LESSON OBJECTIVES

• Understand what a GIS is

 Understand how a GIS functions

• Understand how spatial data is
represented in a GIS

• Look at some GIS applications

 Data vs.
Information

• Data, by itself, generally differs from

information.
• Data is of little use unless it is transformed
into information.
• Information is an answer to a question
based on raw data.
• We transform data into information
through the use of an Information System.
INFORMATION SYSTEM
OVERVIEW
WHAT IS AN INFORMATION SYSTEM?
 WHAT IS AN INFORMATION SYSTEM?

Information System

Data Query
Information
Storage

Information systems can be very simple,

such as a telephone directory.
WHAT IS AN INFORMATION SYSTEM?

In the digital environment we use software to

create complex information systems.
 WHAT IS A GIS?

Information System
A means of storing,
retrieving, sorting,
and comparing
+
spatial data
Geographic Position
to support some
analytic process.
 What is a GIS?
GEOGRAPHIC Information System

GIS links graphical features (entities) to tabular data

(attributes)
 GIS DEFINITION

 A GIS is a system (hardware + database engine)

that is designed to efficiently, assemble, store,
update, analyze, manipulate, and display
geographically referenced information (data
identified by their locations).

• A GIS also includes the people

operating the system and the data
that go into the system.
 KEY FUNCTIONS OF A GIS

Data can be:

1. Positioned by its known spatial
coordinates.
2. Input and organized (generally in layers).
3. Stored and retrieved.
4. Analyzed (usually via a Relational
DBMS).
5. Modified and displayed
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Define
Decision
problem

GIS Define GIS

Output
Process criteria

GIS Import or
analysis build datasets
INTRODUCTION TO GIS

 A geographic information system (GIS)

is a computer system for capturing,
storing, querying, analyzing, and
displaying geospatial data.
 One of many applications of GIS is
disaster management.
INTRODUCTION TO GIS
 A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for
mapping and analyzing things that exist and events that happen on
Earth.
 GIS technology integrates common database operations such as
query and statistical analysis with the unique visualization and
geographic analysis benefits offered by maps.
 These abilities distinguish GIS from other information systems and
make it valuable to a wide range of public, military and private
enterprises for explaining events, predicting outcomes, and planning
strategies.
INTRODUCTION TO GIS
 Whether siting a military base camp, finding the best soil for a
tank to maneuver on, or figuring out the best low level air
route for a bombing raid.
 Map making and geographic analysis are not new, but a GIS
performs these tasks better and faster than do the old
manual methods.
INTRODUCTION TO GIS
 And, before GIS technology, only a few people had the skills
necessary to use geographic information to help with decision
making and problem solving.
 Today, GIS is a multi-billion-dollar industry employing hundreds of
thousands of people worldwide.
 GIS is taught in schools, colleges, and universities throughout the
world.
 Professionals in every field are increasingly aware of the advantages
of thinking and working geographically.
INTRODUCTION TO GIS
 On March 11, 2011, a magnitude 9.0 earthquake struck off
the east coast of Japan, registering as the most powerful
earthquake to hit Japan on record.
 The earthquake triggered powerful tsunami waves that
reportedly reached heights of up to 40 meters and traveled
up to 10 kilometers inland.
 In the aftermath of the earthquake and tsunami, GIS played
an important role in helping responders and emergency
managers to conduct rescue operations, map severely
damaged areas and infrastructure, prioritize medical needs,
and locate temporary shelters.
 Data portal launched by the Harvard Center for
Geographic Analysis to “support the exchange
of geospatial datasets for relief and
reconstruction efforts.”
INTRODUCTION TO GIS
 GIS was also linked with social media such as Twitter, YouTube,
and Flickr so that people could follow events in near real time
and view map overlays of streets, satellite imagery, and
topography.
INTRODUCTION TO GIS
 Online hurricane trackers were set up by news media such as
MSNBC and CNN, as well as by companies such as Esri and
Yahoo.
 And GIS data resources were provided by the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) on forecast
track, wind field, wind speed, and storm surge, and by the
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) on disaster
response and recovery efforts.
GIS

