝑠 =𝜔2 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐸(𝑠).
It therefore follows that:
𝛻 2 𝐸 𝑠 + 𝜔2 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐸 𝑠 = 0. (This is the wave equation for E field)
 The wave equation for H is given as:
𝛻 2 𝐻 𝑠 + 𝜔2 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐻 𝑠 = 0. (Wave equation for the H field).
 These two wave equations are called the Helmoltz equations.
 Alternatively, the wave equations may be expressed as:
𝛻 2 𝐸 𝑠 + 𝑘 2 𝐸 𝑠 = 0.
𝛻 2 𝐻 𝑠 + 𝑘 2 𝐻 𝑠 = 0.
Or
𝛻 2 𝐸 𝑠 + 𝛾 2 𝐸 𝑠 = 0.
𝛻 2 𝐻 𝑠 + 𝛾 2 𝐻 𝑠 = 0.
Where 𝑘 2 = 𝜔2 𝜇0 𝜀0 (k is a wave vector showing dispersion relation of the wave).
And 𝛾 2 = 𝜔2 𝜇0 𝜀0 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 2
(the square of the propagation constant)
 The dispersion relation is given as;
𝑘𝑥2 + 𝑘𝑦2 + 𝑘𝑧2 = 𝑘 2 = 𝜔2 𝜇0 𝜀0 (in free space)
 In any other media:
 𝑘𝑥2 + 𝑘𝑦2 + 𝑘𝑧2 = 𝑘 2 = 𝜔2 𝜇 𝜀 .
 We therefore define the vector k as:
 𝑘 = 𝑥𝑘𝑥 + y𝑘𝑦 + z𝑘𝑧
 By virtue of the dispersion relation, it can be deduced that the magnitude of
the 𝑘 vector is equal to:
 𝑘 = 𝜔 2 𝜇0 𝜀0 (for free space)
1
 Or 𝑘 = (𝜔2 𝜇 𝜀 )2 (for any other media).
 The wave equation can be split into its x, y and z components e.g. the x-
component can still be written using the del-operator as:
 𝛻 2 𝐸𝑥 𝑠 + 𝜔2 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐸𝑥 𝑠 = 0.
 Expansion of the operator leads to a second order partial differential equation:
𝑑 2 𝐸𝑥 𝑑 2 𝐸𝑥 𝑑 2 𝐸𝑥
+ + 2 = -𝜔2 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐸𝑥 (𝑠). (5)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑧
 What will be the solution to eqn (5)?
 Assume that a simple solution is possible in which𝐸𝑥 𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦, so that the
two corresponding derivatives are zero.
 This leads to an ordinary differential equation:
𝑑 2 𝐸𝑥
= -𝜔2 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐸𝑥 (𝑠) (6)
𝑑𝑧 2
By inspection, one of the solutions would be:
𝐸𝑥 𝑠 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑧 𝜇 0 𝜀0

 Now if we re-insert 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 factor and then reduce the trigonometric form by taking real part,
we get:
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐴 cos[𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑧 𝜇0 𝜀0 ) ]
where we can replace A by 𝐸𝑥0 which is the value of 𝐸𝑥 at z=0 and t=0 (peak value).
 Therefore:
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑥0 cos[𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑧 𝜇0 𝜀0 ) ]

 In summary:
a. 𝐸𝑥 is an x-component
b. It is propagating in the z-direction
1 1
c. the radical 𝜇0 𝜀0 ≈ 3×108=𝑐 .
d. the radical 𝜇0 𝜀0 is therefore a reciprocal of c, the velocity of light in
free space.
1
 ∴𝑐= 𝜇0 𝜀0
= 2.998 × 108 ≈ 3 × 108 m/s.
3. Wavelength of uniform plane wave

 From our field equation:

𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑥0 cos[𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑧 𝜇0 𝜀0 ) ]
 Let us consider a point where z=0 meters (origin).
 The field becomes:
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑥0 cos 𝜔(𝑡) .
 This is a simple and familiar variation with time.
 Now lets consider the field at a distance z=500km away from the source.
𝜔
 A free charge (in vertical receiving antenna) will be accelerated up and down times a
2𝜋
second, and we find that at this point:
𝑧 500 000
 𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑥0 cos 𝜔 𝑡 − = 𝐸𝑥0 cos 𝜔 𝑡 − = 𝐸𝑥0 cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 0.00167
𝑐 3×108
 We realize that the field at z=500km lags that at z=0 km by 0.00167 seconds or
𝑧
by 𝑧 𝜇0 𝜀0 or by 8 seconds.
3×10
 The phase lag in radians is therefore:

𝜔𝑧
𝑧𝜔 𝜇0 𝜀0 or 3×108
radians
 Now, we can inspect 𝐸𝑥 anywhere at time 𝑡 = 0 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠.
 Therefore;
𝜔𝑧
 𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑥0 cos[−𝜔𝑧 𝜇0 𝜀0 ]=𝐸𝑥0 cos 𝑐
 This is equivalent to finding a periodic variation with distance z.
 The period of this cosine wave as measured along the z axis is called the wave
length, 𝜆 (ie. z= 𝜆 ).
 Therefore:

𝜔𝜆
= 2𝜋 radians
𝑐

 But 𝜔= 2𝜋f
2𝜋f𝜆
 Then, = 2𝜋
𝑐
8
c 3×10
 Therefore 𝜆 = 𝑓= metres
𝑓

1
 The period is given by: 𝑇 = at any time when wavelength is 𝜆.
𝑓
 Now, consider that we vary both time and location.
 We may certainly say that 𝐸𝑥 is unchanged if 𝑡 − 𝑧 𝜇0 𝜀0 is unchanged, or

𝑡 − 𝑧/𝑐=constant
 If we take differentials we obtain:
𝑡𝑐 − 𝑧 = 𝑘𝑐
Then 𝑡𝑐 − 𝑘c = 𝑧
𝑑𝑧
Therefore; =𝑐
𝑑𝑡
 We observe that the wave is moving in the z-direction with the velocity of light c.
 At 𝑧 = 𝑧1 , 𝑡 = 𝑡1 , the field will have an identical value as at 𝑧2 at time (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )/𝑐 later.
 It will also have an identical value at 𝑡 = 𝑡2 , at distance (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )𝑐 further.
 The electric field is therefore in motion and is logically termed a traveling wave.
 The wave 𝐸𝑥 is traveling in the z-direction.
4. Determination of the Magnetic field
H

 We use the Maxwell equations as before.

Time domain Frequency domain
𝑑𝐸
𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝜀0 𝑑𝑡 𝛻 × 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑗𝜔𝜀0 𝐸(𝑠) (1)

𝑑𝐻
𝛻 × 𝐸 = −𝜇0 𝛻 × 𝐸(𝑠) = −𝑗𝜔𝜇0 𝐻(𝑠) (2)
𝑑𝑡

𝛻. 𝐸 = 0 𝛻. 𝐸 𝑠 = 0 (3)

𝛻. 𝐻 = 0 𝛻. 𝐻 𝑠 = 0 (4)
 Then we use:
𝛻 × 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑗𝜔𝜀0 𝐸(𝑠) (7)
𝛻. 𝐻 𝑠 = 0 (8)
 If given 𝐸 𝑠 , we can easily determine H(𝑠) from:
𝛻 × 𝐸(𝑠) = −𝑗𝜔𝜇0 𝐻(𝑠) (9)

 This expression can greatly be simplified for a single 𝐸𝑥 component varying only
with z.
𝑑𝐸𝑥 (𝑠)
 Then, 𝑑𝑧
= −𝑗𝜔𝜇0 𝐻𝑦 (𝑠) (10)
 NB. E is ┴ to H.
 Now, from 𝐸𝑥 𝑠 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑧 𝜇0 𝜀0
and replacing A with 𝐸𝑥0 we get;

𝐸𝑥 𝑠 = 𝐸𝑥0 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑧 𝜇0 𝜀0

 If we substitute for 𝐸𝑥 𝑠 in eqn (10) we get:

