CE 305

Section : Hydraulic transients in pipes

Lecture notes summary

Prof. S.B.Weerakoon

1. Introduction
Unsteady flow can be classified into three types for the convenience of analysis.
 Flow changes slowly where the forces due to acceleration are negligible and the steady flow
energy equations may be applicable with reasonable accuracy. Quasi-steady flows
e.g.: Emptying of a tank
 Flow changes rapidly where the temporal acceleration becomes important. However, the
elastic forces in the fluid and the expansion of the pipe can be neglected. The fluid mass
behaves as a rigid column.
e.g.: Mass oscillations in U-tubes, reservoir tunnel-surge tank systems
 Flow changes so rapidly where the forces due to accelerations and the elastic forces in the
fluid and expansion of the pipe are important. Propagation of the pressure waves in the fluid
needs to be paid attention.
e.g.: Flow in penstocks following a sudden change in the flow admission to the turbine

2. Mass oscillations in reservoir–tunnel-surge tank systems

A surge tank in a hydroelectric scheme
acts as a temporary reservoir, when the discharge through the penstock is suddenly altered,
to provide/store water until the flow through the tunnel is adjusted.
protects the tunnel from being subjected to the pressure changes developed due to sudden
change in discharge through the penstock.

Rigid column theory

a) Consider the incompressible fluid
flowing in a rigid pipeline AB (Fig.
2.1). When the valve V at the end of
the pipe is closed , application of
p  mf : to the fluid column AB
considering AB as a rigid fluid column
du Fig 2.1
 F   AT l ;
dt l du
Therefore, surge pressure head, h  
g dt
b) Consider discharge through the
penstock in a hydroelectric scheme Q
(Fig. 2.2) is changed from the steady
state value of Qo (vo), = FV2 for
with V > 0
Dynamic equation

The application of p  mf to the water

column of length L in the tunnel, v > 0
Assume Z f (instantaneous head loss),
Z f  Fv 2 ( for v  0) or Z   Z f   Fv . | v |
 Fig 2.2
dv
 gAT ( Z  Z f )    AT L
dt
L dv
  Z  Fv 2  0 + or - as v  0 or v  0.......................(2.1)
g dt

Continuity equation
dZ
At the junction, AT v  As  Q...................................(2.2)
dt

2.1. Solutions neglecting tunnel friction (F=0)

a) Sudden complete closure of the MIV

t  0   , Q  Q0
t  0, Q  0
AS dZ
Eqn (2.2) gives v  . , substitute in Eqn (2.1),
AT dt
L As d 2 Z
. Z 0 for v  0
g AT dt 2
gAT
Solution: Z  ACos t  BSint where  
LAs
Boundary conditions:
t  0, Z  Z 0  0  A  0
dZ Q0
t  0, 
dt As
Q0 LAT
B  v0
As gAs
LAT gAT gAT
 Z  v0 sin t and v  v0 cos t
gAs LAs LAs

Ex.2.1: Plot Z and v with t in the same plot

b) Sudden opening of the MIV from the fully closed position.

t  0 , Q  0
t  0   , Q  Q0
dZ
Eqn (2:.2) vAT  Aa  Q0
dt
Substitute in Eqn (2.1) l As d 2 Z
 Z  0 for v  0
g AT dt 2
Solution:
 gAT
Z  A cost  B sint where 
LAs
Boundary conditions:

t  0, Z  Z 0  0  A  0
dZ Q
t  0,  0
dt As
Q0 LAT
B    v0
As gAs
LAT gAT
 Z  v0 sin t
gAs LAs

Ex.2.2 Plot Z and v with t in the same plot

Ex. 2.3 Find and plot Z, v for sudden partial opening and sudden partial closure of the MIV

2.2 Solutions including friction

a) Sudden complete closure of the MIV

t  0   , Q  Q0
t  0, Q  0
AS dZ
Eqn (2.2) gives v
AT dt
Substitute in Eqn (2.1),
L dv AT
v  Z  Fv 2  0 for v  0
g dZ As
dV 2 ZgAs 2  2 gAs 
 Fv   Z  
dZ LAs  LAs 
dx ZgAs F 
or   x   Z  0 where X  v 2 ,   , 
dz LAs F
Boundary conditions:
t  0, Z  Z 0   Fv 2 , v  v0
1  2
v2  (1   Z )  e  ( Z  Fv0 ) 
F  
Ex. 2.4 Find maximum of Z

Other methods to obtain solution under complex valve operation and complex tunnel systems:
1. Numerical methods – by computational modelling
2. Graphical methods – e.g. Schoklitch’s construction

2.3 Types of surge tanks

Simple surge tanks
Throttled surge tanks
Differential surge tanks
Surge tanks with expansion chambers
Surge tanks with air chambers
2.4 Other applications of rigid column theory
Estimation of inertia pressures inside the cylinder of a reciprocating pump during the
delivery and suction strokes.
3. Water hammer pressures in pipelines
A sudden change in flow in a pipe results in a development and propagation of pressure waves in
the fluid mass.

