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What Is Green Infrastructure?

By Scott Cullen, RCA #348

Introduction respects a subjective label. Since Con- structure is basic physical and organiza-
The term green infrastructure is increas- sulting Arborists work in a range of con- tional structures needed for the operation
ingly common in arboriculture and urban texts and with designers and managers of a society or enterprise, or the services
forestry discussions and practice. Arbor- having varied perspectives, it is essential and facilities necessary for an economy
ists and urban foresters may, not surpris- for Consulting Arborists to identify the to function.”
ingly, understand the term in narrow ref- meaning of green infrastructure that is
erence to publicly owned street and park applicable to a particular discussion or Thus, the first distinction can be made
trees. The term is found in the arboricul- arboricultural consulting assignment. between physical or “hard” infrastruc-
ture and urban forestry literature without ture and organizational, institutional
definition (see, e.g., Dwyer and Childs This article is not a technical tutorial on or “soft” infrastructure. The distinction
2003, .cPherson 2007) as if the concept conserving, designing, building or main- between computer hardware and soft-
is widely and uniformly understood. To taining green infrastructure. It is not ware is a useful analogy.
the contrary, many treatments of green about enumerating the real or perceived
infrastructure begin like these: benefits of green infrastructure. Rather, Hard infrastructure refers to physical
it is intended to describe the general con- assets, networks, structures or systems
• “Green infrastructure means different cept and related concepts and to distin- and this is reflected in many definitions,
things to different people depending guish categories of green infrastructure for example:
on the context in which it is used. For found in the literature and practice. This
example, some people refer to trees in article identifies four distinct categories • “...‘hard’ infrastructure refers to the
urban areas as green infrastructure of green infrastructure, with variations large physical networks necessary for
because of the ‘green’ benefits they among them: the functioning of a modern industrial
provide, while others use green nation...” (Wikipedia 2012).
infrastructure to refer to engineered • Conserved green space. • “infrastructure: the human improve-
structures (such water treatment facilities • Stormwater control measures. ments, such as roads, bridges, and water
or green roofs) that are designed to be • The urban forest. and sewer lines to natural settings, that
environmentally friendly” (Benedict • Green buildings and green building permit a city, state, or region to func-
and McMahon 2002, p. 5). practices. tion” (SAF 2008).
• “...some believe that the phrase • “infrastructure: the transport links,
[green infrastructure] has undergone Before describing these categories in communications networks, sewage sys-
‘definition creep’ and often means more detail, it is necessary to establish tems, energy plants and other facilities
different things to different people” some concepts and terms. essential for the efficient functioning of
(Gross 2009). a country and its economy. In corporate
• “ ‘Green infrastructure’ is a relatively What is Infrastructure? terms, the essential physical assets nec-
new and flexible term, and it has been With the basic assumption that green essary to run a business, e.g., the cable
used differently in different contexts” infrastructure is a form or subset of infra- laid by a pay-TV company” (FT 2012).
(US EPA 2013b). structure, let’s start by understanding • “Bridges, roads, and tunnels [as exam-
what infrastructure is. Literally it is the ples]—what we know as hard infrastruc-
A review of the literature confirms that foundation or framework of things, the ture—are easy to grasp as the backbone
the meaning of green infrastructure var- structure below (from the Latin infra). of the city... the hard underpinnings
ies widely by context and is in many According to Wikipedia (2012): “Infra- that make cities work” (Iovine 2010).

