AN4190

Application note
Antenna selection guidelines

By Placido De Vita

Introduction
The antenna is a very important component of communication systems. By definition, an
antenna is a device used to transform an RF signal, travelling on a conductor, into an
electromagnetic wave in free space (transmit mode), and to transform an RF
electromagnetic wave into an electrical signal (receive mode).
The choice of antenna is very important for a transmitting - receiving communication
system. The antenna must be able to radiate or receive efficiently so the power supplied is
not wasted.
This application note describes the most important parameters to consider when deciding
what kind of antenna to use in a short range device application.
In the first section of this application note the antenna theory is covered. The main antenna
parameters such as radiation pattern, gain, impedance matching, bandwidth, size and
others are discussed.
In the second part of this document different antenna types are presented.

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Contents AN4190

Contents

1 Antenna theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1 Antenna and radiation pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.1 Isotropic, directional and omnidirectional patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 Principal patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.3 Field regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.4 Radiation pattern lobes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Radiation density and intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Directivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Antenna gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Antenna efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Antenna bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7 Antenna polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.8 Input impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.9 Effective isotropic radiated power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 Antennas for low power applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.1 Linear antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.1 Dipole antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.2 Monopole antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.3 Loop antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.4 Spiral antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.1.5 Helical antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2 Microstrip patch antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 Ceramic antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4 Slot antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3 Antenna advantages and disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

4 Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

5 Revision history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

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List of figures

Figure 1. Coordinate system for antenna analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Figure 2. x - y plane omnidirectional antenna pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Figure 3. E and H plane radiation patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Figure 4. Field regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Figure 5. Near and far field regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Figure 6. Vertical, horizontal,3 and elliptic polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 7. Circular polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 8. Half-wave dipole antenna voltage and current distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure 9. Half-wave dipole antenna model and radiation patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Figure 10. Quarter-wave monopole antenna design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 11. Inverted-L antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 12. Inverted-F antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 13. Spiral antenna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 14. Spiral antenna 3D radiation pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 15. Helical antenna implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 16. Helical antenna axial mode 3D radiation pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 17. Rectangular microstrip antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Figure 18. 5.8 GHz patch antenna implementation and characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Figure 19. Ceramic antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Figure 20. Slot antenna implementation and 3D radiation pattern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

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1 Antenna theory

Antenna performance parameters and the language used to describe antennas can be
confusing and sometimes even misleading. While much can be said in general about what
constitutes a good antenna, most designs reflect some sort of compromise or trade-off
between the various desirable attributes because antenna design involves conflicting goals.
Therefore, it is crucial that antenna specifications are reviewed in light of the intended
application. A more complete and accurate understanding of the terminology associated
with antennas allows the most appropriate antenna for a given task to be specified. A great
deal of effort has been made over the years to standardize antenna terminology. The “de
facto” standard is the IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antenna, so in this document
the main antenna parameters as defined in this standard are given.
The purpose of this document is to give a brief and easy description of antenna parameters.
For a complete and rigorous description of antenna behavior, the reader is requested to
refer to the book “Antenna theory: analysis and design” [1].

1.1 Antenna and radiation pattern

An antenna radiation pattern is defined in the IEEE standard as “the spatial distribution of a
quantity which characterizes the electromagnetic field generated by an antenna”. In other
words, an antenna radiation pattern or antenna pattern is defined as a mathematical
function or a graphical representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as a function
of space coordinates, as shown in Figure 1. Radiation properties include power flux density,
radiation intensity, field strength, and directivity phase or polarization.

Figure 1. Coordinate system for antenna analysis

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In most cases, the radiation pattern is determined in the far field region and is represented
as a function of the directional coordinates. That is, in spherical coordinates the distribution
of the quantity over Θ and Φ for fixed radius (see Figure 1).
The interpretation of an antenna's radiation pattern can become problematic because of the
three-dimensional nature of the information. The complexity of a three-dimensional plot of a

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radiation pattern can sometimes obfuscate details. In practice, a three-dimensional plot of a

radiation pattern is of limited value in presenting quantitative information. Therefore, two-
dimensional “cuts” of the radiation pattern are often presented. In particular, cuts in the so-
called E and H planes are often presented.

1.1.1 Isotropic, directional and omnidirectional patterns

An isotropic radiator is defined as a “hypothetical” lossless antenna having equal radiation in
all directions. Although it is ideal and not physically realizable, it is taken as a reference for
expressing the directive properties of actual antennas.
A directional antenna is one having the property of radiating or receiving electromagnetic
waves more effectively in some directions than in others.
An omnidirectional antenna is defined as one having an essentially non-directional pattern
in a given plane and a directional pattern in any orthogonal plane. An omnidirectional
pattern is a special type of directional pattern. An example of an antenna with an
omnidirectional radiation pattern in the x - y plane is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. x - y plane omnidirectional antenna pattern

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1.1.2 Principal patterns

For a linearly polarized antenna, performance is often described in terms of its principal E
and H plane patterns.
The E plane is defined as the plane containing the electric field vector and the direction of
maximum radiation.
The H plane is the plane containing the magnetic field vector and the direction of a
maximum radiation.
The principal E and H planes are orthogonal planes. It is often sufficient to examine only E
and H plane cuts of the three-dimensional radiation pattern. An example of E and H plane
radiation patterns is shown in Figure 3.