 GIS Geospatial data describe both the locations

and characteristics of spatial features.
 To describe a road, for example, we refer to its
location (i.e., where it is) and its characteristics
(e.g., length, name, speed limit, and direction)
 The ability of a GIS to handle and process
geospatial data distinguishes GIS from other
information systems and allows GIS to be used for
integration of geospatial data and other data.
GIS
 A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a software package
that is helping to digitize the world around us.
 Digital maps and location based information helps
government agencies, businesses and even people like you
and me keep up with the changing pace of the world around
us.
 GIS applications improve efficiencies, reduce costs, and
bring together data in ways that wasn't possible even 10 years
ago.
 This article focuses on some of the basic components and
aspects of Geographic Information Systems.
GIS
 A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a system of
computer applications that can be used to display,
manipulate, and analyze spatially varied information
from multiple sources all in one place.
 The datasets used in a GIS are categorized into multiple
categories for easier storage and use.
 Each dataset that a GIS can support is divided into two
main parts: graphical (spatial) information and tabular
(attribute) information.
 Spatial data is data that is geo-referenced or
location specific and is what is shown
graphically on the computer screen.
 Each piece of graphic information is called a
feature.
 Features can be points, lined or even polygons.
GIS
 The attribute or tabular information is text based or
numerical information that describe each of the
features.
 The tabular information is linked to the graphical
information and includes a unique ID number used
to represent each point, line or polygon.
 Examples of tabular data can include such things
as addresses, coordinates, area, length, sales
information, road names, etc.
 The possibilities for data association between
tabular and graphical information are endless.
BASIC SPATIAL CONCEPTS
 Spatial data can often be further divided into two major types.
 The first type is raster data which is usually in the form of images such as
aerial photographs or imported scans of old maps.
 The raster data stores the location and color value of each pixel that forms the
image.
 The second type of data is vector based.
 Vectors can be a combination of linework, polygons and curvilinear data.
 This information is stored using a combination of location specific point, lines,
and arcs.
 Raster imagery can lose quality and become blurred when scaled.
 However, vector data is scalable to any size without losing any integrity.
GIS DATA TYPES
BASIC SPATIAL CONCEPTS

 Another way to look at data types is understanding

that some data is discrete while others are
continuous.
 Discrete data is usually vector based and has
specific information located at specific points with
gaps in between.
 On the other hand continuous data is usually raster
based and no gaps are present.
 Anywhere within the domain of a raster there will
be information.
BASIC SPATIAL CONCEPTS
 When each dataset is loaded and displayed in the
GIS map window it is called a layer.
 When multiple layers are used in the same map
window they can be stacked, color coded, and
symbolized to represent an endless array of map
compositions.
BASIC SPATIAL CONCEPTS
 Stacked datasets can also be manipulated by
adjusting the colors ramps, hatching, shading
and/or transparency levels to reveal new
relationships that would not have otherwise been
obvious with traditional maps.
 In essence, the main purpose of a GIS is to
describe, analyze and display a variety of spatial
data in a way that only a digital map can.
GIS
A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a
system of computer applications that can be
used to display, manipulate, and analyze
spatially varied information from multiple sources
all in one place.
 The datasets used in a GIS are categorized into
multiple categories for easier storage and use.
 Each dataset that a GIS can support is divided
into two main parts: graphical (spatial)
information and tabular (attribute) information.
Spatial data
 Spatial data is data that is geo-
referenced or location specific and is
what is shown graphically on the
computer screen.
 Each piece of graphic information is
called a feature.
 Features can be points, lined or even
polygons.
GIS
 The attribute or tabular information is text
based or numerical information that describe
each of the features.
 The tabular information is linked to the
graphical information and includes a unique ID
number used to represent each point, line or
polygon.
 Examples of tabular data can include such
things as addresses, coordinates, area, length,
sales information, road names, etc.
 The possibilities for data association between
tabular and graphical information are endless.
 Basic Spatial Concepts
 Spatial data can often be further divided
into two major types.
 The first type is raster data which is usually
in the form of images such as aerial
photographs or imported scans of old
maps.
 The raster data stores the location and
color value of each pixel that forms the
image.
 Basic Spatial Concepts
 The second type of data is vector based.
 Vectors can be a combination of linework,
polygons and curvilinear data.
 This information is stored using a combination of
location specific point, lines, and arcs.
 Raster imagery can lose quality and become
blurred when scaled.
 However, vector data is scalable to any size
without losing any integrity.
GIS Data Types
Raster Vs Vector
 Basic Spatial Concepts
 Another way to look at data types is
understanding that some data is discrete while
others are continuous.
 Discrete data is usually vector based and has
specific information located at specific points
with gaps in between.
 On the other hand continuous data is usually
raster based and no gaps are present.
 Anywhere within the domain of a raster there
will be information.
 Basic Spatial Concepts

 When each dataset is loaded and

displayed in the GIS map window it is
called a layer.
 When multiple layers are used in the
same map window they can be stacked,
color coded, and symbolized to
represent an endless array of map
compositions.
 Basic Spatial Concepts

 Stacked datasets can also be manipulated by

adjusting the colors ramps, hatching, shading
and/or transparency levels to reveal new
relationships that would not have otherwise been
obvious with traditional maps.
 In essence, the main purpose of a GIS is to
describe, analyze and display a variety of spatial
data in a way that only a digital map can.
HISTORY OF GIS

 The first operational GIS is reported to have

been developed by Roger Tomlinson in the
early 1960s for storing, manipulating, and
analyzing data collected for the Canada
Land Inventory (Tomlinson 1984).
 In 1964, Howard Fisher founded the Harvard
Laboratory for Computer Graphics, where
several well known computer programs of
the past such as SYMAP, SYMVU, GRID, and
ODESSEY were developed and distributed
throughout 1970s.
HISTORY OF GIS:

 The Early History of GIS

 The field of geographic information systems (GIS)
started in the 1960s as computers and early concepts
of quantitative and computational geography
emerged.
 Early GIS work included important research by the
academic community.
 Later, the National Center for Geographic Information
and Analysis, led by Michael Goodchild, formalized
research on key geographic information science
topics such as spatial analysis and visualization.
 These efforts fueled a quantitative revolution in the
world of geographic science and laid the
groundwork for GIS.
 HISTORY OF GIS:
 Roger Tomlinson’s pioneering work to initiate,
plan, and develop the Canada Geographic
Information System resulted in the first
computerized GIS in the world in 1963.
 He envisioned using computers to merge
natural resource data from all provinces.
 Tomlinson created the design for automated
computing to store and process large amounts
of data, which enabled Canada to begin its
national land-use management program.
 He also gave GIS its name.
HISTORY OF GIS:

 The Harvard Laboratory

 While at Northwestern University in 1964, Howard
Fisher created one of the first computer
mapping software programs known as SYMAP.
 In 1965, he established the Harvard Laboratory
for Computer Graphics.
HISTORY OF GIS:

 The Harvard Laboratory

 While some of the first computer map-making
software was created and refined at the Lab, it
also became a research center for spatial
analysis and visualization.
 Many of the early concepts for GIS and its
applications were conceived at the Lab by a
talented collection of geographers, planners,
computer scientists, and others from many
fields.
 HISTORY OF GIS:
 Esri is Founded
 In 1969, Jack Dangermond—a member of the
Harvard Lab—and his wife Laura founded
Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc.
(Esri).
 The consulting firm applied computer mapping
and spatial analysis to help land use planners
and land resource managers make informed
decisions.
 The company’s early work demonstrated the
value of GIS for problem solving.
 HISTORY OF GIS:
 Esri is Founded
 The company’s early work demonstrated the
value of GIS for problem solving.
 Esri went on to develop many of the GIS
mapping and spatial analysis methods now in
use.
 These results generated a wider interest in the
company’s software tools and work-flows that
are now standard to GIS.
 HISTORY OF GIS:

 GIS Goes Commercial

 As computing became more powerful, Esri
improved its software tools.
 Working on projects that solved real-world
problems led the company to innovate and
develop robust GIS tools and approaches that
could be broadly used.
 Esri’s work gained recognition from the
academic community as a new way of doing
spatial analysis and planning.
 HISTORY OF GIS:

 GIS Goes Commercial

 In need of analyzing an increasing number of
projects more effectively, Esri developed
ARC/INFO—the first commercial GIS product.
 The technology was released in 1981 and began
the evolution of Esri into a software company.
HISTORY OF GIS

 Theseearlier programs were run on

mainframes and minicomputers, and maps
were made on line printers and pen
plotters. In the 1980s, commercial and free
GIS packages appeared in the market.
HISTORY OF GIS:

 As GIS continually evolves, two trends

have emerged in recent years.
 One, as the core of geospatial
technology, GIS has increasingly been
integrated with other geospatial data
such as satellite images and GPS data.
 Two, GIS has been linked with Web
services, mobile technology, social media
and cloud computing.
 HISTORY OF GIS:

 GIS Today
 GIS gives people the ability to create their own
digital map layers to help solve real-world problems.
 GIS has also evolved into a means for data sharing
and collaboration - continuous, overlapping, and
interoperable GIS database of the world, about
virtually all subjects.
 Today, hundreds of thousands of organizations are
sharing their work and creating billions of maps
every day to tell stories and reveal patterns, trends,
and relationships about everything.
HISTORY OF GIS:
 The Future of GIS
 With its movement to web and cloud
computing, and integration with real-time
information via the Internet of Things
 GIS has become a platform relevant to almost
every human
 As our world faces problems from expanding
population, loss of nature, and pollution,
 GIS will play an increasingly important role in
how we understand and address these issues
and provide a means for communicating
solutions using the common language of
mapping.
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS:
A basic principle in geographic information system
(GIS) is that map layers to be used together must
align spatially. Obvious mistakes can occur if they
do not.
 For example, below figure shows the interstate
highway maps of Idaho and Montana
downloaded separately from the Internet.
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS:
 The two maps do not register spatially.
 To connect the highway networks across the
shared state border, we must convert them to a
common spatial reference system.
 The coordinate system provides spatial reference.
COORDINATE SYSTEMS:
 GIS users typically work with map features on a
plane (flat surface).
 These map features represent spatial features on
the Earth’s surface.
 The locations of map features are based on a
plane coordinate system expressed in x and y
coordinates, whereas the locations of spatial
features on the Earth’s surface are based on a
geographic coordinate system expressed in
longitude and latitude values.
COORDINATE SYSTEMS:
A map projection bridges the two types of
coordinate systems.
 The process of projection transforms the Earth’s
surface to a plane, and the outcome is a map
projection, ready to be used for a projected
coordinate system.
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

The map shows the interstate highways The map shows the connected
in Idaho and Montana based on interstate
different coordinate systems. networks based on the same
coordinate system.
COORDINATE SYSTEMS:

