OCE552

GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATIO
N SYSTEM
IIIYear CSE
V Sem
UNIT-II SPATIAL DATA MODELS
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UNITII SPATIAL DATA MODELS

1. Database Structures
2. Relational, Object Oriented
3. ER diagram
4. Spatial data models
5. Raster Data Structures 1.6 History of GIS
6. Raster Data Compression

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UNITII SPATIAL DATA MODELS

7. Vector Data Structures
8. Raster vs Vector Models
9 . O G C standards
10. Data Quality

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2.1 Database Structures

🞇 Data model defines the logical structure of a database.
Data Models are fundamental entities to introduce
abstrac tion in a DBMS.
🞇 Data models define how data is connected to each other
and how they are processed and stored inside the system.
🞇 There are a number of different database data models.
Amongst those that have been used for attribute data in
GISare the
o hierarchical,
o network,
o relational,
o object-relational and
o object-oriented data models.
🞇 Of these the relational data model has become the most
widely used model.
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2.1 Database Structures

What is a database?
It’s an organized collection of data, it need not
be a computer based system.

What is a database management system (DBMS)?

A software system designed to:
🞇 Organize that data in a flexible manner,
🞇 Provide tools to add, modify or delete data from the
database,
🞇 Query the data,
🞇 Produce reports summarizing selected contents.

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2.1 Database Structures

🞇 Features of a DBMS
Database Management Systems provide
features to maintain database:
🞇 Data independence - It refers to the immunity
of user applications to make changes in the
definition and organization of data.
🞇 Integrity and security - refers to maintaining and
assuring the accuracy and consistency of data
over its entire life-cycle

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2.1 Database Structures

🞇 Features of a DBMS
🞇 Transaction management - A transaction
comprises a unit of work performed within a
DBMSagainst a database, and treated in a
coherent and reliable way independent of
other transactions. Transactions in a database
environment have two main purposes:
🞇 To provide isolation from other transactions.
🞇 To have an “all or nothing” effec t.

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2.1 Database Structures

🞇 Features of a DBMS
🞇 Concurrency control - ensures that correct
results for concurrent operations are generated,
while getting those results as quickly as possible.
🞇 Backup and re covery
🞇 Provides a language for the creation
and querying of the database.
🞇 A language for writing application programs

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2.1 Database Structures

🞇 Selecting a Database Management System

Database management systems (or DBMSs) can be

divided into two categories:
🞇 Desktop databases are oriented toward single-
user applications and reside on standard
personal computers (hence the term desktop).
🞇 Server databases contain mechanisms to
ensure the reliability and consistency of data
and are geared toward multi-user applications.

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2.2 Relational Databases

🞇 The relational database model is the most
dominant model in both the corporate and
GIS world, due to its flexibility, organization,
and functioning..
🞇 It was defined by Edgar F. Codd (1970).
🞇 It can accommodate a wide range of data
types.
🞇 It is not necessary to know beforehand the types
of processing that will be performed on the
database.

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2.2 Relational Databases

🞇 Relational Database Terminology
🞇 Each table contains the data for a single entity.
🞇 Each instance of an entity is a row/record/tuple
in the table. This is a specific instance of the
entity.
🞇 Columns contain attributes/fields that describe
the entity.
🞇 Attributes in a column must be from the same domain
(text, integer, date).
🞇 An attribute may have a range (e.g.; 0 ≤integers ≤100)
🞇 Column order has no significance.
🞇 Tables are related through keys.

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2.2 Relational Databases

Entity
Record, row,
tuple
A specific
instance of the
entity

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2.2 Relational Databases

🞇 Keys
🞇 A super key of an entity set is a set of one
or more attributes whose values uniquely
determine each entity.
🞇 A candidate key of an entity set is a
minimal super key
🞇 Customer-id is candidate key of customer
🞇 account-number is candidate key of account

🞇 Although several candidate keys may

exist, one of the candidate keys is
selected to be the primary key.

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Foreign Key
Primary Foreign Key
Key
A foreign key is an attribute that is a
key of one or more relations other than
the one in which it appears

Primary Foreign Key

Key

Primary Foreign Key

Key
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2.2 Relational Databases

🞇 Physical Database Structure
The physical design of the database specifies the
physical configuration of the database on the
storage media.
🞇 This includes detailed specification of data
elements, data types, indexing options and other
parameters residing in the DBMS data dictionary.
🞇 It is the detailed design of a system that includes
modules & the database's hardware & software
specifications of the system.

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2.2 Relational Databases

Logical Database Structure
🞇 Several logical data structures are used to
express the relationships between individual data
elements or records in a database.
🞇 Common logical data structures are
hierarchical, network, and relational, with
relational being predominant.

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2.2 Relational Databases

Conceptual Structure
🞇 The conceptual structure is often represented as
a schema.
🞇 A schema describes the database structure in a
shorthand notation.
🞇 One example is the entity-relationship (ER)
diagram.

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2.2 Relational Databases

🞇 The georelational data model stores geometries
and attributes separately in a split system:
geometries (“geo”) in graphic files in a spatial
subsystem and attributes (“relational”) in a
relational database
🞇 A georelational data model uses the feature
identification number (ID) to link the two
components.
🞇 The two components must be synchronized so
that they can be queried, analyzed, and
displayed in unison.

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2.2 Relational Databases

🞇 The coverage and the shapefile are both
examples of the georelational data model;
🞇 however, the coverage is topological, and the
shapefile is nontopological.

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2.2 Relational Databases

🞇 Esri introduced the coverage and its built-in
topology in the 1980s to separate GIS from CAD
(computer-aided design) at the time.
🞇 AutoCAD by Autodesk was, and still is, the
leading CAD package.

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2.2 Relational Databases

🞇 A data format used by AutoCAD for transfer of
data files is called DXF (drawing exchange
format).
🞇 DXF maintains data in separate layers and allows
the user to draw each layer using different line
symbols, colors, and text, but DXF files do not
support topology.