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Figure 3. E and H plane radiation patterns

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1.1.3 Field regions

Various parts of a radiation pattern are referred to as lobes, which may be sub-classified into
major or main, minor, side and back lobes.
A radiation lobe is a portion of the radiation pattern bounded by regions of relatively weak
radiation intensity. Figure 4 demonstrates a symmetrical three-dimensional polar pattern
with a number of radiation lobes.
A major lobe (also called main beam) is defined as the radiation lobe containing the
direction of maximum radiation.
A minor lobe is any lobe except the major lobe. Minor lobes usually represent radiation in
undesired directions and they should be minimized.
The beamwidth is the angle, expressed in degrees, between the half power (-3 dB) points of
the main lobe, when referenced to the peak effective radiated power of the main lobe.

Figure 4. Field regions

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1.1.4 Radiation pattern lobes

The space surrounding an antenna is usually sub-divided into three regions:
● Reactive near field
● Radiating near field, also called Fresnel region
● Far field, also called Fraunhofer region.
In the reactive near field region of an antenna, the non-radiating field components dominate.
The term reactive near field arises from the fact that for a non-resonant antenna such as an
electrically small dipole, reactive power circulates between the reactive near field and the
source, an external matching network, or both. The strict IEEE definition is “that portion of
the near field region immediately surrounding the antenna, wherein the reactive field
dominates”. Therefore, for dipole-like antennas, the energy in this region is predominantly
either electric or magnetic. For electrically small antennas, the reactive near field is taken to
extend to a distance of approximately R ~ λ / 2π from the antenna.
In the radiating near field, the radiation fields predominate but the angular field distribution is
dependent on the distance from the antenna. The strict IEEE definition is “that portion of the
near field region of an antenna between the far field and the reactive portion of the near field
region, wherein the angular field distribution is dependent upon distance from the antenna”.
If the antenna is large, compared to a wavelength, the outer boundary of the radiating near
field is taken to be R ~ 2D2 / λ.
The far field region of an antenna is the region surrounding an antenna which is sufficiently
far from the antenna such that only the radiating field components are significant. In other
words, the far field is that region of the field of an antenna where the angular field
distribution is essentially independent of the distance from a specified point in the antenna
region. In the far field, the field components are orthogonal and an equipartition of energy
between electric and magnetic stored energy exists.
In Figure 5 the separation between the three different regions is shown.

Figure 5. Near and far field regions

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1.2 Radiation density and intensity

Electromagnetic waves are used to transport information through a wireless medium or a
guiding structure, from one point to the other. It is, then, natural to assume that power and
energy are associated with electromagnetic fields. It is possible to demonstrate [1] that the
power density associated with the electromagnetic fields of an antenna in its far field region
is predominately real and is referred to as radiation density.
Radiation intensity in a given direction, instead, is defined as the power radiated from an
antenna per unit solid angle. The radiation intensity is a far field parameter, and can be
obtained multiplying the radiation density by the square of the distance.

1.3 Directivity
Directivity of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction
from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions. The average
radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated by the antenna divided by 4Π. If the
direction is not specified, the direction of maximum radiation intensity is implied.
For an isotropic source, it is very obvious that the directivity is unity since its power is
radiated equally well in all directions. For all other sources, the maximum directivity is
always greater than unity. It is a relative “figure of merit” which gives an indication of the
directional properties of the antenna as compared with those of an isotropic source.

1.4 Antenna gain

Gain is perhaps the most widely used descriptor for antenna performance. However, more
than one definition or interpretation is in common use. Most antennas are passive devices
and hence do not have power gain in the sense that an amplifier may exhibit power gain. But
when viewed from the standpoint of a distant receiver, a particular antenna may radiate
much more power in a given direction than an isotropic antenna. Therefore, gain is defined
as the ratio of the intensity, in a given direction, to the radiation intensity that would be
obtained if the power accepted by the antenna were radiated isotropically. The radiation
intensity corresponding to the isotropically radiated power is equal to the power accepted
(input) by the antenna divided by 4Π. So it is very important to understand: “the gain of a
passive antenna doesn't represent any real power gain”.
Gain is sometimes referenced to something other than a hypothetical isotropic source. Most
commonly, gain is referenced to a half-wave linear filamentary dipole. If the gain is referred
to the isotropic source, the unit is written as “dBi”. If, therefore, the gain is referred to the
half-wave dipole antenna, the unit is written as “dBd”. The gain in dBd = gain in dBi - 2.15
dB.
Gain is defined by the narrow viewpoint of a localized receiver as the ratio of input power
required using a perfectly efficient (lossless) isotropic antenna to achieve a particular
intensity at a specific location to that required when using the antenna in question.
Therefore, an antenna with 3 dB of gain in a particular direction would require half as much
power as an isotropic source to achieve the same intensity. Therefore, it can be seen that for
the purposes of a link budget, the gain of an antenna can be treated the same as the gain of
an active device such as an amplifier.
Note that the total power radiated from an antenna is related to the total input power by a
coefficient called antenna radiation efficiency. The greater the radiation efficiency, the