 Geographic Coordinate System:

 The geographic coordinate system is the reference
system for locating spatial features on the Earth’s
surface.
 The geographic coordinate system is defined by
longitude and latitude.
 Both longitude and latitude are angular measures:
longitude measures the angle east or west from the
prime meridian, and latitude measures the angle north
or south of the equatorial plane.
 For example, the longitude at point X is the angle a west
of the prime meridian, and the latitude at point Y is the
angle b north of the equator.
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS:
 Meridians are lines of equal longitude. The prime
meridian passes through Greenwich, England,
and has the reading of 0°.
 Using the prime meridian as a reference, we can
measure the longitude value of a point on the
Earth’s surface as 0° to 180° east or west of the
prime meridian.
 Meridians are therefore used for measuring
location in the E–W direction.
 Parallels are lines of equal latitude.
COORDINATE SYSTEMS:

The flattening is based on the

 The
geographic difference between the semimajor axis
coordinate system. a and the semiminor axis b.
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS:

 The angular measures of longitude and latitude

may be expressed in degrees-minutes-seconds
(DMS), decimal degrees (DD), or radians (rad).
 Given that 1 degree equals 60 minutes and 1
minute equals 60 seconds, we can convert
between DMS and DD.
 For example, a latitude value of 45°52'30" would
be equal to 45.875° (45 + 52/60 + 30/3600).
Radians are typically used in computer programs.
 One radian equals 57.2958°, and one degree
equals 0.01745 rad.
 2

UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF GIS

1.1 Introduction to GIS

1.2 Basic spatial concepts
1.3 Coordinate Systems
1.4 GIS and Information Systems
1.5 Definitions
1.6 History of GIS
1.7 Components of a GIS

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UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF GIS

1.8 Proprietary and open source Software
1.9 Types of data
1.10 Spatial, Attribute data- types of attributes
1.11 Scales/ levels of measurements.

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Sem/Unit I/TLP 6
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1.6 HISTORY OF GIS:

 The field of geographic information systems (GIS)
started in the 1960s as computers and early concepts
of quantitative and computational geography
emerged.
 Early GIS work included important research by the
academic community.
 Later, the National Center for Geographic Information
and Analysis, led by Michael Goodchild, formalized
research on key geographic information science topics
such as spatial analysis and visualization.
 These efforts fueled a quantitative revolution in the
world of geographic science and laid the
groundwork for GIS.

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 6

1.6 HISTORY OF GIS:

 Roger Tomlinson’s pioneering work to initiate,
plan, and develop the Canada Geographic
Information System resulted in the first
computerized GIS in the world in 1963.
 He envisioned using computers to merge natural
resource data from all provinces.
 Tomlinson created the design for automated
computing to store and process large amounts of
data, which enabled Canada to begin its
national land-use management program.
 He also gave GIS its name.

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1.6 HISTORY OF GIS:

 The Harvard Laboratory
 While at Northwestern University in 1964, Howard
Fisher created one of the first computer mapping
software programs known as SYMAP.
 In 1965, he established the Harvard Laboratory
 for Computer Graphics.

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1.6 HISTORY OF GIS:

 The Harvard Laboratory
 While some of the first computer map-making
software was created and refined at the Lab, it
also became a research center for spatial
analysis and visualization.
 Many of the early concepts for GIS and its
applications were conceived at the Lab by a
talented collection of geographers, planners,
computer scientists, and others from many fields.

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 9

1.6 HISTORY OF GIS:

 Esri is Founded
 In 1969, Jack Dangermond—a member of the
Harvard Lab—and his wife Laura founded
Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc.
(Esri).
 The consulting firm applied computer mapping
and spatial analysis to help land use planners
and land resource managers make informed
decisions.
 The company’s early work demonstrated the
value of GIS for problem solving.

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 10

1.6 HISTORY OF GIS:

 Esri is Founded
 The company’s early work demonstrated the
value of GIS for problem solving.
 The company’s early work demonstrated the
value of GIS for problem solving.
 Esri went on to develop many of the GIS
mapping and spatial analysis methods now in
use.
 These results generated a wider interest in the
company’s software tools and work-flows that
are now standard to GIS.

MZCET/CSE/OCE552 GIS/Unit I/III Yr/V

Sem/Unit I/TLP 6
 11

1.6 HISTORY OF GIS:

 GIS Goes Commercial
 As computing became more powerful, Esri
improved its software tools.
 Working on projects that solved real-world
problems led the company to innovate and
develop robust GIS tools and approaches that
could be broadly used.
 Esri’s work gained recognition from the
academic community as a new way of doing
spatial analysis and planning.

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Sem/Unit I/TLP 6
 12

HISTORY OF GIS:
 GIS Goes Commercial
 In need of analyzing an increasing number of
projects more effectively, Esri developed
ARC/INFO—the first commercial GIS product.
 The technology was released in 1981 and began
the evolution of Esri into a software company.

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 13

HISTORY OF GIS:
 Theseearlier programs were run on mainframes
and minicomputers, and maps were made on
line printers and pen plotters. In the 1980s,
commercial and free GIS packages appeared in
the market.