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2.2 Relational Databases

The coverage supports three basic topological
relationships
🞇 Connectivity: Arcs connect to each other at
nodes.
🞇 Area definition: An area is defined by a series of
connected arcs.
🞇 Contiguity: Arcs have directions and left and right
polygons.

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2.2 Relational Databases

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2.2 Relational Databases

🞇 Coverage Data Structure
🞇 A point coverage is simple: It contains the feature
IDs and pairs of x- and y-coordinates
🞇 The starting point of an arc is the from node, and
the end point is the to-node.
🞇 The arc node list sorts out the arc—node
relationship.
🞇 For example, arc 2 has 12 as the from-node and
13 as the to-node.
🞇 The arc-coordinate list shows the x-, y coordinates
of the from-node, the to-node, and other points
(vertices) that make up each arc.
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2.2 Relational Databases

🞇 For example, arc 3 consists of the from-node at
(2, 9), the to-node at (4, 2), and two vertices at
(2, 6)
and (4, 4). Arc 3, therefore, has three line
segments.
🞇 The polygon/arc list shows the relationship
between polygons and arcs.
🞇 For example, arcs 1, 4, and 6 connect to define
polygon 101.
🞇 Polygon 104 differs from the other polygons
because it is surrounded by polygon 102.

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2.2 Relational Databases

🞇 To show that polygon 104 is a hole within polygon
102, the arc list for polygon 102 contains a zero to
separate the external and internal boundaries.

🞇 Polygon 104 is also an isolated polygon consisting

of only one arc (7). Therefore, a node (15) is
placed along the arc to be the beginning and
end node.

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2.2 Relational Databases

🞇 Outside the mapped area, polygon 100 is the
external or universe polygon. The left/right list in
Figure 3.11 shows the relationship between arcs
and their left and right polygons.
🞇 For example, arc 1 is a directed line from node 13
to node 11 and has polygon 100 on the left and
polygon 101 on the right.
🞇 The arc-coordinate list in Figure 3.11 shows the
nodes and vertices that make up each arc.

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2.2 Relational Databases

🞇 Lists such as the polygon/arc list are stored as
graphic files in a coverage folder.
🞇 Another folder, called INFO, which is shared by all
coverages in the same workspace, stores
attribute data files.
🞇 The graphic files such as the arc-coordinate list,
the arc-node list, and the polygon- arc list are
efficient in reducing data redundancy.
🞇 A shared or common boundary between two
polygonsis stored in the arc-coordinate list once,
not twice.
🞇 This not only reduces the number of data entries
but also makes it easier to update the polygons.
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2.2 Relational Databases

🞇 For example, if arc 4 in Figure 3.11 is changed to a
straight line between two nodes, only the
coordinate list for arc 4 needs to be changed.

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2.2 Relational Databases

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2.2 Relational Databases

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2.2 Relational Databases

🞇 The Shapefile
🞇 In less than one decade after GIS companies
introduced topology to separate GIS from CAD,
the same companies adopted nontopological
data format as a standard nonproprietary data
format.
🞇 The shapefile is a standard nontopological data
format used in Esri products.
🞇 Although the shapefile treats a point as a pair of
x-, y-coordinates, a line as a series of points, and a
polygon as a series of line segments, no files
describe the spatial relationships among these
geometric objects.
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2.2 Relational Databases

🞇 Shapefile polygons actually have duplicate arcs
for the shared boundaries and can overlap one
another. The geometry of a shapefile is stored in
two basic files:
🞇 The .shp file stores the feature geometry, and the
.shx file maintains the spatial index of the feature
geometry.
🞇 Nontopological data such as shapefiles have two
main advantages.
🞇 First, they can display more rapidly on the
computer monitor than topology based data
(Theobald 2001).

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2.2 Relational Databases

🞇 First, they can display more rapidly on the
computer monitor than topologybased data
(Theobald 2001).
🞇 This advantage is particularly important for
people who use, rather than produce, GIS data.

🞇 Second, they are nonproprietary and

interoperable, meaning that they can be used
across different software packages (e.g., MapInfo
can use shapefiles, and ArcGIS can use MapInfo
Interchange Format files).

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2.2 Relational Databases

🞇 GIS users pushed for interoperability in the 1990s,
resulting in the establishment of Open GIS
Consortium, Inc. (now Open Geospatial
Consortium, Inc.), an international voluntary
consensus standards organization, in 1994
(http://www.opengeospatial .org/).
Interoperability was a primary mission of Open GIS
Consortium, Inc. from the start.
🞇 The introduction of nontopological data format in
the early 1990s was perhaps a direct response to
the call for interoperability.

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2.2 Object Oriented Model

🞇 Object based data model treats geospatial data
as objects.
🞇 An object can represent a spatial feature such
as a road, a timber stand, or a hydrologic unit.
🞇 Object can also represent a road layer or the
coordinate system on which the road layer is
based.
🞇 Everything in GIS can be represented as an
object.

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2.2 Object Oriented Model

🞇 Two important aspects differ from relational
database
1. The object-based data model stores geometries
and attributes in a single system.
o Geometries are stored as a collection of binary
data in a special field with the data type BLOB
(binary large object).
o Land use layer that stores the geometry of each
land-use polygon in the field shape.
2. The object-based data model allows a spatial
feature (object) to be associated with a set of
properties and methods.
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2.2 Object Oriented Model

🞇 A property describes an attribute or characteristic
of an object.
🞇 A method performs a specific action.

🞇 Eg: as a feature layer object, a road layer can

have the properties of shape and extent and can
also have the methods of copy and delete.

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2.2 Object Oriented Model

🞇 Properties and methods directly impact how
GIS operations are performed.

🞇 Work in an object-based GISis in fact dictated by

the properties and methods that have been
defined for the objects in the GIS.