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greater the energy transmitted or received. According to the IEEE standard, gain doesn't
include losses arising from impedance mismatches (reflection losses) and polarization
mismatch (losses). This means, therefore, that the gain takes into account only the loss of
the dielectric and conduction system of the same antenna. The reflection losses and the
polarization mismatch are very important losses and they need to be included in the link
calculation of a communication system to determine the received or radiated power.

1.5 Antenna efficiency

If an antenna is taken as a device which accepts power from a source and radiates it into
space, the ratio of the power radiated into space to the power accepted from the source is
the efficiency (ηradiation), sometimes termed the radiation efficiency. It is defined in the IEEE
reference as the ratio of the total power radiated by an antenna to the net power accepted by
the antenna from the connected transmitter. The power that is accepted by the antenna but
not radiated is dissipated in the form of heat.
The total antenna efficiency ηo is used to take into account losses at the input terminals and
within the structure of the antenna. In general, the overall efficiency can be written as:

Equation 1
ηO = ηr ⋅ ηc ⋅ ηd

where:
ηo = total efficiency (dimensionless)
ηr = reflection (mismatch) efficiency = (1 - |Γ |2) (dimensionless)
ηc = conduction efficiency (dimensionless)
ηd = dielectric efficiency (dimensionless)
Γ = voltage reflection coefficient at the input terminal of the antenna [Γ = (Zin - Zo)/(Zin + Zo)
where Zin = antenna input impedance, Zo = characteristic impedance of the transmission
line].
Usually ηc and ηd are very difficult to compute.
The radiation efficiency is rarely, if ever, published in any antenna manufacturer's literature.
There are several reasons for this: first, radiation efficiency is exceedingly difficult to
measure accurately. Second, the radiation efficiency of an antenna is implicitly contained in
the complete specifications of the gain of an antenna.

1.6 Antenna bandwidth

The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as the range of frequencies within which the
performance of the antenna, with respect to some characteristics, conforms to a specific
standard. The bandwidth can be considered to be the range of frequencies, on either side of
a center frequency (usually the resonance frequency for a dipole), where the antenna
characteristics are within an acceptable value of those at the center frequency.
Because the characteristics of an antenna do not necessarily vary in the same manner or
are even critically affected by the frequency, there is no unique characterization of the
bandwidth. The specifications are set in each case to meet the needs of the particular

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application. Usually there is a distinction made between pattern and input impedance
variations. Accordingly, pattern bandwidth and impedance bandwidth are used to
emphasize this distinction. Associated with pattern bandwidth are gain, side lobe level, and
polarization, while input impedance and radiation efficiency are related to impedance
bandwidth.

1.7 Antenna polarization

Polarization of an antenna in a given direction is defined as the polarization of the wave
transmitted by the antenna. When the direction is not stated, the polarization is taken to be
the polarization in the direction of maximum gain. In practice, polarization of the radiated
energy varies with the direction from the center of the antenna, so that different parts of the
pattern may have different polarizations.
Polarization of a radiated wave is defined as that property of an electromagnetic wave
describing the time varying direction and relative magnitude of the electric filed vector;
specifically, the figure traced as a function of time by the extremity of the vector at a fixed
location in space, and the sense in which it is traced, as observed along the direction of
propagation. Polarization, then, is the curve traced by the end point of the arrow
representing the instantaneous electric field.
Polarization may be classified as linear, circular or elliptical (see Figure 6). If the vector that
describes the electric field at a point in space as a function of time is always directed along
a line, the field is said to be linearly polarized (horizontally or vertically). In general, however,
the figure that the electric field traces is an ellipse, and the field is said to be elliptically
polarized. Linear (see Figure 6) and circular (see Figure 7) are special cases of elliptical
polarization, and they can be obtained when the ellipse becomes a straight line or a circle,
respectively. The figure of the electric field is traced in a clockwise or counterclockwise
sense. Clockwise rotation of the electric field vector is designated as right-hand polarization
and counterclockwise as left-hand polarization.

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Figure 6. Vertical, horizontal,3 and elliptic polarization

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Figure 7. Circular polarization

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If the polarization of the receiving antenna is not the same as the polarization of the
incoming (incident) wave, the power extracted from the incoming signal is not maximum
because of the polarization loss. It is very important in a communication system to use
antenna with the same polarization and placed physically in such a way as to not change
their characteristics. If the antennas are linear polarized, do not place the two antennas
orthogonally relative to one another, if the antennas are circular polarized, use both
antennas or right polarized or left polarized.