𝑑(𝐸𝑥0 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑧 𝜇0 𝜀0 )
= −𝑗𝜔𝜇0 𝐻𝑦 (𝑠) (11)
𝑑𝑧

This simplifies to:

−𝑗𝜔 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐸𝑥0 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑧 𝜇0 𝜀0
= −𝑗𝜔𝜇0 𝐻𝑦 𝑠

−𝑗𝜔 𝜇0 𝜀0 −1
Therefore, 𝐻𝑦 𝑠 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇0
𝐸𝑥0 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑧 𝜇0 𝜀0
= 𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐸𝑥0 (−𝑗𝜔 𝜇0 𝜀0 )𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑧/𝑐 (12)
0
 We can rewrite (12) in its time domain or original form as:
𝜀0 𝑧
𝐻𝑦 = 𝐸𝑥0 cos[𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑐) ] (13)
𝜇0

 We can observe that the vertical E component is traveling in the z-

direction and is accompanied by a horizontal magnetic field H.
5. Wave Impedance

 The ratio of the electric field to the magnetic field intensities is given as:
𝑧
𝐸𝑥 𝐸𝑥0 cos[𝜔(𝑡 − ) ]
= 𝑐
𝐻𝑦 𝜀 𝑧
𝐸𝑥0 𝜇0 cos[𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑐 ) ]
0

𝐸𝑥 𝜇0
 Then, = (14)
𝐻𝑦 𝜀0

𝐸 𝜇0
 The ratio𝐻𝑥 = 𝜀0
has units of Ohms, and is called the intrinsic impedance 𝜂.
𝑦

𝜇
𝜂= 𝜀

𝜇0
 For free space: 𝜂0 = =120 =377𝛀
𝜀0

 This electromagnetic wave is called the uniform plane wave because its value is uniform
throughout any plane, where z is constant.
 The wave represents an energy flow in the positive z-direction.
 Both E and H are perpendicular to the direction of propagation, or both lie
in a plane that is transverse to the direction of propagation.
 The uniform plane wave is therefore a transverse electromagnetic wave
(TEM wave).
6. Wave Motion in Perfect Dielectrics

 So far we have discussed the wave motion in free space.

 Next we need to understand the behavior of an electromagnetic wave in
different media.
 First we will analyse the uniform plane wave as it propagates in a perfect
(lossless) dielectric of permittivity ℇ and permeability µ.
 The medium is isotropic (uniform) and homogeneous (same throughout).
 The wave equation is given by:
𝛻 2 𝐸 𝑠 =−𝜔2 𝜇 𝜀 𝐸 𝑠 (1)

For 𝐸𝑥 (s), we have:

𝑑2 𝐸𝑥
= −𝜔2 𝜇 𝜀 𝐸𝑥 (s)
𝑑𝑧 2
 As the wave propagates through the media, the wave can be assumed to be
attenuated exponentially so that 𝐸𝑥 becomes:
 𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos (ω𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) (2)
 OR we express (2) as:
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 (3)
 The value 𝛼 is called the attenuation constant.
 For a lossless medium, we must show that 𝛼=0.
 If 𝛽𝑧 is measured in radians (assuming 𝛽 to be real), then it is logical that 𝛽
be called a phase constant.
 𝛽 is a measure of the radian phase shift per metre.
 In general, we often combine 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 into a complex propagation
constant 𝜸 𝒈𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒂 so that:
𝜸 = 𝛼 +j 𝛽 (4)
 Equation (3) may therefore be re-written as:
𝐸𝑥 (𝑠) = 𝐸𝑥0 𝑒 −(𝛼+𝑗𝛽)𝑧 = 𝐸𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 (5)
𝑑2 𝐸𝑥 (𝑠)
But from: = −𝜔2 𝜇 𝜀 𝐸𝑥 (s) we can substitute for 𝐸𝑥 (s) by (5) and we get:
𝑑𝑧 2
𝑑2 (𝐸𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 )
= −𝜔2 𝜇 𝜀 𝐸𝑥 (s)
𝑑𝑧 2