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2.2 Object Oriented

Model
Classes and Class Relationships
🞇 A class is a set of objects with similar
characteristics.
🞇 A GIS package such as Arc- GIS uses thousands
of classes.
🞇 Software developers to systematically organize
classes and their properties and methods, object
oriented technology allows relationships such as
o association,
o aggregation,
o composition,
o type inheritance and
o instantiation to be established between classes

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2.2 Object Oriented Model

🞇 Association defines how many instances of one
class can be associated with another class
through multiplicity expressions at both ends of
the relationship.

🞇 Common multiplicity expressions are 1 (default)

and 1 or more (1..*).
🞇 Example: address is associated with one ZIP code,
but the same address can be associated with
one or more apartments.

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2.2 Object Oriented Model

🞇 Aggregation describes the whole–part
relationship between classes.
🞇 Type of association except that the multiplicity at
the composite (“whole”) end is typically 1 and
the multiplicity at the other (“part”) end is 0 or any
positive integer.

🞇 Example: a census tract is an aggregate of a

number of census blocks.

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2.2 Object Oriented Model

🞇 Composition describes a type of association in
which the parts cannot exist independently from
the whole.
🞇 Eg: roadside rest areas along a highway cannot
exist without the highway.
🞇 Type inheritance defines the relationship between
a superclass and a subclass.
🞇 A subclass is a member of a superclass and
inherits the properties and methods of the
superclass, but a subclass can have additional
properties and methods to separate itself from
other members of the superclass.

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2.2 Object Oriented Model

🞇 Example: residential area is a member of built-up
area, but it can have properties such as lot size
that separate residential area from commercial or
industrial built-up area.
🞇 Instantiation means that an obje ct of a class can
be created from an object of another class.
🞇 Example: a high-density residential area object
can be created from a residential area object.

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2.2 Object Oriented Model

🞇 Interface
🞇 An interface represents a set of externally visible
operations of a class or object.
🞇 Object-based technology uses a mechanism
called encapsulation to hide the properties and
methods of an object so that the object can be
accessed only through the predefined interfaces

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2.2 Object Oriented

🞇 Model
Feature object implements the IFeature interface.
🞇 Ifeature has access to the properties of Extent
and Shape and the method of Delete.
🞇 Object-oriented technology uses symbols to
represent interface, property, and method.

🞇 The symbols for the two properties are different in

this case because Extent is a read-only property,
whereas Shape is a read-and-write (by reference)
property.

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2.2 Object Oriented Model

A Geodataset object supports IGeodataset, and an

Envelope object supports IEnvelope.

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2.2 Object Oriented Model

🞇 Two interfaces can be used to derive the area
extent of a feature layer, which is a type of
Geodataset.
🞇 First, the Extent property is accessed via the
IGeodataset interface that a Geodataset object,
a feature layer in this case, supports. The Extent
property returns an Envelope object, which
implements the IEnvelope interface.
🞇 The area extent can then be derived by
accessing the properties XMin, XMax, YMin, and
YMax on the interface.

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2.2 Object Oriented Model

🞇 The Geodatabase
🞇 The geodatabase, an example of the object-
based vector data model, is part of ArcObjects
developed by Esri as the foundation for ArcGIS
🞇 ArcGIS users do not have to deal with ArcObjects
directly, because menus, icons, and dialogs have
already been developed by Esri to access
objects in ArcObjects and their properties and
methods.
🞇 shapefile, the geodatabase uses points, polylines,
and polygons to represent vectorbased spatial
features.
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2.2 Object Oriented Model

🞇 A point feature may be a simple feature with a
point or a multipoint feature with a set of points.
🞇 A polyline feature is a set of line segments that
may or may not be connected.
🞇 A polygon feature is made of one or many rings.
🞇 A ring is a set of connected, closed
nonintersecting line segments.
🞇 The geodatabase is also similar to the coverage
in simple features, but the two differ in the
composite features of regions and routes.

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2.2 Object Oriented Model

🞇 A polygon feature is made of one or many rings. A ring is a
set of connected, closed nonintersecting line segments.
🞇 The geodatabase is also similar to the coverage in simple
features, but the two differ in the composite features of
regions and routes.
🞇 The geodatabase organizes vector data sets into feature
classes and feature datasets.
🞇 A feature c lass stores spatial features of the same geometry
type.
🞇 A feature dataset stores feature classes that share the same
coordinate system and area extent

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2.2 Object Oriented Model

🞇 For example, a feature class may represent block
groups, and a feature dataset may consist of
block groups, census tracts, and counties for the
same study area.

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2.2 Object Oriented Model

🞇 Feature classes in a feature dataset often
participate in topological relationships with one
another, such as coincident boundaries between
different levels of census units.
🞇 If a feature class resides in a geodatabase but is
not part of a feature dataset, it is called a
standalone feature class.
🞇 Besides feature classes, a geodatabase can also
store raster data, triangulated irregular networks,
location data, and attribute tables.

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2.2 Object Oriented Model

🞇 A geodatabase can be designed for single or
multiple users. A single-user database can be a
personal geodatabase or a file geodatabase.
🞇 A personal geodatabase stores data as tables in
a Microsoft A c cess database.
🞇 A file geodatabase, on the other hand, stores
data in many small-sized binary files in a folder.
🞇 A multiuser or ArcSDE geodatabase stores data in
a database management system such as Oracle,
Microsoft SQL Server, IBM DB2, or Informix.

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2.2 Object Oriented

🞇 Model
Topology Rules
🞇 The object-based data model changes not only
how vector data are conceptualized and
structured but also how topological relationships
between features are organized and stored.
🞇 The geodatabase defines topology as
relationship rules and lets the user choose the
rules, if any, to be implemented in a feature
dataset.

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2.2 Object Oriented Model

🞇 The geodatabase defines topology as
relationship rules and lets the user choose the
rules, if any, to be implemented in a feature
dataset.
🞇 In other words, the geodatabase offers on-the-fly
topology, which is conceptually different from the
built-in topological relationships in the coverage
or the TIGER database.
🞇 The number of topological relationships between
features has also increased from three for the
coverage to over 30 for the geodatabase.