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What Is Green Infrastructure? continued

It is important to note that, in green accounting system, and the cultural structure of curriculum, teaching, testing
industry jargon, hardscape (see, e.g., attitudes”.(Niskanen 1991). and credentialing. A health care system is
CTLA 2000, pp. 77-78; Costello and • “Soft infrastructure is something else composed of both the hard infrastructure
Jones 2003, p. 3; ISA 2013) refers to altogether. Immaterial, expansively of hospitals, medical buildings and nurs-
the non-plant or structural components informational, and slippery...with none ing homes and soft infrastructure such as
of a landscape. Similarly, the so-called of the steel beams, soaring trusses, and administration, clinical professions and
built environment (see, e.g., Roberts hulking pipes we associate with the health insurance.
et al 2006, Johnston and Percival 2012) hard underpinnings that make cities
refers to human constructed environ- work” (Iovine 2010). People as infrastructure. It is also obvi-
ments and improvements. The built ous that people—fire fighters, police offi-
environment, however, is more broadly While this hard-physical vs. soft-imma- cers and teachers to name a few exam-
defined than hardscape and may include terial distinction may seem basic and ples—are essential to the creation and
the entire built landscape. Younger et al hard to blur, even it varies in practice. operation of our hard and soft infrastruc-
(2008), for example, note that “Distinct For example: “The idea of soft infrastruc- ture. The question arises of whether those
from the natural environment, the built ture is to use techniques from nature and people are infrastructure. They might be
environment is comprised of manmade ecology to improve resiliency...Among described as personal infrastructure,
components of people’s surround- but some economists consider all
ings, from small-scale settings (e.g., people working or available to work
offices, houses, hospitals, shop- in an economy or society as personal
ping malls, and schools) to large- infrastructure or human capital (see,
scale settings (e.g., neighborhoods, e.g., Torrisi 2009). It might seem log-
communities, and cities), as well as ical to categorize people as human
roads, sidewalks, green spaces, and infrastructure, but that label has
connecting transit systems.” This been used to collectively describe the
might suggest that natural environ- hard, soft and personal infrastruc-
ments or plants in the built envi- ture dedicated to caring for people:
ronment are “softscape.” Whether “...education, health service, care for
natural, naturalized, planted or con- Figure 1. Networked green infrastructure. (US EPA 2013a) the elderly and disabled” (Benedict
structed, however, they are hard or and MacMahon 2002, p.6).
physical in nature. If treated as infra- the techniques it proposed were restoring
structure, then as physical assets they and enlarging wetlands, creating reefs Other characteristics of infrastruc-
are components of the hard or physical and archipelagoes of artificial islands and ture. Two other infrastructure char-
infrastructure. seeding oyster beds” (Anon. 2012). This acteristics will distinguish some of the
use obviously describes constructed or meanings or uses of green infrastructure.
Soft infrastructure, by contrast, refers to enhanced physical forms but character-
institutions and organizational structures izes them as “soft,” apparently to contrast Infrastructure is often described as net-
or systems. The distinction is reflected in them to architectural forms like flood works or components of physically
other definitions, for example: gates, levees or seawalls. interconnected networks. The obvi-
ous examples are highways, railroads
• “‘soft’ infrastructure refers to all the Combined hard and soft infrastruc- and various utility networks. Many
institutions which are required to main- ture. Much of our infrastructure is obvi- other components of infrastructure are,
tain the economic, health, and cultural ously composed of both hard and soft however, physically discrete. Examples
and social standards of a country, such elements. A legal system is composed of include courthouses, hospitals, police
as the financial system, the education both hard infrastructure like government stations and schools. Networked green
system, the health care system, the sys- offices, courthouses, police stations and infrastructure is described as composed
tem of government, and law enforce- correctional facilities and the soft infra- of “hubs and links” (e.g., Benedict and
ment, as well as emergency services” structure of government and laws. An MacMahon 2002, pp.7-8) or “cores and
(Wikipedia 2012). educational system is composed of both corridors” (e.g., Firehock 2010). Green-
• “the three basic institutions—the req- the hard infrastructure of educational ways, trails or other corridors can con-
uisite soft infrastructure—of a mar- offices, school and university buildings nect green spaces, that would otherwise
ket economy are the legal system, the and research facilities and the soft infra- be isolated, into a network.