 Differentiating the LHS of the equation twice we get:

𝛾 2 𝐸𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 = −𝜔2 𝜇 𝜀 𝐸𝑥 (s)= −𝜔2 𝜇 𝜀 𝐸𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 (after substituting for 𝐸𝑥 (s) )
 Therefore; 𝛾 2 𝐸𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 = −𝜔2 𝜇 𝜀 𝐸𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧
From the equation above, we deduce that;
𝜸𝟐 = −𝝎𝟐 𝝁 𝜺 (6)
 Or we express the equation as:
𝜸 = ±𝒋𝝎 𝝁𝜺 (7)
This implies that 𝛼 = 𝟎
 This result means that:
𝛚
𝛃 = 𝝎 𝝁𝜺 = (8)
𝑐
for propagation in the z-direction.
 Thus:
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑥0 cos [ω(𝑡 − 𝑧 𝝁𝜺) ] (9)
 This can be interpreted as a wave traveling in the positive z-direction at a velocity 𝑣 m/s.
 The velocity is given as:
1 𝑐
𝑣= = (10)
𝝁𝜺 𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓

The wavelength is the ratio of the velocity to the frequency.

 Therefore;
𝑣 𝑐 𝜆0
𝜆= = = (11)
𝑓 𝒇 𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓 𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓

where 𝜆0 is the free space wavelength.

 Note that 𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓 >1 and therefore the wavelength is shorter and the velocity is
lower in all real media than in free space.
 From equation (8) we also obtain an important relationship:
𝛚 2𝜋𝑓
𝛃= 𝑐
= 𝑐
𝑓 1
But = ,
𝑐 𝜆
 Therefore,
2𝜋
𝛃= 𝜆
(12)
 𝐸𝑥 is therefore associated with the magnetic field intensity 𝐻𝑦 such that:
𝐸𝑥0
𝐻𝑦 = cos (ω𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) (13)
𝜂

where the intrinsic impedance is:

𝜇
𝜂= (14)
𝜀

 The two fields 𝐸𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻𝑦 are perpendicular to each other and

perpendicular to the direction of propagation, but in phase with each
other everywhere.
 Note, when E is crossed into H (i.e. 𝐸 × 𝐻), the resultant vector is in the
direction of propagation (Poynting vector).
7. Plane Waves in Lossy Dielectrics

 All dielectric materials have some conductivity though it may be neglected in

many cases.
 We therefore need to establish the criteria for neglecting the conductivity for
the dielectric.
 We continue to confine ourselves to a sinusoidal time variation and also apply
Maxwell’s curl equations.
 The curl equations are:

𝛻 × 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐽 𝑠 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸(𝑠) (1 a)

or
𝛻 × 𝐻(𝑠) = (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀 )𝐸(𝑠) (1 b)
𝛻 × 𝐸(𝑠) = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻(𝑠) (2)
 We can immediately calculate a new value of the propagation constant.
 Then: ; 𝛾 2 = (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀 )jω𝜇
𝛾 = ± (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀 )jω𝜇 (3a)
or
𝜎
𝛾 = jω 𝝁𝜺 1 − 𝑗 (3b) (only positive value).
𝜔𝜀

 We see that this expression differs from the lossless case where:
𝛾 = ±jω 𝝁𝜺
 In general case, values of 𝜎, 𝜇, 𝜀 and 𝜔 may be inserted into (3b), the real and imaginary parts of 𝛾
calculated:
𝛾 = α + 𝑗𝛽 (4)
 The x-component of the electric field intensity propagating in the +z-direction is therefore obtained as:
 𝐸𝑥 (𝑠) = 𝐸𝑥0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 (5)
 The use of the plus sign for the radical in (3b) leads to positive numerical
values of α 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽, and hence corresponds to propagation in the +z-
direction. α is measured in Nepers/m (Np/m).
 Using 𝛻 × 𝐸(𝑠) = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻(𝑠) , we can easily show that:
𝐸𝑥0 −𝛼𝑧 −𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐻𝑦 (𝑠) = 𝑒 𝑒 (6)
𝜂