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2.2 Object Oriented Model

🞇 Some rules apply to features within a feature class, whereas
others apply to two or more participating feature classes.
🞇 Rules applied to the geometry of a feature class are
functionally similar to the built-in topology for the coverage,
but rules applied to two or more feature classes are new
with the geodatabase.
🞇 The following are some real-world applica tions
🞇 of topology rules:
• Counties must not overlap.
• County must not have gaps.
•County boundary must not have dangles
(i.e., must be closed).

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2.2 Object Oriented Model

•Census tracts and counties must cover each
other.
• Voting district must be covered by county.
• Contour lines must not intersect.
•Interstate route must be covered by feature
class of reference line (i.e., road feature class).
• Milepost markers must be covered by reference
line (i.e., road feature class).
• Label points must be properly inside polygons.

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2.2 Object Oriented Model

🞇 Some rules in the list such as no gap, no overlap,
and no dangles are general in nature and can
probably apply to many polygon feature classes.

🞇 Some, such as the relationship between milepost

markers and reference line, are specific to
transportation applications.

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2.3 ER diagram
🞇 An Entity–relationship model (ER model) describes
the structure of a database with the help of a
diagram, which is known as Entity Relationship
Diagram (ER Diagram).
🞇 An ER model is a design or blueprint of a
database that can later be implemented as a
database.
🞇 ER Model is best used for the conceptual design
of a database.
🞇 The main components of E-R model are:

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2.3 ER diagram
🞇 Relationship − The logical association among
entities is called relationship.
🞇 Relationships are mapped with entities in various
ways.
🞇 Mapping cardinalities define the number of
association between two entities.
🞇 The following are the Mapping cardinalities - one
to one, one to many, many to one & many to
many.

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 Conceptual DM: The ER Model
🞇 3 basic concepts
🞇 Entities have an independent c onceptual or
physical existence.
🞇 Examples: Forest, Road, Manager, ...
🞇 Entities are characterized by Attributes
🞇 Example: Forest has attributes of name,
elevation, etc.
🞇 An Entity interacts with another Entity through
relationships.
🞇 Road allow a c cess to Forest interiors.
🞇 This relationship may be name “Accesses”

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2.3 ER diagram
🞇 Comparison with Object model of spatial
information
🞇 Entities are collections of attributes are like
objects
🞇 However ER model does not permit general
user defined operations
🞇 Relationships are not directly supported in
Object model
🞇 but may be simulated via operations

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 2.3 ER diagram
Relationship Types
🞇 Relationships can be categorized by
🞇 cardinality constraints
🞇 other properties, e.g. number of participating entities
🞇 Binary relationship: two entities participate

🞇 Types of Cardinality constraints for binary relationships

🞇 One-One: An instance of an entity relates to a unique
instance of other entity.
🞇 Many-One: Many instances of an entity relate to an instance
of an other.
🞇 Many-Many: Many instances of one entity relate to multiple
instances of another.

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2.3 ER diagram
🞇 Exercise: Identify type of cardinality
constraint for following:
🞇 Many facilities belong to a forest. Each facility belong to
one forest.
🞇 A manager manages 1 forest. Each forest has 1
manager.
🞇 A river supplies water to many facilities. A facility gets
water from many rivers.

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 2.3 ER Diagrams Graphical
Notation
•ER Diagrams are graphic representation of ER models
• Several different graphic notation are used
• We use a simple notation summarized below
• Example ER Diagram for Forest example in next slide

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2.3 ER diagram

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 ER Diagram for “State-Park”

Fig 2.4

•Exercise:
•List the entities, attributes, relationships in this ER diagram
•Identify cardinality constraint for each relationship.
•How many roads “Accesses” a “Forest_stand”? (one or many)
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 2.3 ER diagram
• Mapping ER to Relational
•Highlights of translation rules

•Entity becomes Relation

•Attributes become columns in the relation
•Multi-valued attributes become a new relation
•includes foreign key to link to relation for the entity
•Relationships (1:1, 1:N) become foreign keys
•M:N Relationships become a relation
•containing foreign keys or relations from participating
entities
 2.3 ER diagram
Extending ER with Spatial Concepts
•Motivation
•ER Model is based on discrete sets with no implicit
relationships
•Spatial data comes from a continuous set with implicit
relationships
•Any pair of spatial entities has relationships like distance,
direction, …
•Explicitly drawing all spatial relationship
•clutters ER diagram
•generates additional tables in relational schema
•Misses implicit constraints in spatial relationships (e.g.
partition)
 15

2.3 ER diagram
• Pictograms
• Label spatial entities along with their spatial data types
• Allows inference of spatial relationships and constraints
• Reduces clutter in ER diagram and relational schema

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ER Diagram with Pictograms: An
Example

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2.3 ER diagram Specifying Pictograms
•Grammar based approach
•Rewrite rule
•like English syntax diagrams
•Classes of pictograms
•Entity pictograms
•basic: point, line, polygon
•collection of basic
•...
•Relationship pictograms
•partition, network

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2.3 ER diagram Entity Pictograms: Basic
shapes, Collections

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 2.3 ER diagram Entity Pictograms: Derived and
Alternate Shapes
•Derived shape example is city center point from boundary polygon
•Alternate shape example: A road is represented as a polygon for
construction
•or as a line for navigation

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2.3 ER diagram

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2.4 Spatial data models
 4

ELEMENTS OF THE RASTER DATA MODEL

🞇 A raster is also called a grid or an image in GIS.
🞇 A raster represents a continuous surface, but for
data storage and analysis, a raster is divided into
rows, columns, and cells.
🞇 Cells are also called pixels with images.
🞇 The origin of rows and columns is typically at the
🞇 upper-left corner of the raster.
🞇 Rows function as y-coordinates and columns as x-
coordinates.
🞇 Each cell in the raster is explicitly defined by its row
and column position.
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2.5 Raster Data Structure

🞇 Raster data represent points with single cells, lines
with sequences of neighboring cells, and polygons
with collections of contiguous cells
🞇 Raster data tend to require large amounts of the
computer memory – Disadvantage
🞇 GIS packages can display raster and vector data
simultaneously, and can easily convert between
these two types of data.

