ENCN-454

28/04/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José

Earthquake Engineering

ASSIGNMENT #2

Q1

a)

Given:

 Vs = 200 m/s
 H= 80 m
 Single layer soil profile over a rigid base

Determine: The natural frequencies, natural periods, and wavelengths corresponding to the first
three modes of deformation. Sketch the transfer function with ξ=0, 1, and 5% damping using
appropriate x-axis frequency values. Y-axis amplitude scales can be qualitative.

Solution:

For this exercise, the following formulas are considered

( 12 )( 2VsH )
fn= n+

1
Tn=
fn

Vs
λn=
fn

For the first mode (n=0)

( 12 )( 2VsH )=(0+ 12 )( 2∗80

f 1= n+
200
)=0.625 Hz
1 1
T 1= = =1.6 sec
f 1 0.625

Vs 200
λ 1= = =320 m
fn 0.625

For the second mode (n=1):

 ENCN-454
28/04/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering

( 12 )( 2VsH )=(1+ 12 )( 2∗80

f 2= n+
200
)=1.875 Hz
1 1
T 2= = =0.533 sec
f 2 1.875

Vs 200
λ 2= = =¿ 106.67 m
fn 1.875

For the third mode (n=2):

( 12 )( 2∗80
f 3= 2+
200
)=3.125 Hz
1 1
T 3= = =0.32 sec
f 3 3.125

Vs 200
λ 3= = =64 m
fn 3.125

b)

Considering that it is a damped soil over a rigid bedrock, the following transfer function formula
will be used:

1
T F (ω)=

√ cos 2 ( ωVsH )+¿ ¿ ¿

Using Excel and selecting appropriate values of frequency, the following plots were obtained:
 ENCN-454
28/04/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering

Q2

a) As Vs decreases, the shear modulus of the soil decreases.

b) As the soil thickness over rock increases, the fundamental period of the site increases.
c) As confining pressure increases, shear modulus increases.
d) As plasticity of a soil decreases, damping decreases.
e) As shear strain increases, shear modulus decreases.
f) As shear strain increases, damping increases.
g) As damping increases, the amplification at the first mode of vibration decreases.
h) As frequency of a harmonic wave increases, the total energy loss from frequency-
independent damping (i.e, constant damping across all frequencies) over a given distance
increases.
i) As distance from site to source increases, the ratio of high frequency amplitudes to low
frequency amplitudes of a ground motion decreases.
j) As wavelength of a Rayleigh wave decreases, its travel velocity decreases.

Q3

In order to calculate Vs30, the following formula is used:

30
Vs 30= j
ti
∑ Vsi
i=1

The following table summarizes the calculations done:

Layer ti (m) Vsi ti/Vsi

(m/s)
Gravelly 4 150 0.026667
Sand
Loose Sand 2 170 0.011765
Soft Clay 7 120 0.058333
Sandy Silt 10 200 0.05
Dense Sand 7 320 0.021875

SUM 0.16864
Vs30 177.894
m/s
 ENCN-454
28/04/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering
For the equivalent shear wave velocity for the full soil profile above the dense gravels, the
remaining 3 m of the layer are considered and each travel time is calculated independently. The
following table summarizes the calculations done:

Layer di (m) Vsi di/Vsi

(m/s)
Gravelly 4 150 0.026667
Sand
Loose Sand 2 170 0.011765
Soft Clay 7 120 0.058333
Sandy Silt 10 200 0.05
Dense Sand 10 320 0.03125

SUM 0.178015
Vs 185.3779
m/s

The predominant period of the site is determined by the following expression:

4 H 4∗33
T 0= = =0.71 sec
Vs 185.38
 ENCN-454
28/04/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering

Q4- Linear Elastic Analysis

a)

Upon plotting the induced levels of maximum shear strains throughout the depth of the profile in
the linear elastic analysis, it can be observed that the values of maximum shear strain are
achieved at the intervals of depth of between 6 and 13 m, which is where the soft clay layer is
located with maximum strain values of up to 0.052%. At around 4 m, due to the presence of the
ground water level it can be observed that there is a slight decrease in the shear strain from the
previous layer. In general, the levels of shear strain achieved through the analysis are consistent
with what would be expected for the soil profile based on the properties and characteristics of
each layer. I.e, layers of sand and silt with higher shear wave velocity and better geomechanical
properties exhibit less strain than soft layers with low shear wave velocity.

b)

The assumption that the site will behave linear-elastically is not appropriate. Considering that the
maximum shear strain for the clay layer is around 0.052%, this value puts the clay layer in a
significant plastic strain threshold according to Vucetic (1994). For plastic strains of this type, it
is expected that the site will exhibit non-linear behaviour, thus the assumption for this case is
incorrect.
 ENCN-454
28/04/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering

c)

To determine the amplification factor for the PGA at the ground surface, we need to compare the
PGA at 0 m from the output of STRATA with the PGA on the input ground motion. The
amplification factor can be determined by the following expression:

PGA ( Ground surface )

Amplification Factor=
PGA (Input Motion)

First, we will plot the Peak ground acceleration profile for the soil and the input ground motion:
 ENCN-454
28/04/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering

STRATA determined, with the given input ground motion and soil properties, that the PGA at 0
m depth (surface) is of 0.326 g, whereas the PGA from the input ground motion was 0.278 g,
thus the amplification factor is:

PGA ( Ground surface ) 0.217 g

Amplification Factor= = =1.17
PGA (Input Motion) 0.186 g

Indicating that the given soil properties and amplify the signal of the earthquake at this site.