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In Table 1 the ratio from the power received from a receiver antenna and the maximum
power transmitted from a transmit antenna as a function of the polarization is shown. If the
antennas are the same, all the transmitted power is received, if the antennas are opposite,
for instance vertical in TX and horizontal in RX, the power received is zero.

Table 1. Ratio of power received to maximum power

Ratio of power received to maximum
Transmit antenna Receive antenna power
polarization polarization
Ratio Ratio [dB]

Vertical Vertical 1 0
Vertical 45 or 135 degree ½ -3
Vertical Horizontal 0 -∞
Vertical Circular (right or left) ½ -3
Horizontal Horizontal 1 0
Horizontal 45 or 135 degree ½ -3
Horizontal Circular (right or left) ½ -3
Circular (right-hand) Circular (right-hand) 1 0
Circular (right-hand) Circular (left-hand) 0 -∞
Circular (right or left) 45 or 135 degree ½ -3

1.8 Input impedance

The ability of an antenna to accept power from a source is determined by the input
impedance the antenna presents. For maximum power transfer, the input impedance should
exactly match the output impedance of the source. Strictly speaking, for maximum power
transfer the input impedance of the antenna must be the complex conjugate of the source's
output impedance. Essentially, all the RF sources exhibit real output impedance, with the
vast majority having output impedance of 50 Ω. The 50 Ω system impedance level was
chosen as the standard coaxial cable impedance and represents a good compromise
between dissipative loss and power handling. On the other hand, over a broad bandwidth,
the complex input impedance of an antenna differs greatly from 50 Ω.
The complex reflection coefficient at the input of the antenna is:

Equation 2

Γ = ( Zinput – Zo ) ⁄ ( Z input + Z o )

where:
Zinput = antenna's complex input impedance
Z0 = source/system impedance
The power reflected is equal to the incident (forward) power multiplied by the square of the
magnitude of the complex input reflection coefficient. The reflected power is the fraction of
the total power provided to the antenna that returns to the load.

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The quality of the input impedance match of the antenna is generally specified by one of two
parameters: return loss or standing wave ratio (SWR), sometimes called voltage standing
wave ration (VSWR). The return loss indicates how much of the incident power is not
reflected or doesn't return from a load. It is the square of the magnitude of the reflection
coefficient, usually expressed in logarithmical form as:

Equation 3

R.L. = 20log 10 ( |Γ | )

For instance, a return loss of -3.0103 dB indicates that half of the incident power is reflected.
Usually a return loss lower than -10 dB is acceptable for a good matching, in this case less
than 1% of the signal is reflected.
The standing wave ratio is defined as the ratio of voltage, minimum to maximum, on the
input transmission line. It is defined as:

Equation 4
VSWR = ( 1 + |Γ | ) ⁄ ( 1 – |Γ | )

One utility in the VSWR for describing input matching is that while the magnitude of the
reflection coefficient ranges from 0 to –infinity in logarithmical form, the magnitude of the
VSWR ranges from 1 to infinity in linear form. The VSWR then is particularly useful for
describing input match when the match is not very good. A VSWR of 5.83 corresponds to -
3.01 dB return loss. A good matched antenna is one that has a VSWR lower than 2.

1.9 Effective isotropic radiated power

Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP), also called equivalent isotropic radiated power, is
the amount of radiated power measured in a single direction (that is, for a fixed Θ and Θ).
Typically, for an antenna radiation pattern measurement, if a single value of EIRP is given,
this is the maximum value of the EIRP over all measured angles.
The EIRP can also be thought of as the amount of power that a perfectly isotropic antenna
would need to radiate to achieve the measured value.
The EIRP can be related to the power transmitted from the radio (Pt), the network and
mismatch losses (L), and the antenna gain (G) by:

Equation 5
EIRP = P t – L + G

In built-up areas, regulations may restrict the EIRP of a transmitter to prevent exposure of
personnel to a high power electromagnetic field; however, the EIRP is normally restricted to
minimize interference to services on similar frequencies.

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Antennas for low power applications AN4190

2 Antennas for low power applications

For wireless communication systems, the antenna is one of the most critical components. A
good design of the antenna can relax system requirements and improve overall system
performance. A typical example is a TV, for which the overall broadcast reception can be
improved by utilizing a high performance antenna.
A good antenna requires it to be the right type for the application. It must also be matched
and tuned to the transmitter and receiver.
An introduction and brief discussion of some forms of the various antenna types that can be
used for low power applications is given here.

2.1 Linear antenna

Wire antennas, linear or curved, are some of the oldest, simplest, cheapest, and in many
cases most versatile, antennas for many applications. They are familiar to the layman
because they are seen virtually everywhere - on automobiles, buildings, ships, aircraft,
spacecraft and so on. There are various shapes of linear antenna such a straight wire
(dipoles, monopoles), loop, helix and so on.