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2.5 Raster Data Structure

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2.5 Raster Data Structure

Cell Value
🞇 Cell values in a raster can be categorical or
numeric.
🞇 A land cover raster, for example, contains
categorical data with 1 for urban land use, 2 for
forested land, 3 for water body, and so on.
🞇 The land cover raster is also an example of an
integer raster, as its cell values carry no decimal
digits.
🞇 A precipitation raster, on the other hand, contains numeric
data such as 20.15, 12.23, and so forth.
🞇 It is also an example of a floating point raster, as its cell values
include decimal digits.
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2.5 Raster Data Structure

Cell Value
🞇 A floating-point raster requires more computer
memory than an integer raster.
🞇 First, an integer raster has a value attribute table
for access to its cell values, whereas a floating
point raster usually does not because of its
potentially large number of cell values.
🞇 Second, individual cell values can be used to
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2.5 Raster Data Structure

Cell Size
🞇 The cell size of a raster refers to the size of the
area represented by a single cell.
🞇 If a raster has a cell size of 100 square meters,
it means each side of its cell is 10 meters in length.
🞇 The raster is typically called a 10-meter raster.
🞇 The cell size determines the spatial resolution of
a raster.
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2.5 Raster Data Structure

Cell Size
🞇 A large cell size cannot represent the precise
location of spatial features, thus increasing the
chance of having mixed features such as forest,
pasture, and water in a cell.
🞇 These problems lessen when a raster uses a smaller
cell size.
🞇 But a small cell size increases the data volume and
the data processing time.

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2.5 Raster Data Structure

Cell Depth
🞇 The cell depth of a raster refers to the number of
bits for storing cell values.
🞇 A bit (short for binary digit), the smallest data unit in
a computer, has a single binary value of either 0 or
1.
🞇 A byte is a sequence of bits, with 8 bits equaling 1
byte.
🞇 A higher cell depth means that the cell can store
a wider range of values.

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2.4 Raster Data Structure

Cell Depth
🞇 For example, an 8-bit raster can store 256 (28)
possible values while a 16-bit (216) raster can
store 65,536 possible values.

🞇 The way in which the cell values are stored can

determine the data volume
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2.5 Raster Data Structure

Raster Bands
🞇 A raster may have a single band or multiple bands.
🞇 Each cell in a single-band raster has only one cell
value.
🞇 An example of a single-band raster is an elevation
raster, with one elevation value at each cell
location.
🞇 Each cell in a multiband raster is associated with
more than one cell value.
🞇 An example of a multiband raster is a satellite
image, which may have five, seven, or more bands
at each cell location.
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2.5 Raster Data Structure

Spatial Reference
🞇 Raster data must have the spatial reference
information so that they can align spatially with
other data sets in a GIS.
🞇 For example, to superimpose an elevation raster on
a vector-based soil layer, we must first make sure
that both data sets are based on the same
coordinate system.

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2.5 Raster Data Structure

Raster data structure refers to the method by which raster data
are encoded and stored in the computer.
Three common methods are examined here: cell-by-cell
encoding, run-length encoding, and quadtree.

2.5.1Cell-by-Cell Encoding
🞇 The cell-by-cell encoding method provides the simplest raster
data struc ture.
🞇 A raster is stored as a matrix, and its cell values are written into
a file by row and column
🞇 Functioning at the cell level, this method is an ideal choice if
the cell values of a raster change continuously.

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2.5 Raster Data Structure

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2.5 Raster Data Structure

2.5.1Cell-by-Cell Encoding
🞇 DEMs use the cell-by-cell data structure because
the neighboring elevation values are rarely the same
(Box 4.2).
🞇 Satellite images are also encoded cell by cell.
🞇 With multiple spectral bands, however, a satellite
image has more than one value for each pixel, thus
requiring special handling.
🞇 Multiband imagery is typically stored in the
following three formats.
🞇 The band sequential (.bsq) method stores the
values of an image band as one file.
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2.5 Raster Data Structure

2.5.1Cell-by-Cell Encoding
🞇 Therefore, if an image has seven bands, the data
set has seven consecutive files, one file per band.

🞇 The band interleaved by line (.bil) method stores,

row by row, the values of all the bands in one file.

🞇 ThereforeMZCET/CSE/OCE552
the file consists ofI/III
GIS/Unit row Yr/V1, bandII/TLP
Sem/Unit 1; row 1,
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2.5 Raster Data Structure

2.4.1Cell-by-Cell Encoding
🞇 The band interleaved by pixel (.bip) method stores
the values of all the bands by pixel in one file.

🞇 The file is therefore composed of pixel (1, 1), band

1; pixel (1, 1), band 2 . . . pixel (2, 1), band 1; pixel
(2, 1), band 2 . . . and so on.

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2.5 Raster Data Structure

2.5.2 Run-Length Encoding

🞇 Cell-by-cell encoding becomes inefficient if a
raster contains many redundant cell values.
🞇 Example - a bi-level scanned file from a soil map
has many 0s representing non-inked areas and
only o ccasional 1s representing the inked soil
lines.
🞇 Raster data with many repetitive cell values can
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2.5 Raster Data Structure

2.5.2 Run-Length Encoding
🞇 A group refers to a series of adjacent cells with the
same cell value.

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2.5 Raster Data Structure

2.5.2 Run-Length Encoding
🞇A bi-level scanned file of a 7.5-minute soil
quadrangle map, scanned at 300 dpi, can be over
8 megabytes (MB) if stored on a cell-by-cell basis.
🞇 But using the RLE method, the file is reduced to
about 0.8 MB at a 10:1 compression ratio.
🞇 RLE is therefore a method for encoding as well
as compressing raster data.
🞇 Many GIS packages use RLE in addition to cell-by-
cell encoding for storing raster data.
🞇 They include GRASS, IDRISI, and ArcGIS.