d) Plotting the computed transfer function between the ground surface and outcropping dense
gravel, it is estimated with STRATA that the fundamental period (T0) of the site is 0.589
seconds (1.6985 Hz).
 ENCN-454
28/04/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering

e) Scaling the ground motion by a factor of 1.5 will not change the transfer function or the
fundamental period of the soil. The linear elastic analysis assumes that the soil will behave
linearly, thus the relationship between stress and strain is proportional. Scaling the input ground
(stress) scales the output response (strain) by the same factor, but the transfer function and the
fundamental period depend on the properties of the soil like the unit weight, damping, thickness,
depth, etc. and these properties do not depend on the input ground motion.
 ENCN-454
28/04/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering
Q5- Equivalent linear Analysis (EQL)

a)

To better illustrate, I have decided to plot the EQL and Linear analysis side by side extracting the
data from STRATA and plotting in Excel. For the induced levels of maximum shear strains
throughout the depth of the profile in the equivalent linear analysis, it can be observed that the
values of maximum shear strain are achieved at the intervals of depth of between 6 and 13 m,
which is where the soft clay layer is located, with maximum strain values of up to 0.0507%. This
value is slightly less than that obtained in the linear analysis. While the profile follows the same
shear pattern as the linear elastic analysis, it is important to note that stiffer layers of sand and silt
exhibit slightly more shear in the EQL analysis.

0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0

10
Depth (m)

15

20

25

30

Maximum shear strains

EQL Max shear strain

Max Shear Strain Linear Static

b)
 ENCN-454
28/04/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering
Given:

 Depth = 8 m
 Layer = Soft Clay
 Shear Wave Velocity (Vs) = 120 m/s
 Unight weight (γ) = 17 kN/m3
 Plasticity Index (PI) = 30

Determine: The values of shear modulus (G) and damping (ξ) that would be used by STRATA
if it were to perform one additional iteration.

Solution:

Step 1: Assume initial values for G and ξ corresponding to elastic (very small) strains.

G/Gmax = 1 & ξmin= 1% for very small strain levels of < 0.001%

Step 2: Run analysis using G and ξ as input and calculate the strain time history for the layer to
obtain γmax.

From the shear strain-time plot, at a depth of 8 m we can determine that the γmax value is -
0.0492226%.

Step 3: Identify γmax to determine γeff

 ENCN-454
28/04/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering
γ m ax =0.0492226

Step 4: Iteration 1, calculate γeff

γ e ff =0.65∗γ m ax =0.65∗0.0492226=0.032

Step 5: Check compatibility with G-γ and ξ-γ curves; G-γ and ξ-γ points computed in the
iteration should sit close to the curves.

Shear Modulus Reduction

1.2

0.8
G/Gmax

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1

Strain (%)

Shear Modulus Reduction

 ENCN-454
28/04/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering

Damping Ratio
18
16
14
12
Damping (%)

10
8
6
4
2
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1

Strain (%)

Damping Ration

Using the modulus and damping curves, it can be determined that for a γeff=0.032, G/Gmax =
0.75 and ξ=5.90%.

Therefore,
2
Gmax=G 0=V s ∗ρ

ρ=γ /g

1 7 kN
m3 17,000
ρ= = =1732.93 kg /m3
m 9.81
9.81 2
s

Gmax=G 0=V s 2∗ρ=( 1202 ) (1732.93 )=24954192 pa=24.95 Mpa

Damping=ξ=5.90 %
 ENCN-454
28/04/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering

c)

To better illustrate these plots, I have decided to take out the data from STRATA and plot the
bedrock response spectra along with the spectra of the ground site with both EQL and linear
analysis in Excel. According to the EQL analysis, the ground site is actually deamplifying.

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0.01 0.1 1 10

EQL Ground Surface Linear Ground Surface Bedrock

 ENCN-454
28/04/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering

d)

To better illustrate these plots, I have decided to take out the data from STRATA and plot the
transfer functions of both analysis methods in Excel.
4

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0.05 0.5 5 50 500

Linear Elastic EQL

The equivalent linear site response analysis yields a fundamental period (T0) of 0.70 seconds.

e)

Accounting for nonlinearity via the equivalent linear approach influences the response at the
ground surface in several ways. First, the predominant period of the site with the equivalent
linear analysis was determined to be 0.70 sec, whereas the linear elastic analysis gave a
predominant period of 0.589 sec and looking at the plot of FAS vs Frequency, in the linear
elastic response it appears that the soil exhibits erratic FAS behaviour from the frequency of 3.5
Hz onwards. Furthermore, while in both the linear and equivalent linear analysis produced peak
spectral acceleration ratios at a period of 0.631 seconds, the linear analysis gave a value of 1.22
and the equivalent linear a ratio of 0.65, which means that with the equivalent linear analysis the
site gave deamplification of the earthquake signal, whereas the linear analysis showed
amplification for the site.

This behaviour and difference in fundamental period occurs because the equivalent linear
analysis considers a reduced stiffness. I.e, as strain levels increase, soils tend to soften and shear
modulus G is reduced during successive iterations. This reduced stiffness also yields an increase
 ENCN-454
28/04/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering
in the fundamental period an also a lower peak acceleration because of the absorption of the
vibrational energy. Thus, through this example, the equivalent linear approach produces more
accurate results and considers attenuation by the soil more accurately, rendering it as a better tool
for site response analysis.