 The intrinsic impedance is now a complex quantity:

𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝜇 1
𝜂= = (7)
𝜎+𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝜀 𝜎
1−𝑗𝜔𝜀

 The electric and the magnetic fields are no longer in time phase.
 Example:
 An electromagnetic wave of frequency f=15.9GHz or at 𝜔 = 1011 rad/s,
propagates in water whose parameter values are 𝜇𝑟 = 1, 𝜀𝑟 = 50 and
σ=20℧/m. Determine the following:
a. the propagation constant
b. the attenuation constant
c. the phase constant
d. the intrinsic impedance
e. the phase difference between 𝐸𝑥 and 𝐻𝑦 .
 Solution

𝜎 𝜎
a. 𝜔𝜀
= 𝜔𝜺 =0.452
𝑟 𝜺0

𝜎
𝛾 = jω 𝝁𝜺 1 − 𝑗 𝜔𝜀 = 2.480∠77.8° = 522 + 𝑗2.420 /𝑚

b. 𝛾 = α + 𝑗𝛽 = 522 + 𝑗2.420/m
Therefore: α = 522 Np/m
Amplitudes of 𝐸𝑥 and 𝐻𝑦 will attenuate by a factor of 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 = 𝑒 −522𝑧 = 0.368 for
1
every 522 metres.
c. Phase constant: 𝛽 = 2.420 rad/m
 d. Intrinsic impedance:
𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝜇 1
𝜂= = = 50.8∠12.2° = 49.6 + 𝑗10.7 𝛀.
𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝜀 𝜎
1−𝑗
𝜔𝜀
e. Phase difference between E and H is 12.2° with E leading at every point.
𝜎
 NB. The magnitude of the loss of a dielectric material is judged by the value of compared to
𝜔𝜀
unity.
𝜎
 The ratio is called the loss tangent:
𝜔𝜀
𝜎
tan 𝜃 =
𝜔𝜀
 This is the angle by which the displacement current density 𝐽𝑑 (s) leads the total current density
𝐽𝜎 s since:
𝛻 × 𝐻(𝑠) = (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀 )𝐸(𝑠) = 𝐽𝜎 s + 𝐽𝑑 (s) .
 𝐽𝜎 s 𝜎
 Therefore, = 𝜔𝜀
𝐽𝑑 (s)
𝜎
 If 𝜔𝜀 < 1, the loss is small.
𝜎
 If > 1, the loss is large.
𝜔𝜀
8 Propagation in good conductors

 In this section, we investigate the behavior of a good conductor when the

uniform plane wave is propagated through it or is established in it.
 A good conductor has got high conductivity and large conduction
currents.
 Due to ohmic losses that are always present, the energy of the traveling
wave decreases as the wave propagates.
𝐽 s 𝜎
 From 𝐽𝜎 (s) = 𝜔𝜀, choosing a poor metallic conductor, say Nichrome
𝑑

(𝜎 = 106 ) and a very high frequency at say 100MHz, will yield a loss tangent
of 2 × 108 .
𝜎
 Thus we have a situation in which 𝜔𝜀 ≫ 1 and can approximate the values
of 𝛽, 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂 for a good conductor.
 The general expression for propagation constant is:
𝜎
𝛾 = jω 𝝁𝜺 1 − 𝑗
𝜔𝜀
𝜎 𝜎
 When 𝜔𝜀
≫ 1, 𝛾 simplifies to:𝛾 = jω 𝝁𝜺 −𝑗 𝜔𝜀 = 𝑗 −𝑗ω𝜇𝜎