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 14

HISTORY OF GIS:
 AsGIS continually evolves, two trends have
emerged in recent years.
 One, as the core of geospatial technology, GIS
has increasingly been integrated with other
geospatial data such as satellite images and GPS
data.
 Two, GIS has been linked with Web services,
mobile technology, social media and cloud
computing.

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 15

1.6 HISTORY OF GIS:

 GIS Today
 GIS gives people the ability to create their own
digital map layers to help solve real-world
problems.
 GIS has also evolved into a means for data
sharing and collaboration - continuous,
overlapping, and interoperable GIS database of
the world, about virtually all subjects.
 Today, hundreds of thousands of organizations
are sharing their work and creating billions of
maps every day to tell stories and reveal
patterns, trends, and relationships about
everything.

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 16

1.6 HISTORY OF GIS:

 The Future of GIS
 With its movement to web and cloud computing,
and integration with real-time information via the
Internet of Things
 GIS has become a platform relevant to almost
every human
 As our world faces problems from expanding
population, loss of nature, and pollution
 GIS will play an increasingly important role in how
we understand and address these issues and
provide a means for communicating solutions
using the common language of mapping.

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COMPONENTS OF GIS
 Hardware - GIS hardware includes computers for
o data processing,
o data storage, and
o input/output;
o printers and plotters for reports and
o hard-copy maps;
o digitizers and scanners for digitization of spatial
data; and
o GPS (Global Positioning System) and mobile
devices for fieldwork.

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COMPONENTS OF GIS
 Software - GIS software, either
o commercial or open source,

o includes programs and applications to be

executed by a computer for data management,

o data analysis, data display, and other

o tasks. Additional applications,

o written in Python, JavaScript, VB.NET, or C++, may

be used in GIS for specific data analyses.

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COMPONENTS OF GIS
 Method –
 A successful GIS operates according to a well-
designed plan and business rules,
 which are the models and operating practices
unique to each organization.

 Any organization has documented their process

plan for GIS operation.

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COMPONENTS OF GIS
 These document address number question about
the GIS methods:
 number of GIS expert required,
 GIS software and hardware,
 Process to store the data,
 what type of DBMS (database management
system) and more.

 Well designed plan will address all these

questions.

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COORDINATE SYSTEMS
 People –

 GIS technology is of limited value without the

people who manage the system and
 to develop plans for applying it.

 GISusers range from technical specialists who

design and maintain the system, to those
who use it to help them do their everyday
work.

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COMPONENTS OF GIS:
 Data –
 Maybe the most important component of a GIS is
the data.
 Geographic data and related tabular data can be
collected in-house or bought from a commercial
data provider.
 Most GIS employ a DBMS to create and maintain a
database to help organize and manage data.

 The data that a GIS operates on consists of any data

bearing a definable relationship to space, including
any data about things and events that occur in
nature.
OCE552 GIS/Unit I/III Yr/V Sem/TLP3,4
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COMPONENTS OF GIS:
 Data –
 At one time this consisted of hard-copy data, like t
o raditional cartographic maps,
o surveyor’s logs,
o demographic statistics,
o geographic reports, and
o descriptions from the field.

 Advances in spatial data collection, classification,

and accuracy have allowed more and more
standard digital base-maps to become available at
different scales.

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COMPONENTS OF GIS:
 Organization –
 GIS operations exist within an organizational
environment
 therefore, they must be integrated into the
culture and decision-making processes of the
organization for such matters as the role and

 valueof GIS, GIS training, data collection and

dissemination, and data standards.

OCE552 GIS/Unit I/III Yr/V Sem/TLP3,4

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UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF GIS

1.1 Introduction to GIS

1.2 Basic spatial concepts
1.3 Coordinate Systems
1.4 GIS and Information Systems
1.5 Definitions
1.6 History of GIS
1.7 Components of a GIS

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UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF GIS

1.8 Proprietary and open source Software
1.9 Types of data
1.10 Spatial, Attribute data- types of attributes
1.11 Scales/ levels of measurements.

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1.8 Proprietary and open source

Software

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1.8 Proprietary and open source

Software
 ArcGIS is composed of applications and
extensions at three license levels.
 The applications include
o ArcMap,ArcGIS Pro,
o ArcCatalog,
o ArcScene, and
o ArcGlobe, and the extensions include 3D Analyst,
Network Analyst, Spatial Analyst, Geostatistical
Analyst, and others.

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1.8 Proprietary and open source

Software

ArcGIS Grass GIS

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1.8 Proprietary and open source

Software
 GRASS GIS (Geographic Resources Analysis
Support System), the first FOSS for GIS, was
originally developed by the U.S.

 Army Construction Engineering Research

Laboratories in the 1980s.

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1.8 Proprietary and open source

Software
 SAGA GIS (System for Automated Geoscientific
Analyses) is one of the classics in the world of free
GIS software.

 It started out primarily for terrain analysis such as

hillshading, watershed extraction and visibility
analysis.