3.1 Water hammer wave propagation

When the valve V is suddenly closed (Fig. 2.1), fluid at the just upstream of the valve is brought to
rest. Then, pressure increases locally and as a result the fluid gets compressed and the pipe cross-
section expands. This transient pressure will be propagated as a pressure wave to upstream at the
sonic velocity C which depends on the properties of the fluid and the pipe material.

Let C be the velocity of the pressure

wave propagation with respect to the
flowing fluid.

vW , F F  C

v F F , SF U

 v SF ,W  C  U

Consider the motion with respect to the

pressure wave (Fig.3.1),
Fig.3.1
Applying continuity equation for the C.V.

AC  ( A   A)(    )(C  U )

 U ( A  A)  CA
 
 (C  U )( A  A)
p p
Bulk modulus K, K  
v 
v 
p U ( A   A)  C A
  ..........................................(3.1)
K (C  U )( A   A)

Applying force momentum equation for the C.V.

 A p  A C.((C  U )  C )
 p   CU ...............................................................(3.2)
From Eqn (3.1) & (3.2), for K   p and A   A
p
C 2 
 p  A
  
 K A 
A d p
But, 
A eEm
1
C  ....................................................(3.3)
1 d 
  
 K eEm 
 K Em e
Ex.3.1:Deduce i) C  for an extremely rigid pipe ii) C  for an extremely flexible pipe.
 d
3.2 Equations of water hammer

Water hammer wave propagation can be described by two equations: continuity equation and
equations of motion.

Referring to Fig 3.2, unknowns are p and v field, x and t are the independent variables.

Assumptions:
i. Pipeline does not strain in the longitudinal direction
ii. The friction loss relationships applied to steady
flows hold true. i.e: Friction loss  v2

a) Equation of motion
Applying p = mf in the x direction,

 p  A 
p. A   p  dx   A  dx   m gSin
 x  x  Fig. 3.2
 1 p  A  v v 
 τ  d .dx   p  dx  dx  m  v 
 2 x  x  t x 
 1 A  
m   A dx  dx as for   dx
 2 x  x
f 1
   . v v
4 2
Neglecting small terms,
1 p v v vv
  v  g Sin  f  0.......................................  3.4 
 x t x d

b) Continuity equation
Applying the law of mass conservation to the CV in Fig 3.3
 
 Av  ( Av  (  A v ).dx )  (  A dx )
x t
 
 (  A)  ( Av)  0
t x
 A A      v
 v   A v  A 0
 t x   t x  x
1 dA 1 d   v
  0
A dt  dt x
1 dA d dp 1 d 1 dp
B ut  & 
A dt eE m dt  dt K dt
1 d dp  v
(  )  0
K eE m dt  x
dp v
 C 2 0
dt x
p p v
v  C 2  0..................................................(3.5)
t x x
4. Solutions by Simplified Water Hammer Equations

Equation of motion 1 p v v f v
  v  g sin   v 0
 x t x 2d
p p v
Equation of continuity v  c 2 0
t x x

4.1 Simplified Water Hammer Equations and Solution:

v P v P
Based on the assumptions that v & v terms are negligible compared with & terms
x x t t
above water hammer equations can be simplified to yield.

P v v y
Equation of motion  0 or  g (1)
x t t x
P v v g y
Equation of continuity  c 2 0 or  2 (2)
t x x c t
Solution to Eqns (1) and (2) becomes
x x
y  y 0  F (t  ) 
f (t  )
c c
g x x 
v  v0    F (t  )  f (t  )
c c c 
x x x x
where, F (t  ) and f (t  ) are functions of (t  ) and (t  ) determined by the boundary
c c c c
conditions.