2.1.1 Dipole antenna

A dipole antenna is a radio antenna that can be made of a simple wire, with a center fed
driven element. It consists of two metal wire-rod conductors, in line with each other, with a
small space between them. The radio frequency voltage is applied to the antenna at the
center, between the two conductors. These antennas are the simplest practical antennas
from a theoretical point of view.
The half-wave dipole antenna is the basis of many other antennas and is also used as a
reference antenna for the measurement of antenna gain and radiated antenna density. At
the frequency of resonance, i.e. at the frequency at which the length of the dipole equals a
half-wavelength, we have a minimum voltage and a maximum current at the termination in
the center of the antenna, as shown in Figure 8; the impedance is minimal. This is a simple
antenna that radiates its energy out toward the horizon (perpendicular to the antenna). The
resulting 3D pattern looks kind of like a donut or a bagel with the antenna sitting in the hole
and radiating energy outward (see Figure 9). The strongest energy is radiated in the plane
perpendicular to the antenna. The gain of the half-dipole is approximately 2.2 dBi.

Figure 8. Half-wave dipole antenna voltage and current distribution

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Figure 9. Half-wave dipole antenna model and radiation patterns

AM16402v1

When the frequency is quite low, the wavelength becomes very long, so the half-wave dipole
antenna is unpracticable. In this case a short dipole antenna can be used.
The short dipole antenna is the simplest of all the antennas. It is an open circuited wire fed
at its center. The word short always implies relative to a wavelength. So the absolute size of
the above dipole antenna does not matter, only the size of the wire relative to the
wavelength of the frequency of the operation is important. Typically, a dipole is short if its
length is less than a tenth of a wavelength.
The directivity of the center fed short dipole antenna depends only on the sin of the polar
angle component. It is calculated to be 1.76 dB, which is very low for realizable antennas.
The polarization of the short dipole antenna is linear, as for all dipole type antennas. When
evaluated in the x-y plane, this antenna is described as vertically polarized, because the E-
field is vertically oriented.

2.1.2 Monopole antenna

A monopole antenna, also called whip antenna, is an antenna consisting of one half of a
dipole antenna, almost always mounted above some sort of ground plane.
The whip antenna, like a vertical dipole, has an omnidirectional radiation pattern, radiating
equal radio power in all azimuthal directions (perpendicular to the antenna's axis), with the
radiated power falling off with elevation angle to zero on the antenna's axis. Vertical
monopole antennas are widely used for non-directional radio communication, where the
direction of the transmitter (or receiver) is unknown or constantly changing, such as
broadcast radios, CBs and amateur radios, and even for cellular phones. This is because
they transmit (or receive) equally well in all horizontal directions.
All antennas, like any electronic component, have at least two connection points. In the case
of the whip, there must be a connection to a ground, even if the ground plane area is nothing
more than circuit traces and a battery. The whip and the ground plane combine to form a
complete circuit. The electromagnetic field is set up between the whip and the ground plane,
with current flowing through the field, therefore completing the circuit. Ideally, a ground plane
should spread out at least a quarter wavelength, or more, around the base of the whip. A
ground plane can also, ideally, be made smaller, but it affects the performance of the whip
antenna. The ground plane area must be considered when designing an antenna.
The whip antenna is normally designed as a resonant antenna. Therefore the length of the
whip antenna is determined by the wavelength of the radio wave used. The most common

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length used is one-quarter of the wavelength, called a quarter-wave whip. Half-wave whip
antennas are also common.
A quarter-wave whip antenna has a gain 3 dB (twice in linear) greater than a half-dipole if
mounted above a perfect ground plane. The quarter-wave monopole antenna design and
implementation is shown in Figure 10.
Radiation is maximum when broadside, or perpendicular to a wire, so a vertical whip is ideal
communication in any direction except straight up. The radiation pattern perpendicular to the
whip can be described as omnidirectional. However, the direction of peak radiation has
changed from the x-y plane to an angle elevated from the plane. There is a “null”, or signal
minimum, at the end of the whip.
The whip antenna polarization is vertical, even though, in the real environment, metal
objects and the ground cause reflections, and may cause both horizontal and vertical
polarized signal to be present.

Figure 10. Quarter-wave monopole antenna design

AM16404v1

A simple alternative to the monopole antenna is to make it shorter than a quarter

wavelength and add an inductor near the base of the whip to compensate for the resulting
capacitive reactance. This type of antenna can have a performance nearly equal to that of a
full size whip.
The monopole antenna, as for the dipole, can be made as a trace on a printed circuit board
(PCB). This is very practical at frequencies over 800 MHz. At lower frequencies, a full size
monopole may be too long. The length of the monopole is 10 or 20% shorter than the
calculation, depending on the dielectric characteristics and thickness of the board.
Derivatives of the monopole are the inverted-L and inverted-F antennas, as shown in
Figure 11 and 12.
In the inverted-L antenna, the monopole does not run perpendicularly to the ground plane
over its whole length but is bent parallel to the ground plane after some distance. This helps
to save space, but decreases the radiation resistance because the radiator comes closer to
the ground plane. An additional matching circuit is needed to match the low feed impedance
to the usual transmission line impedance of 50 Ω.
If we proceed from the feed point of the inverted-L antenna to the end, we notice that the
voltage increases (while the current decreases) from a maximum voltage value at the
feeding point to almost zero at the end. This means that the antenna impedance has its
minimum if we feed the antenna as shown in Figure 11 and increases if we move the

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feeding point towards the end. The inverted-F antenna is an inverted-L antenna with a
feeding tap that gives larger antenna impedance. If the antenna is tapped at the right
location, no additional matching circuit is required.