 Now, SAGA GIS is a powerhouse because it

delivers a fast growing set of geoscientific
methods to the geoscientific community.

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1.8 Proprietary and open source

Software
 Wellknown for its analysis tools, GRASS GIS is
currently maintained and developed by a
worldwide network of users.

 Academicians, government agencies (NASA,

NOAA, USDA and USGS) and GIS practitioners use
this open source software because its code can
be inspected and tailored to their needs.

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1.8 Proprietary and open source

Software
 GeoDa is a free GIS software program primarily used to
introduce new users into spatial data analysis.

 Its main functionality is data exploration in statistics.

 One of the nicest things about it is how it comes with

sample data for you to give a test-drive.

 From simple box-plots all the way to regression

statistics, GeoDa has complete arsenal of statistics to
do nearly anything spatially.

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1.8 Proprietary and open source

Software
 SAGA GIS (System for Automated Geoscientific
Analyses) is one of the classics in the world of free
GIS software.

 It started out primarily for terrain analysis such as

hillshading, watershed extraction and visibility
analysis.

 Now, SAGA GIS is a powerhouse because it

delivers a fast growing set of geoscientific
methods to the geoscientific community.

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1.8 Proprietary and open source

Software
 APPLICATION OF GIS:
 GIS is a useful tool because a high percentage of
information we routinely encounter has a spatial
component.

 Anoften cited figure among GIS users is that 80

percent of data is geographic.

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1.8 Proprietary and open source

Software
 APPLICATION OF GIS:
 Since its beginning, GIS has been important for
land use planning, natural hazard assessment,
wildlife habitat analysis, riparian zone monitoring,
timber management, and urban planning.

 Thelist of fields that have benefited from the use

of GIS has expanded significantly for the past
three decades.

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1.8 Proprietary and open source

Software
 In the United States, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
is a leading agency in the development and
promotion of GIS.
 The USGS website provides case studies as well as
geospatial data for applications in
o climate and land use change,
o ecosystem analysis,
o geologic mapping,
o petroleum resource assessment,
o watershed management,
o coastal zone management,
o natural hazards (volcano, flood, and landslide),
o aquifer depletion, and ground water management.

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1.8 Proprietary and open source

Software
 In the private sector, most GIS applications are
integrated with the Internet, GPS, wireless technology,
and Web services. The following shows some of these
applications:

 Online mapping websites offer locators for finding real

estate listings, vacation rentals, banks, restaurants,
coffee shops, and hotels.

 Location-based services allow mobile phone users to

search for nearby banks, restaurants, and taxis; and to
track friends, dates, children, and the elderly.

 Mobile GIS allows field workers to collect and access

geospatial data in the field.

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1.8 Proprietary and open source

Software
 Mobile resource management tools track and
manage the location of field crews and mobile
assets in real time.

 Automotive navigation systems provide turn by-

turn guidance and optimal routes based on
precise road mapping using GPS and camera.

 Augmented reality lets a smart phone user look

through the phone’s camera with superimposed
data or images (e.g., 3-D terrain from a GIS,
monsters in Pokemon Go) about the current
location.
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1.11 SCALES/LEVELS OF
MEASUREMENTS
 Scalesof Measurement or level of measurement is
a system for classifying attribute data into four
categories namely nominal, ordinal, interval and
ratio.

 Nominal: In this level of measurement, the

numbers in the variable are used only to classify
the data. In this level of measurement, words,
letters, and alpha-numeric symbols can be used.

 Suppose there are data about people belonging

to three different gender categories.

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1.11 SCALES/LEVELS OF
MEASUREMENTS
 Suppose there are data about people belonging
to three different gender categories.

 In this case, the person belonging to the female

gender could be classified as F, the person
belonging to the male gender could be classified
as M, and transgendered classified as T.

 Thistype of assigning classification is nominal level

of measurement.

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1.11 SCALES/LEVELS OF
MEASUREMENTS
 Ordinal: This level of measurement depicts some ordered
relationship among the variable’s observations.

 Suppose a student scores the highest grade of 100 in the

class.

 In this case, he would be assigned the first rank. Then,

another classmate scores the second highest grade of an
92; she would be assigned the second rank.

 A third student scores a 81 and he would be assigned the

third rank, and so on.

 The ordinal level of measurement indicates an ordering of

the measurements.
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1.8 Proprietary and open source

Software

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1.11 SCALES/LEVELS OF
MEASUREMENTS
 Interval: The interval level of measurement not only classifies
and orders the measurements, but it also specifies that the
distances between each interval on the scale are
equivalent along the scale from low interval to high interval.

 For example, an interval level of measurement could be the

measurement of anxiety in a student between the score of
10 and 11, this interval is the same as that of a student who
scores between 40 and 41.

 A popular example of this level of measurement is

temperature in centigrade

 Example, the distance between 940C and 960C is the same

as the distance between 1000C and 1020C.

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1.11 SCALES/LEVELS OF
MEASUREMENTS
 Ratio:In this level of measurement, the
observations, in addition to having equal intervals,
can have a value of zero as well.