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2.5 Raster Data Structure

2.5.6 Quadtree
🞇 Instead of working along one row at a time,
quadtree uses recursive decomposition to divide a
raster into a hierarchy of quadrants.

🞇 Recursive decomposition refers to a process of

continuous subdivision until every quadrant in a
quadtree contains only one cell value.

🞇 The quadtree contains nodes and branches

🞇 A node represents a quadrant.

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2.5 Raster Data Structure

2.5.6 Quadtree
🞇 Depending on the cell value(s) in the quadrant, a
node can be a nonleaf node or a leaf node.
🞇 nonleaf node represents a quadrant that has
different cell values.
🞇 A nonleaf node is therefore a branch point,
meaning that the quadrant is subject to subdivision.
🞇 A leaf node, on the other hand, represents a
quadrant that has the same cell value.
🞇 A leaf node is therefore an end point, which can
be coded with the value of the homogeneous
quadrant
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2.5 Raster Data Structure

2.5.6 Quadtree
🞇 The depth of a quadtree, or the number of levels
in the hierarchy, can vary depending on the
complexity of the two-dimensional feature.

🞇 After the subdivision is complete, the next step is to

code the two-dimensional feature using the
quadtree and a spatial indexing method.

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2.5 Raster Data Structure

2.5.6 Quadtree
🞇 Example, the level-1 NW quadrant (with the spatial
index of 0) in Figure 4.10 has two gray leaf nodes.

🞇 The first, 02, refers to the level-2 SE quadrant, and

the second, 032, refers to the level-3 SE quadrant of
the level-2 NE quadrant.

🞇 The string of (02, 032) and others for the other three
level-1 quadrants completes the coding of the
twodimensional feature.

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2.4 Raster Data Structure

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2.6 RASTER DATA CO MPRESSION

🞇 Data compression refers to the reduction of data

volume, a topic particularly important for data
delivery and Web mapping.
🞇 Data compression is related to how raster data
are encoded.
🞇 Quadtree and RLE, because of their efficiency in
data encoding, can also be considered as data
compression methods.
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2.6 RASTER DATA CO MPRESSION

🞇 A lossless compression preserves the cell or pixel
values and allows the original raster or image to be
precisely reconstructed.

🞇 Therefore, lossless compression is desirable for raster

data that are used for analysis or deriving new
data.

🞇 RLE is an example of lossless compression.

🞇 Other methods include LZW (Lempel—Ziv-Welch)

and its variations (e.g., LZ77, LZMA).
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2.6 RASTER DATA CO MPRESSION

🞇 A lossy compression cannot reconstruct fully the
original image but can achieve higher
compression ratios than a lossless compression.
🞇 Lossy compression is therefore useful for raster data
that are used as background images rather than
for analysis.
🞇 Image degradation through lossy compression can
affect GIS-related tasks such as extracting ground
control points from aerial photographs or satellite
images for the purpose of georeferencing

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2.6 RASTER DATA CO MPRESSION

🞇 Newer image compression techniques can be
both lossless and lossy.
🞇 An example is MrSID - Multi-resolution Seamless
Image Database
🞇 Multi-resolution means that MrSID has the capability
of recalling the image data at different resolutions
or scales.
🞇 Seamless means that MrSID can compress a large
image such as a DOQ or a satellite image with
subblocks and eliminates the artificial block
boundaries during the compression process.

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2.6 RASTER DATA CO MPRESSION

🞇 MrSID uses the wavelet transform for data
compression.

🞇 The wavelet-based compression is also used by

JPEG 2000 and ECW – Enhanced Compressed
Wavelet.

🞇 The wavelet transform treats an image as a wave

and progressively decomposes the wave into
simpler wavelets

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2.6 RASTER DATA CO MPRESSION

🞇 Using a wavelet function, the transform repetitively
averages groups of adjacent pixels (e.g., 2, 4, 6, 8,
or more) and, at the same time, records the
differences between the original pixel values and
the average.

🞇 The differences, also called wavelet coefficients,

can be 0, greater than 0, or less than 0.

🞇 In parts of an image that have few significant

variations, most pixels will have coefficients of 0 or
very close to 0.
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2.6 RASTER DATA CO MPRESSION

🞇 To save data storage, these parts of the image
can be stored at lower resolutions by rounding off
low coefficients to 0, but storage at higher
resolutions is required for parts of the same image
that have significant variations.
🞇 Both MrSID and JPEG 2000 can perform either
lossless or lossy compression.
🞇 A lossless compression saves the wavelet
coefficients and uses them to reconstruct the
original image.

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2.6 RASTER DATA CO MPRESSION

🞇 A lossy compression, on the other hand, stores only
the averages and those coefficients that did not
get rounded off to 0.
🞇 Trade reports have shown that JPEG 2000 can
achieve a 20:1 compression ratio without a
perceptible difference in the quality of an image
(i.e., visually lossless).

🞇 If JPEG 2000 compression is at or under a 10:1 ratio,

it should be possible to extract ground control
points from aerial photographs or satellite images
for georeferencing

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2.7 Vector Data Structures

🞇 The vector data model, also called the discrete
object model, uses discrete objects to represent
spatial features on the Earth’s surface.
🞇 Based on this concept, vector data can be
prepared in three basic steps.
🞇 The first step classifies spatial features into points,
lines, and polygons over an empty space and
represents the location and shape of these
features using points and their x-, y-coordinates.

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2.7 Vector Data Structures

🞇 The second step structures the properties and
spatial relationships of these geometric objects in a
logical framework.

🞇 The third step codes and stores vector data in

digital data files so that they can be accessed,
interpreted, and processed by the computer.

🞇 The computer recognizes the format of the data

files (i.e., how data are structured and stored) by
their extension.

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2.7 Vector Data

Structures

🞇 Vector data for Esri software as examples.