Figure 11. Inverted-L antenna

AM16406v1

Figure 12. Inverted-F antenna

AM16436v1

2.1.3 Loop antenna

The single-turn loop antenna is a metallic conductor bent into the shape of a closed curve,
such as a circle or a square, with a gap in the conductor to form the terminals. A multi-turn
loop or coil is a series connection of overlaying turns. The loop is one of the primary antenna
structures.
The discussion of loop antennas is conveniently divided according to electrical size.
Electrically small loops, those whose total conductor length is small compared with the
wavelength in free space (less than about one-tenth of a wavelength), are the most
frequently encountered in practice. For example, they are commonly used as receiving
antennas with portable radios, as directional antennas for radio-wave navigation, or as
probes with field-strength meters. Electrically larger loops, particularly those near resonant
size (circumference of loop/wavelength ≈ 1), are used mainly as elements in directional
arrays.
The small loop antenna is also known as a magnetic loop since it behaves electrically as a
coil with a small but not negligible radiation resistance due to its finite size. It can be
analyzed as coupled directly to the magnetic field in the near field region, which itself is
coupled to an electromagnetic wave in the far field. Loop antennas with electrically small
circumferences or perimeters have small radiation resistances that are usually smaller than
their loss resistances. Therefore they are very poor radiators, and they are seldom
employed for transmission in radio communication. When they are used in any such
application, it is usually in the receiving mode, such as in portable radios and pagers, where
antenna efficiency is not as important as the signal to noise ratio. The field pattern of
electrically small antennas of any shape (circular, elliptical, rectangular, square, etc.) is
similar to that of an infinitesimal dipole with a null perpendicular to the plane of the loop and
with its maximum along the plane of the loop. As the overall length of the loop increases and

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its circumference approaches one free space wavelength, the maximum of the patterns
shifts from the plane of the loop to the axis of the loop which is perpendicular to its plane.
The radiation resistance of the loop can be increased, and made comparable to the
characteristic impedance of the practical transmission line, by increasing (electrically) its
perimeter. Another way to increase the radiation resistance of the loop is to insert, within its
circumferences or perimeter, a ferrite core of very high permeability which raises the
magnetic field intensity and hence the radiation resistance. This form is called ferrite loop.
The loop is entirely different from a monopole, in that both ends of the antenna are
terminated. In this case, the end that is opposite the transmitter (or receiver) is grounded. A
capacitor is used to tune the antenna to real impedance, instead of a coil.
One advantage of a loop is that it is not easily detuned by nearby hand movements. A
disadvantage of loop antennas, besides the poor gain, is the narrow bandwidth which
makes tuning extremely critical.

2.1.4 Spiral antenna

Spiral antennas belong to the class of frequency independent antennas; those with a very
large bandwidth. The fractional can be as high as 30:1. This means that if the lower
frequency is 1 GHz, the antenna may still be in band at 30 GHz, and every frequency in
between. An example of a spiral antenna is shown in Figure 13.
Spiral antennas are usually circularly polarized. The spiral antenna's radiation pattern
typically has a peak radiation direction perpendicular to the plane of the spiral (see
Figure 14).
Spiral antennas are widely used in the defense industry for sensing applications, where very
wideband antennas that do not take up much space are needed. Spiral antenna arrays are
used in military aircraft in the 1 - 18 GHz range. Other applications of spiral antenna include
GPS, where it is advantageous to have right-hand circularly polarized antennas.
The best known spiral antenna is the log-periodic one. This antenna, also known as the
equiangular spiral antenna, has each arm defined by the polar function:

Equation 6
r = R aφ
0e

where:
R0 = constant that controls the initial radius of the spiral antenna
a = parameter that controls the rate at which the spiral antenna grows

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Figure 13. Spiral antenna

AM16437v1

Figure 14. Spiral antenna 3D radiation pattern

AM16438v1

The total length of the spiral (or the outer radius) determines the lowest frequency of
operation for the spiral antenna. The lowest operating frequency of the spiral antenna is
commonly approximated to occur when the wavelength is equal to the circumference of the
spiral.
The ‘a’ parameter, called flare rate, is the rate at which the spiral grows with angle. If it is too
small, the spiral is tightly wrapped around itself: in this case it behaves more like a capacitor
giving poor radiation.
The feed structure determines the high end of the operating band. How tightly the spiral can
be wrapped in on itself determines how small the wavelength can be that fits on the spiral
and still maintains spiral antenna operation. The highest frequency in the spiral antenna's
operating band occurs when the innermost radius of the spiral is equal to lambda/4.
The total length of the spiral (or the outer radius) determines the lowest frequency of
operation for the spiral antenna. The lowest operating frequency of the spiral antenna is
commonly approximated to occur when the wavelength is equal to the circumference of the
spiral.