A common geographic example of ratio data is

density (i.e. population, ethnicity, etc.).

 Any
percent value from 0 to 100 will have a
meaningful zero.

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 2

UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF GIS

1.1 Introduction to GIS

1.2 Basic spatial concepts
1.3 Coordinate Systems
1.4 GIS and Information Systems
1.5 Definitions
1.6 History of GIS
1.7 Components of a GIS

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 3

UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF GIS

1.8 Proprietary and open source Software
1.9 Types of data
1.10 Spatial, Attribute data- types of attributes
1.11 Scales/ levels of measurements.

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Types of data
 GIS consists of the following elements i.e.
o geospatial data,
o data acquisition,
o data management,
o data display,
o data exploration, and
o data analysis.

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Spatial Data
 The
data or information that identifies the
geographic location of features and
boundaries.

 On earth, such as natural and

constructed features like Ocean, lake,
pond etc.

 Spatial data is usually stored as

coordinate and topology, and is data
that can be mapped.
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Types of data
 Geospatial Data: By definition, geospatial data cover the
location of spatial features.

 To locate spatial features on the Earth’s surface, we can use

either a geographic or a projected coordinate system.

 A geographic coordinate system is expressed in longitude

and latitude and a projected coordinate system in x, y
coordinates.

 Many projected coordinated systems are available for use

in GIS.
 A GIS represents geospatial data as either vector data or
raster data.

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Types of data
 Vector Data

 Vectordata provide a way to represent real

world features within the GIS environment.

A vector feature has its shape represented using

geometry.

 The geometry is made up of one or more

interconnected vertices.

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Types of data
A vertex describe a position in space using an x,
y and optionally z axis. In the vector data model,
features on the earth are represented as:
• points
• lines / routes
• polygons / regions
• TINs (triangulated irregular networks)

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Types of data
 The vector data model uses points, lines, and
polygons to represent spatial features with a clear
spatial location and boundary such as streams,
land parcels, and vegetation stands.
 Each feature is assigned an ID so that it can be
associated with its attributes.

The vector data model uses x, y coordinates to

represent point features

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Types of data
 Vector Data
 This system of recording features is based on the
interaction between arcs and nodes,
represented by points, lines and polygons.
 A point is a single node, a line is two nodes with
an arc between them, and a polygon is a
closed group of three or more arcs.
 With these three elements , it is possible to record
most all necessary information.

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Types of data

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Point
A point is a 0 dimensional object and has only
the property of location (x,y)
Points can be used to
 Model features such as a well, building, power
pole, sample location etc.
Other names for a point are vertex, node, 0-cell.
 13

Line
A line is a one-dimensional object that has the
property of length
Lines can be used to represent road, streams,
faults, dikes, marker beds, boundary, contacts etc.
Lines are also called an edge, link, chain, arc, 1-
cell
Connected multiple lines are called polylines.
 14

Polygon
 Polygonfeatures are made of one or more lines
that encloses an area.

A polygon is a two dimensional object with

properties of area and perimeter represented by a
closed sequence of lines.

A polygon can represent a city, geologic

formation, dike, lake, river, etc.
 15

Types of data
 Advantages

• accurately representing true shape and size

• representing non-continuous data (e.g., rivers, political
boundaries, road lines)

• Vectors can store information About topology

• A vector data model uses points stored by their real (earth)

coordinates and so requires a

• Precise coordinate system.

• Geographic Coordinate System
Latitude/Longitude
• Cartesian Coordinate Systems
X,Y Coordinate system

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Types of data
Vector Data
 Disadvantages:
 The location of each vertex needs to be stored
explicitly.

 Vector data must be converted into a

topological structure.

 This
is often processing intensive and usually
requires extensive data cleaning.

 Updating or editing of the vector data requires

re-building of the topology.

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Types of data
 Raster Data
 Raster Data – cell –based data such as aerial
imagery and digital elevation models.

 Raster data is characterized by pixel values.

 Basically,
a raster file is a giant table, where
each pixel is assigned a specific value from 0 to
255.

 Themeaning behind these values is specified by

the user – they can represent elevations,
temperature, hydrology and etc.

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Types of data
 The raster data model uses a grid and grid cells to represent
spatial features:

o point features are represented by single cells,

o line features by sequences of neighbouring cells, and
o polygon features by collections of contiguous cells.

 The cell value corresponds to the attribute of the spatial

feature at the cell location.

 Raster data are ideal for continuous features such as

elevation and precipitation.

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Types of data
 The raster data model uses cells in a grid to represent point
features

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Types of data
A vector data model can be georelational or
object-based, with or without topology, and
simple or composite.

 The georelational model stores geometries and

attributes of spatial features in separate systems,
whereas the object-based model stores them in a
single system.

 Topology explicitly expresses the spatial

relationships between features, such as two lines
meeting perfectly at a point.
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Types of data
 Advantages:
• Raster is the best way to store continuously
changing values such as elevation, slope.