🞇 Esri has introduced a new vector data model
with each new software package:

o coverage with Arc/Info,

o shapefile with ArcView, and
o geodatabase with ArcGIS.
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2.7 Vector Data Structures

🞇 The coverage and shapefile are examples of the
georelational data model

🞇 Which uses a split system to store geometries and

attributes, the two main components of geospatial
data.
🞇 The vector data model uses the geometric
objects of point, line, and polygon to represent
spatial features.

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2.7 Vector Data Structures

🞇A point has zero dimension and has only the
property of location.
🞇 A point feature is made of a point or a set of points.

🞇 Wells, benchmarks, and gravel pits on a

topographic map are examples of point features.

🞇 A line is one-dimensional and has the property of

length, in addition to location.

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2.7 Vector Data Structures

🞇 A line has two end points and may have
additional points in between to mark the shape of
the line.

🞇 The shape of a line may be a connection of

straight-line segments or a smooth curve
generated using a mathematical function.

🞇 A line feature is made of a line or a set of lines.

🞇 Roads, boundaries, and small streams are

examples of line features.
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2.7 Vector Data Structures

🞇 A polygon is two-dimensional and has the
properties of area (size) and perimeter, in addition
to location.
🞇 Made of connected, closed, nonintersecting lines,
the perimeter or the boundary defines the area of
a polygon.
🞇 A polygon may stand alone or share boundaries
with other polygons.
🞇 A polygon may also have a hole within its extent,
resulting in an exterior and an interior boundary.

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2.7 Vector Data Structures

🞇 A polygon feature consists of a polygon or a set of
polygons.

🞇 Examples of polygon features include vegetated

areas, urban areas, and water bodies.

🞇 To indicate its location, a point is represented by a

pair of x- and y-coordinates
🞇 Geographic or projected a line or a polygon is
represented by a series of x- and y-coordinates.

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2.7 Vector Data Structures

🞇 A multipoint refers to a set of points, a multiline a set

of lines, and a multipolygon a set of polygons.

🞇 A geometry collection is an object that includes

elements of different geometry types, like a point

and a polygon.

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2.7 Vector Data Structures

TOPOLOGY

🞇 Topology refers to the study of those properties of

geometric objects that remain invariant under
certain transformations such as bending or
stretching

🞇 An example of a topological map is a subway map.

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2.7 Vector Data Structures

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2.7 Vector Data

Structures
TOPOLOGY
🞇 A subway map depicts correctly the connectivity
between the subway lines and stations on each
line but has distortions in distance and direction.
🞇 In GIS, vector data can be topological or
nontopological, depending on whether topology is
built into the data or not.
🞇 A set of topological primitives are often used to
identify these geometric objects with spatial
relationships.

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2.7 Vector Data Structures

TOPOLOGY
🞇 An edge or arc (used by ArcGIS) is a directed line with a
starting point and an ending point.

🞇 The end points of an arc are nodes, and

intermediate points, if any, are vertices.

🞇 And a face refers to a polygon bounded by arcs.

🞇 If an arc joins two nodes, the nodes are said to be adjacent

and incident with the arc.

🞇 Adjacency and incidence are two fundamental

relationships that can be established between nodes and
arcs in digraphs
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2.7 Vector Data Structures

TIGER
🞇 An early application example of topology is the Topologically
Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing (TIGER)
data base from the U.S.

🞇 The TIGER database links statistical area boundaries such as

counties, census tracts, and block groups to roads, railroads,
rivers, and other features by topology.

🞇 example, arc be has the starting node b and the end node
e, and has face 10 on the right and face 11 on the left.

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TIGER
🞇 Assuming these faces represent block groups and
arcs represent streets, each block group is
therefore associated with the streets that make up
its boundary.
🞇 And when connected with the Master Address File
(MAF), the TIGER database can also identify if an
address is on the right or left side of a street
🞇 Besides the TIGER database, another early
example of vector data with built-in topology is
digital line graphs (DLGs) from the USGS.

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TIGER
🞇 DLGs are digital representations of point, line, and
area features from the USGS quadrangle maps,
containing such data categories as contour lines,
hydrography, boundaries, transportation, and the
U.S. Public Land Survey System.

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TIGER

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Importance of Topology
🞇 Topology requires additional data files to store the spatial
relationships.

🞇 Three main advantages

🞇 First, it ensures data quality and integrity.

🞇 Topology enables detection of lines that do not meet and

polygons that do not close properly.

🞇 Topology can make certain that counties and census tracts

share coincident boundaries without gaps or overlaps.

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🞇 Second, topology can enhance GIS analysis.
🞇 Early providers of address geocoding (i.e., plotting
street addresses on a map) typically used the
TIGER database as a reference because it not
only has address ranges but also separates them
according to the left or right side of the street.
🞇 The built-in topology in the TIGER database
makes it possible to plot street addresses.

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🞇 Importance of Topology
🞇 Analysis of traffic flow or stream flow is similar to
address geocoding, because flow data are also
directional
🞇 Another example is wildlife habitat analysis
involving edges between habitat types.

🞇 If edges are coded with left and right polygons in

a topology-based data set, specific habitat types.

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2.8 Raster vs Vector Models

Vector Raster
Usually C omplex. Usually Simple
Diffic ult for overlay operation. Efficient for overlay operation.
High spatial variability is High spatial variability is efficiently
inefficiently represented. represented.
Small file size. Large file size.
Vector data model is often used Raster data model is widely used
for representing discrete features for representing continuous spatial
with definable boundaries. features.

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2.9 TIN and GRID data models

GRID
A grid is a raster data storage format.
two types of grids:
 Integer grid - Discrete data
 Floating point grid - continuous data.
•Integer grid
o Integer grid are stored in a value attribute table (VAT).
o A VAT has one record for each unique value in the grid.
oThe record stores the unique value and the number of
cells in the grid represented by that value.

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models
GRID

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GRID
•Floating point grid
o Floating-point grids do not have a VAT
The range of data values that can be stored as grid values are as
follows:
Floating-point grids can store values from -3.4 x 1038 to 3.4 x
1038.
Integer grids can store values from -2147483648 to 2147483647
(-231 to 231-1).