Exercise:-
Physical meaning of f and F:
Deduce that
x
a) F (t  ) is a pressure wave moving at a velocity ‘c’ in the negative x direction
c
x
b) f (t  ) is a pressure wave moving at a velocity ‘c’ in the positive x direction
c

c c
f F

x +ve
4.2 Water Hammer Wave Reflection

1
C C ~ , k, d, e, Em
1 d
(  )
k eEm Whenever any of the above parameters is changed, Water
Hammer wave will be reflected.

a) At a reservoir

y  y0 at x  x R
y0  y0  y0  F  f
xR x
 f (t  )   F (t  R )
c c

xR
when F wave reaches the reservoir, a reflected wave f with a magnitude of F but opposite sign is
generated.

b) At a dead end At the dead end x0 = 0, v = v0 = 0

g
x=x0  v0  v0   F  f 
c
x0 x
 F (t  )  F (t  0 )
c c
 y  y0  F  f
 2F

When F wave reaches the dead end of a pipe, a reflected wave f with the same magnitude and the
sign is generated. The pressure rise is equal to two times F.

c) At a change in cross sectional area

F2 f1 F1

C2, A2, d2 J C1, A1, d1

Assumptions:
Pressure is continuous at J
Velocity head is negligible compared to pressure changes.
Let
s = transmission factor or F2 = sF1
r = reflection factor or f1 = rF1

y D1 ,t  y D1 , 0  F1  f 1 (1)

y D2 ,t  y D2 , 0  F2 (2)
 g
v D1 ,t  v D1 , 0   ( F1  f1 ) (3)
c1
g
v D2 ,t  v D2 ,0   ( F2 ) (4)
c2
For continuity at the junction
A2VD2 , t  A1VD1 ,t (5)
A2VD2 , 0  A1V D1 , 0 (6)

Pressure is continuous at J
yD1, 0  yD2 , 0 (7)
y D1,t  y D2 ,t (8)

Eqns (1) to (8)

2 A1
c1
s
 A1  A2 
 c c 2 
 1

A1 A2

c1 c2
r
 A1  A2 
 c c 2 
 1

d) At a partially open valve,

Q  Cd y or V  B y (1)
 C 
F f y  y0  f  F  f   f  (V  V0 ) (2)
 g 
1
2
B  CB  CV0 
2 2
CB 
V      
 4 y0  2 f    (3)
2g 2  g   g 
 

C
F (V  V0 )  f (4)
g
E.g.1. Pressure variation followed by an instantaneous closure of a valve
At t = 0 the valve is instantaneously closed

t = 0 V0 = U, t>0 V =0
y  y0  F  f
g
V  V0   F  f 
c
f R (t )   FR t 
a) for t < 2L/ c
the reflected wave has not
reached the valve

 x
 f  t   or f v (t )  0
 c
g
Eqn (2) 0  V0   Fv  0
c
cu
F v (t ) 
g
cu
Eqn (1) yv  y0 
g
 pv   cu

b) for 4L / c > t > 2L / c

 2L 
f V (t )   FV  t  
 c 
cu

g
g cu 
Eqn (2) 0  u    F  
c g
F v (t )  0
cu
Eqn (1) yv  y0  
g
pv   cu

Slow gate movement: if the gate movement is not completed before the reflected wave reaches the
valve i.e. 2L / c.
Water hammer wave reflection
Relationships of F and f waves at the valve (V), reservoir (R) end and at the middle point (M)
in the pipe :

 L
FR (t )  FV  t  
 c
f R (t )   FR t 

 L
f R (t )   FV  t  
 c
 L
f V (t )  f R  t  
 c
 2L 
f V (t )   FV  t  
 c 

 L
FM (t )  FV  t  
 2c 

f R (t )   FR t 

 L
f M (t )  f R  t  
 2c 

 L
f M (t )   FR  t  
 2c 

 L
But, FR (t )  FV  t  
 c

 3L 
f M (t )   FV  t  
 2c 
Pressure surges in pipes

Water hammer creates large pressure fluctuations (increase/ drop) in pipelines, called surge
pressures.
e.g.: In penstocks, Reciprocating pumps, Water transmission mains
Water hammer creates large pressure fluctuations (increase/ drop) in pipelines, called surge
pressures. Rapid changes in the flow is the cause for these undesirable surge pressures.

Due to large pressures:

Pipes may burst
Increased leaks

Due to low pressures

Pipes may collapse inward
Subjected to cavitation – Column separation in pipes
Intrusion of water/contaminants

Surge control mechanisms

Surge vessels
Bypass system
Surge relief valves/air admission valves
Slow valve operation through feedback-based controls
One way surge tanks
Addition of fly wheel