• Analysis faster and more flexible then vector for

many application.

• Rapid computations ("map algebra") in which

raster layers are treated as elements in
mathematical expressions

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Types of data
 Disadvantages:
 It is especially difficult to adequately represent linear
features depending on the cell resolution.

 Network linkages are difficult to establish.

 Processing of associated attribute data may be

cumbersome if large amounts of data exists.

 Raster maps inherently reflect only one attribute or

characteristic for an area.

 Most output maps from grid-cell systems do not

conform to high-quality cartographic needs.

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Triangulated Irregular Network

 TIN stands for Triangular Irregular Network, which
is a vector approach to handling a digital
elevation model.
 TIN’s are used to interpolate surfaces using
multiple triangles.
 TIN’s are able to interpolate surfaces by selecting
representative points that are usually data points.
 TIN’s connect these points to form a set of
continuous and connected triangles.
 The data points consist of X, Y and Z values. The
final result gives users a TIN surface.
 24

Triangulated Irregular Network

 25

Triangulated Irregular Network

 Advantages of TIN
 TIN’s give researchers the ability to view 2.5D and
3D at an area that was interpolated from minimal
data collection.
Users can describe a surface at different levels of
resolution based on the points that were collected.
TIN interpolation gives GIS users greater
analytical capabilities.
 26

Triangulated Irregular Network

 Advantages of TIN
TIN models are easy to create and use.
They provide users a simplified model that
represents collected data points.
Using a TIN surface in conjunction with ArcMap
extensions such as Spatial Analysis and 3D Analyst,
TIN users can also derive slope, aspect, elevation,
contour lines, hillshades, etc.
 27

Triangulated Irregular Network

 There are many different types of TIN
interpolation methods.
 Some of the most popular TIN methods include
Natural Neighbour,
Krigging,
Spline,
Nearest Neighbour and
Inversed Distance Weighting.
 These TIN interpolation methods use
mathematical algorithms in order to generate
interpolated surfaces.
 Each of these methods will produce different
types of surfaces.
 28

Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

 DigitalElevation Model is a data model which
represents the surface of a terrain in 3 dimension.
DEM can be represented as a raster or as TIN.
The TIN DEM dataset is also referred to as a
primary
 DEM or measured DEM.
Raster DEM is referred to as secondary DEM or
computed DEM.
 29

Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

 30

Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

Types of DEM
 31

Types of data
 Data Acquisition: Data acquisition is usually the
first step in conducting a GIS project.

 Theneed for geospatial data by GIS users has

been linked to the development of data
clearinghouses and geoportals.

 Since the early 1990s, government agencies at

different levels in the United States as well as
many other countries have set up websites for
sharing public data and for directing users to
various data sources.
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Types of data
 Data acquisition involves compilation of existing and new
data.

 To be used in a GIS, a newly digitized map or a map

created from satellite images requires geometric
transformation (i.e., geo-referencing).

 Additionally, both existing and new spatial data must be

edited if they contain digitizing and/or topological errors.

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Types of data
 Attribute Data Management: A GIS usually employs a
database management system (DBMS) to handle attribute
data, which can be large in size in the case of vector data.

 Each polygon in a soil map, for example, can be

associated with dozens of attributes on the physical and
chemical soil properties and soil interpretations.

 Attribute data are stored in a relational database as a

collection of tables.

 These tables can be prepared, maintained, and edited

separately, but they can also be linked for data search and
retrieval.

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Types of data
 Data Display: A routine GIS operation is mapmaking
because maps are an interface to GIS.

 Mapmaking can be informal or formal in GIS.

 It is informal when we view geospatial data on maps, and

formal when we produce maps for professional
presentations and reports.

 A professional map combines the title, map body, legend,

scale bar, and other elements together to convey
geographic information to the map reader.

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Types of data
 To make a “good” map, we must have a basic
understanding of map symbols, colors, and typology, and
their relationship to the mapped data.

 Additionally, we must be familiar with map design principles

such as layout and visual hierarchy.

 After a map is composed in a GIS, it can be printed or

saved as a graphic file for presentation.

 It can also be converted to a KML file, imported into

Google Earth, and shared publicly on a web server.

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Types of data
 Data Exploration: Data exploration refers to the activities of
o visualizing,
o manipulating, and
o querying data using maps, tables, and graphs.

 These activities offer a close look at the data and function

as a precursor to formal data analysis.

 Data exploration in GIS can be map or feature-based.

Map-based exploration includes data classification, data
aggregation, and map comparison.

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Types of data
 Feature-based query can involve either attribute or spatial
data.

 Attribute data query is basically the same as database

query using a DBMS.

 In contrast, spatial data query allows GIS users to select

features based on their spatial relationships such as
containment, intersect, and proximity.

 A combination of attribute and spatial data queries

provides a powerful tool for data exploration.

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Types of data

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Types of data
 Four basic tools for raster data are local, neighbourhood,
zonal, and global operations, depending on whether the
operation is performed at the level of individual cells, or
groups of cells, or cells within an entire raster.

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Types of data

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