 But -𝑗 = 1∠ − 90°
1 1
 Therefore, 1∠ − 90° = 1∠ − 45° = −𝑗 .
2 2
 Therefore we can re-write the propagation constant as;
1 1
𝛾=j −𝑗 𝑗ω𝜇𝜎 = (𝑗1 + 1) 𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎 (1)
2 2
 Therefore;
𝛼=𝛽= 𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎 (2) (regardless of the values of 𝜇, 𝜎, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓.
 If we again assume an 𝐸𝑥 component traveling in the +z-direction, then;
𝐸𝑥 (𝑠) = 𝐸𝑥0 𝑒 −𝑧 𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎
cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑧 𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎) (3)
 This field in a conductor can be tied to a field on conductor surface.
 If we assume a good conductor is joined to a perfect dielectric such that the region z>0 is a
good conductor and that z<0 is a perfect dielectric, then z=0 will be the boundary.
 At the boundary: 𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑥0 cos 𝜔𝑡 (at z=0).
 This is the source field that establishes the field within the conductor.
 Since the displacement current 𝐽𝑑 (s) is negligible, then J = 𝜎𝐸.
 The conduction current density J at any point within the conductor is directly proportional to E.
 Therefore:
𝐽𝑥 (𝑠) = 𝜎𝐸𝑥 = 𝜎𝐸𝑥0 𝑒 −𝑧 𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎
cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑧 𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎) (4)
 The form of 𝐽𝑥 is the same as that of 𝐸𝑥 .
 Equations (3) and (4) contain important information.
 If we consider the negative exponential first i.e., we find that there is an
exponential decrease in the current density and electric field intensity with
penetration into the conductor(away from the source).
 The exponential factor is unity at z=0, and it then decreases to 𝑒 −1 = 0.368
1
when 𝑧 = .
𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎

 This decrease is denoted by 𝛅 and is called depth of penetration or skin

depth.
 Therefore,
1 1 1
𝛅= =𝛼=𝛽 (5)
𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎
 Example: Consider copper, 𝜎 = 5.8 × 107 ℧/𝑚 at several different
frequencies.
1 0.0661
 We have 𝛅= =
𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎 𝑓
0.0661
 At 60Hz power frequency, 𝛅= = 8.53 𝑚𝑚.
60
0.0661
 At 10 000 MHz, 𝛅= = 6.61 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚.
10000
 We observe that as the frequency increases, the skin depth decreases.
 Any current density or electric field intensity established at the surface of a
good conductor decays rapidly as we progress into the conductor.
 Electromagnetic energy is not transmitted in the interior of the conductor
but travels in the region surrounding the conductor or around the
conductor surface.
 The conductor merely guide the wave.
 At microwave frequencies, hollow conductors tend to be much better
designs than solid conductors as the EM wave will follow the skin of the
conductor and not the inner part.
 Extremely short skin depth at microwave frequency shows that only the
surface coating of the guide conductor is important.
a. Velocity of propagation and wavelength
in good conductors

2𝜋
 Since 𝛽= .
𝜆
1 1 1 1 2𝜋
 From 𝛅= = 𝛼 = 𝛽, we see that, = .
𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎 𝛅 𝜆

 Therefore;
𝜆 = 2𝜋 𝛅 (6)
 Also,
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 = 𝑓 2𝜋 𝛅 (7)
b. Intrinsic impedance of a good
conductor

 The intrinsic impedance,

𝑗𝜔𝜇
𝜂= 𝜎+𝑗𝜔𝜀
, but 𝜎 ≫ 𝜔𝜀.

 Then,
𝑗𝜔𝜇
𝜂= 𝜎
.
 We may re-write this as:
2 ∠45° 1 1
𝜂= = +j (8)
𝜎𝛅 𝜎𝛅 𝜎𝛅
 We therefore can re-write 𝐸𝑥 in terms of skin depth:
𝑧
−
𝐸𝑥 (𝑠) = 𝐸𝑥0 𝑒 𝛅 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑧/𝛅 ) (9)
c. Determination of component 𝐻𝑦 in
good conductor
𝑧
𝛿𝜎 − 𝑧 𝜋
 𝐻𝑦 = 𝐸 𝑒 𝛅 cos(𝜔𝑡 − − 4) ,
2 𝑥0 𝛅
 We see that the maximum amplitude of the magnetic field intensity occurs
1/8th of a cycle later than the maximum amplitude of the electric field
intensity at every point.
9. The Poynting Vector and Power

 The Poynting theorem is a power theorem that helps us find the power in a
uniform plane wave (By British Physist John H. Poynting, 1884).
 Starting from Maxwell’s equation:
𝑑𝐷
𝛻×𝐻 = 𝐽+ 𝑑𝑡
(1)

we dot each side of the equation with E.