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The ‘a’ parameter, called flare rate, is the rate at which the spiral grows with angle. If it is too
small, the spiral is tightly wrapped around itself: in this case it behaves more like a capacitor
giving poor radiation.
The feed structure determines the high end of the operating band. How tightly the spiral can
be wrapped in on itself determines how small the wavelength can be that fits on the spiral
and still maintains spiral antenna operation. The highest frequency in the spiral antenna's
operating band occurs when the innermost radius of the spiral is equal to lambda/4.

2.1.5 Helical antenna

A basic, simple and practical configuration of an electromagnetic radiator is that of a
conducting wire wound in the form of a screw thread forming a helix. In most cases the helix
is used with a ground plane.
The geometrical configuration of a helix, as shown in Figure 15, usually consists of N turns,
diameter D and spacing S between each turn. Another important parameter is the pitch
angle α which is the angle formed by a line tangent to the helix wire and a plane
perpendicular to the helix axis.
Helical antennas can operate in one of two principal modes: normal mode or axial mode.
In the normal mode of operation the field radiated by the antenna is maximum in a plane
normal to the helix axis and minimum along its axis. To achieve normal mode operation, the
dimensions of the helix are usually small compared to the wavelength. These simple and
practical antennas were primarily designed to replace very large antennas. Their reduced
size is therefore most suitable to mobile and portable communication systems.
A more practical mode of operation, which can be generated with great ease, is the axial or
end fire mode. In this mode of operation, there is only one major lobe and its maximum
radiation intensity is along the axis of the helix, as shown in Figure 16. The minor lobes are
at an oblique angle of the axis. To excite this mode, the diameter and spacing must be large
fractions of the wavelength. Most often the antenna is used in conjunction with a ground
plane, whose diameter is at least lambda/2. The helical antenna that works in axial mode
produces circular polarization. In radio transmissions, circular polarization is often used
where the relative orientation of the transmitting and receiving antennas cannot be easily
controlled, such as animal tracking and spacecraft communications, or where the
polarization of the signal may change. Since large helices are difficult to build and unwieldy
to steer and aim, the design is commonly employed only at higher frequency.

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Figure 15. Helical antenna implementation

AM16439v1

Figure 16. Helical antenna axial mode 3D radiation pattern

AM16440v1

2.2 Microstrip patch antenna

Microstrip antennas became very popular in the 1970s primarily for space borne
applications. Today they are used for government and commercial applications. These
antennas consist of a metallic patch on a grounded substrate. The metallic patch can take
many different configurations; however the rectangular and circular patches are the most
popular because of ease of analysis and fabrication, and their attractive radiation
characteristics. Microstrip antennas are low profile, conformable to planar and non-planar
surfaces, simple and inexpensive to fabricate and mechanically robust when mounted on
rigid surfaces. When the particular patch shape and mode are selected they are very
versatile in terms of resonant frequency, polarization, pattern and impedance.
Major operational disadvantages of the microstrip antennas are their low efficiency, low
power, high Q (sometimes in excess of 100), poor polarization purity, poor scan
performance, spurious feed radiation and very narrow frequency bandwidth, which is
typically only a fraction of a percent or at most a few percent.

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Antennas for low power applications AN4190

An example of a microstrip antenna is shown in Figure 17. The patch antenna, microstrip
transmission line and ground plane are made of high conductivity metal. The patch is of
length L, width W, and sitting on top of a substrate of the thickness h with permittivity ε r.
Typically, the thickness h is much smaller than the wavelength of operation, but not much
smaller than 0.05 of a wavelength. The length L determines the operative frequency; the
width W controls the input impedance. Larger widths can also increase the bandwidth. The
width also controls the radiation pattern. The directivity of patch antennas is approximately 5
- 7 dB.
The patch elements radiate primarily linearly polarized waves if conventional feeds are used
with no modification. However, circular and elliptical polarizations can be obtained using
various feed arrangements or slight modifications. Figure 18 shows an example of a patch
antenna designed at 5.8 GHz left-hand circular polarized used for the Italian and European
toll payment systems.

Figure 17. Rectangular microstrip antenna

L
Microstrip
Transmission
line
W

εr

Substrate
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Figure 18. 5.8 GHz patch antenna implementation and characteristics

AM16442v1

2.3 Ceramic antenna

The latest entry into the antenna field is the ceramic (chip) antenna. They are surface mount
devices made of ceramic material. There are several types of ceramic antennas, each with
their own characteristics.
Ceramic antennas offer some advantages: they are separate components, have small sizes
and a variety of configurations are available, close proximity to other components doesn't
cause as severe a detuning as with trace antennas, they are less affected by environmental
factors or human operators than trace antennas, flexible tuning and testing options are
possible, and design changes are more easily introduced.
Some disadvantages are also present: the initial cost of the antenna plus logistics can be
higher than the cost of others types of antennas, some level of RF expertise is needed for
optimal implementation.
Ceramic antennas can be designed in both on-ground and off-ground styles, with on-ground
antennas being somewhat taller. The optimal ceramic material composition for the antenna
and the electrical specifications selected usually depend on the intended frequency, with an
effect on the dimension. Also ceramic antennas can use matching circuits, optional ground
clear areas, or a trace for coarse tuning, depending on the application.
This type of antenna can be adapted to small boards and offers flexibility for unique design
layouts. The reliability and interference problems associated with being in close proximity to
other components or people are greatly reduced with ceramic antennas. Incorporating a
separate antenna offers the option of utilizing the full available height of the device, making it
possible to have a 3D structure with a smaller PCB area.
An example of a ceramic antenna is shown in Figure 19.