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models
GRID
Grid data structure:
Grids are implemented using a tiled raster data structure in which
the basic unit of data storage is a rectangular block of cells.
Blocks are stored on disk in compressed form in a variable-length
file structure referred to as a tile.
Each block is stored as one variable-length record. polygons
(triangles), points (nodes), and lines (edges).

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models
GRID
Grid data storage:
A grid is stored in an ArcInfo workspace.
In an integer grid directory the following tables and files are
found:
 BND table
HDR file
STA table
VAT table
the log file (LOG)

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models
GRID
Storage limitations:
There is a limit to the number of files that can be stored in an
INFO directory for both coverages and grids. This total is
approximately 10,000. Therefore, this limits the number of grids
you can store in a workspace.
Fewer than 5,000 floating point grids, or
Fewer than 3,333 integer grids, with VATs (fewer than
5,000 if no VATs), or
Fewer than 10,000 grid stacks

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Stack
A stack consists of an ordered set of spatially overlapping grids
(layers) treated as a single entity for multivariate analysis.
A stack has the following characteristics:
A set of layers with each layer corresponding to a grid
A map extent,
A cell size
A data type
A projection

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No Data in a grid

Every cell in a grid has a value assigned to it; however, cells

without actual values can be assigned NoData on the grid.
No Data cells cannot be used in calculating the statistics.

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2.9 TIN data models
TINs
A triangulated irregular network (TIN) approximates
the terrain with a set of nonoverlapping triangles.
Each triangle in the TIN assumes a constant
gradient.
Flat areas of the land surface have fewer but larger
triangles, whereas areas with higher variability in
elevation have denser but smaller triangles.
The TIN is commonly used for terrain mapping and
analysis, especially for 3-D display

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TINs

•A TIN uses a series of non overlapping triangles to approximate the

terrain.
• Each triangle is a polygon, each node of a triangle is a point, and each
edge of a triangle is a line.

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2.9 TIN data models

TINs
The inputs to a TIN include point, line, and polygon
features.

An initial TIN can be constructed from elevation

points and contour lines.

Its approximation of the surface can then be

improved by incorporating line features such as
streams, ridge lines, and roads and by polygon
features such as lakes and reservoirs.

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2.9 TIN data models

TINs
A finished TIN comprises three types of geometric
objects:
polygons (triangles), points (nodes), and lines
(edges).

Its data structure therefore includes the triangle

number, the number of each adjacent triangle, and
data files showing the lists of points, edges, as well
as the x, y, and z values of each elevation point

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2.9 TIN data models
TINs
Esri has introduced a terrain data format with the
geodatabase, which can store elevation points along
with line and polygon feature classes in a feature
dataset.

Using the feature dataset and its contents, the user

can construct a TIN on the fly.

The terrain data format eases the task of putting

together a TIN but does not change the basic data
structure of the TIN.

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Regions
A region is a set of geographic areas with similar
characteristics.
Eg: region may represent areas burned by forest
fires in the same year.

If a forest fire map is prepared using the concept of

region, the map will have two distinguishing
features.
First, two or more regions can cover or overlap the
same area burned by fires in different years

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models
Regions
Second, a region can include areas that are spatially
disjoint.

Similar to a forest fire map, a map of hierarchical

census units showing states and counties can also
be based on regions, with states represented by one
region and counties by another region.

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Because the simple polygon coverage cannot

handle the characteristics of regions
Regions are organized as subclasses in a polygon
coverage and, through additional data files,
regions are related to the underlying polygons and
arcs.

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2.9 TIN data models

Regions
Figure 3.20 shows the file structure for two regions,
four polygons, and five arcs.

The region-polygon list relates the regions to the

polygons.

Region 101 consists of polygons 11 and 12.

Region 102 has two components: one includes
spatially joint polygons 12 and 13, and the other
spatially disjoint polygon 14.

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2.10 OGC Standards

What is the OGC?

The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) is a not-for-profit

organisation focused on developing and defining open
standards for the geospatial community to allow
interoperability between various software, and data services.
The collection of geoportals and various other complimentary
services, create a Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI).

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Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI)

SDI is used to represent all the components that enable access

to spatial data including relevant technologies, policies and
institutional arrangements.
An SDI:
Must be more than a single dataset or database
Must provide some method to access the geographic data

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2.10 OGC Standards
Who is part of the OGC?

OGC Memberships
Strategic Membership
Principle Membership
Technical Membership
Associate Membership

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2.10 OGC Standards

What are OGC standards?
oOGC Standards are technical documents that set out how
specific geospatial data and services have to be interfaced or
encoded to become interoperable.
oAll OGC standards are freely available to the public.
Common OGC standards
 OGC Web Services (OWS)
Other OGC Standards

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2.10 OGC Standards

OGC Web Services
Web Map Service (WMS)
Web Feature Service (WFS)
Web Coverage Service (WCS)
Web Processing Service (WPS)
Web Map Tile Service (WMTS)
Catalogue Service for the Web (CS-W)
Styled Layer Descriptor (SLD)

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2.10 OGC Standards

Other OGC Standards
KML
Geographic Markup Language (GML)
Sensor Model Language (Sensor ML)
Location Service (open LS)
Open GeoSMS
Geo API

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2.11 Data Quality

What is Data Quality?
Data quality is the degree of data Excellency that satisfy the
given objective. In other words, completeness of attributes in
order to achieve the given task can be termed as Data Quality.
Data quality is a pillar in any GIS implementation and
application as reliable data are indispensable to allow the user
obtaining meaningful results.
Data completeness
Data Precision
Data accuracy
Data Consistency.

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Data Completeness:
It is basically the measure of totality of features. A data
set with minimal amount of missing features can be termed as
Complete-Data.
Data Precision:
Precision can be termed as the degree of details that are
displayed on a uniform space.

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Data Accuracy:
This can be termed as between the actual attributes value and
coded attribute value.
Data Consistency:
Data consistency can be termed as the absence of conflicts in a
particular database.

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