𝑑𝐷
 E.( 𝛻 × 𝐻) = 𝐸. 𝐽 + 𝐸. 𝑑𝑡

 The result after applying identities, is integrated throughout a volume and we

obtain:
𝑑 𝜀𝐸 2 𝜇𝐻 2
− 𝑣𝑜𝑙
𝛻.(E× 𝐻) = 𝑣𝑜𝑙
𝐽. 𝐸 𝑑𝑣 + + 𝑑𝑣 (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙 2 2
  If we apply the divergence theorem to equation(2), we get:
𝑑 𝜀𝐸 2 𝜇𝐻 2
− (E × 𝐻). 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙
𝐽. 𝐸 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑑𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙 2 + 𝑑𝑣 (3)
2

Total energy
Total power Total power Total energy
stored in
flowing out dissipated in stored in
magnetic
of the a volume electric field
field
volume
Total power
flowing in
the volume
 The sum of the expression on the right is the total power flowing into the volume.
 Thus the total power flowing out of the volume is;
(E × 𝐻). 𝑑𝑆. (4)
where the integral is over the closed surface surrounding the volume.
 The cross product of 𝐸 × 𝐻 is known as the Poynting vector.
𝑃 =𝐸×𝐻
 In perfect dielectric: 𝑃𝑎𝑣 (𝑧) = 𝐸𝑥 × 𝐻𝑦
1 2
𝑃𝑎𝑣 (𝑧) = 𝐸 (average power density) (5)
2𝜂 𝑥𝑜

 If the surface area normal to z-axis is S, then the average power flowing through the area
is:
1 2 1
𝑃𝑎𝑣 𝑧 = 𝐸 𝑆 = 2 −𝛼𝑧
𝐸𝑥𝑜 𝑒 cos 𝜃𝜂 (6)
2𝜂 𝑥𝑜 2𝜂𝑚

where 𝜂 = 𝜂𝑚 ∠𝜃𝜂
 In a good conductor:
2𝑧 2𝑧
1 2 𝑒− 𝛿 𝜋 1 −𝛿
𝑃𝑎𝑣 𝑧 = 2 2
𝜎𝛿𝐸𝑥𝑜 cos 4 = 4
2
𝜎𝛿𝐸𝑥𝑜 𝑒 (7)
 If the width of the conductor is y such that 0<y<b and the length if such that
0<x<L, the total power loss is found from:
2𝑧
𝑏 𝐿1 −𝛿 1
𝑃𝐿.𝑎𝑣 = 0 0 4
2
𝜎𝛿𝐸𝑥𝑜 𝑒 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 2
= 𝜎𝛿𝑏𝐿𝐸𝑥𝑜 (for z=0) (8)
4
 In terms of current density 𝐽𝑥0 , at conductor surface;
𝐽𝑥0 = 𝜎𝐸𝑥0 (9)
 Then,
1
𝑃𝐿.𝑎𝑣 = 2
𝑏𝐿𝐽𝑥𝑜 (10)
4𝜎
QUESTION

 Q1. A 300MHz wave propagates through fresh water. Neglecting

attenuation and assuming that ∝= 0, and that𝝁𝒓 = 𝟏, 𝜺𝒓 = 𝟕𝟖 (at 300MHz),
determine the following:
a. the velocity of propagation 𝑣 in water
b. the wavelength 𝜆 in the medium
c. the phase constant
d. the intrinsic impedance in the medium
e. the electric field intensity 𝐸𝑥 and magnetic field intensity 𝐻𝑦 if the
amplitude of the 𝐸𝑥 is 0.1V/m.