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Antennas for low power applications AN4190

Figure 19. Ceramic antenna

AM16443v1

2.4 Slot antenna

A slot antenna consists of a metal surface, usually a flat plane, with a hole or slot cut into it.
When the plate is driven as an antenna by a driving frequency, the slot radiates
electromagnetic waves in a similar way to a dipole antenna. The shape and size of the slot,
as well as the driving frequency, determine the radiation distribution pattern.
Slot antennas are typically used at UHF and microwave frequencies when greater control of
the radiation pattern is required. The slot antenna is popular because it can be cut out of
whatever surface it is to be mounted on, and have radiation patterns that are roughly
omnidirectional (similar to a linear wire antenna). The polarization of a slot antenna is linear.
The slot size, shape, and what is found inside the cavity of the cut-out antenna, offer design
variables that can be used to tune performance.
Slot antennas are widely used in radar antennas, for the sector antennas, for cell phone
base stations, and are often found in standard desktop microwave sources.
A slot antenna's main advantages are its size, design simplicity, robustness, and convenient
adaptation to mass production using PC board technology.
Two examples of slot antenna and relative 3D radiation pattern are shown in Figure 20.

Figure 20. Slot antenna implementation and 3D radiation pattern

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3 Antenna advantages and disadvantages

After the antenna theory, where the most important parameters of the antennas have been
covered, and after the description of the main types of antennas that can be used in the sub-
GHz bandwidth, a description of the main advantages and disadvantages of each antenna
is shown here.
● Dipole antenna: this antenna is a very simple chip and presents a good gain. The main
disadvantage is the large size at low frequency.
● Whip antenna: this antenna presents good performance with a size lower than a dipole
antenna. A good ground plane is necessary to achieve good performance.
● Loop antenna: loop antennas are cheap and not easily detuned by nearby hand
movements. They have the disadvantage of having poor gain, to be very narrowband
and are difficult to tune.
● Spiral antenna: spiral antennas have a size lower than a whip antenna and are
wideband. On the negative side, these types of antennas are difficult to feed.
● Helical antenna: helical antennas are very directive and have good gain. However, they
have a bulky size and are easily detuned by nearby objects.
● Microstrip antenna: microstrip antennas have the advantage of being very cheap and
have a simple and thin structure. As a negative, they are very large at low frequency.
● Ceramic antenna: ceramic antennas have the advantage of being separate
components, have a small size and are less affected by environmental factors. The
main disadvantages are the high cost, the medium performance and the matching
function of the PCB size and shape of the ground plane.
● Slot antenna: slot antennas have the advantage of size, design simplicity, robustness
and convenient adaption to mass production. The main disadvantage is the big
dimension for low frequency that makes the slot antenna difficult to manage for
frequencies lower than 433 MHz.
The antenna advantages and disadvantages are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2. Antenna types advantages and disadvantages

Antenna types Advantage Disadvantage

– Difficult to design for frequencies lower than 433

– Very cheap
Dipole antenna MHz
– Good gain
– Large size at low frequency
Whip antenna – Good performance – High cost

– Cheap – Poor gain

Loop antenna – Not easily detuned by hand – Very narrowband
movements – Difficult to tune
– Lower size than whip
Spiral antenna – Difficult to feed
– Wideband
– Mechanical construction
– Very directive
Helical antenna – Bulky size
– Good gain
– Easily detuned by nearby objects

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Table 2. Antenna types advantages and disadvantages (continued)

Antenna types Advantage Disadvantage

– Difficult to design for frequencies lower than 433

MHz
– Low manufacturing cost
Microstrip antenna – Large size at low frequency
– Simple and very thin structure
– Antenna performance and tuning affected by the
PCB design
– High cost
– Separate component – Medium performance
– Small size – Matching function of PCB size and shape of the
Ceramic antenna
– Less affected by environmental ground plane
factors – Difficult to design for frequencies lower than 433
MHz
– Size – Difficult to design for frequencies lower than 433
Slot antenna – Design simplicity MHz
– Robustness – Large size at low frequency

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AN4190 Reference

4 Reference

1. C. A. Balanis, Antenna theory: analysis and design, Second Edition, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 1997.

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Revision history AN4190

5 Revision history

Table 3. Document revision history

Date Revision Changes

23-Nov-2012 1 Initial release.

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AN4190

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