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What Is Green Infrastructure? continued

Scale describes spatial size or distribu- McMahon 2002, p. 8; acteristics sup-

tion. Gross (2009), for example, notes personal communica- Green Infrastructure port the alloca-
“When using the term ‘green infrastruc- tion, Mike Galvin, is often abbreviated tion of financial
ture’...resource managers may be refer- RCA #432). resources to the
ring to anything from a street-side rain as GI. That usage is planning, acquisi-
garden to a statewide land conservation While it might be avoided in this article tion, conservation,
network.” A site scale, street-side bioswale interesting and tidy management and
rain garden is not likely to be physically to credit an original
because of potential maintenance of
connected to a network. source, the important confusion with Gray green infrastruc-
point is that the term ture, and this is a
Origin of Green Infrastructure green infrastructure
Infrastructure. key motivation for
The term green infrastructure is often came into use in the applying the label.
traced to the early 1990s but it is not clear early 1990s to characterize particular The characteristic of physical connectiv-
when it was first used or by whom. Sec- classes of assets or resources. ity in networks is essential in some green
ondary sources are conflicting and not infrastructure contexts and immaterial
clearly verifiable. Gross (2009) suggests Why Green Infrastructure? in others.
that the term was “Coined by...McMa- The next question is why the term emerged.
hon...in a May, 1999 report of the Presi- Green infrastructure was used to depart In the 20 odd years since the term
dent’s Council on Sustainable Develop- from the traditional concept of green emerged, it has been applied to different
ment...” Firehock (2010) acknowledges spaces, greenways and urban forests in at things in different ways and it is as much
McMahon’s significant contributions but least three ways. Benedict and McMahon an element of branding and marketing as
suggests that “The term itself was first (2002, p. 7) describe them well: it is of physical characteristics.
coined in Florida in 1994 in a report to
the governor on land conservation strate- • Necessity. “Whereas green space is The Infrastructure Color Palette
gies…” In that primary source (MacKay often viewed as something that is nice Color is an intuitively descriptive way to
and Reed 1994, p.3) MacKay states “Just to have, the term green infrastructure distinguish some types of infrastructure.
as we carefully plan the infrastructure implies something that we must have.
our communities need to support the Protecting and restoring our nation’s Green infrastructure. Green is obvi-
people who live there—the roads, water natural life support system is a neces- ously descriptive of vegetation or vege-
and electricity—so must we begin to plan sity, not an amenity.” tated habitats and varied types of green
and manage Florida’s green infrastruc- • Sustainability. “Whereas green space infrastructure are described in the fol-
ture” and alludes to a green infrastructure is often viewed as self-sustaining, the lowing section. Once in use, the term
mission of the Florida Greenways Project term green infrastructure implies some- green infrastructure was quickly com-
which was undertaken in 1991. There is thing that must be actively maintained pared and contrasted to gray infrastruc-
no documentation, however, of a 1991 and at times restored.” Many sources ture. Both are infrastructure but they are
usage of “green infrastructure” (personal note that green infrastructure must be materially different.
communication, Florida Office of Green- planned for and managed.
ways and Trails staff). In the same period, • Connectivity. “Whereas green space is Gray infrastructure. Gray is descriptive
Rowntree et al (1994) also used the term often thought of as isolated parks, rec- of construction materials in the built envi-
in an urban forest context: “Vegetation reation sites or natural areas, the term ronment such as concrete, steel and stone.
is part of the region’s infrastructure, green infrastructure emphasizes inter- Gray (also called “general”) infrastructure
woven into a complex network of power connected systems…” includes networked systems like highways,
lines, roads, aqueducts, and sewers...green roads, sidewalks, utility lines, sanitary and
infrastructure…” No source is cited and Necessity is the essential characteristic storm sewers and potable water lines, and
co-authors McPherson and Nowak (per- of infrastructure that applies to all green discrete structures like buildings or sea-
sonal communications) suggest that the infrastructure. The need to manage for walls (see, e.g., Benedict and McMahon
term was already sufficiently established sustainability applies to all green infra- 2002, p. 7; Costello and Jones 2003, p. 3;
in the vernacular that citation was not structure but the level of management Sustainable Cities Institute 2010).
necessary. The term was reportedly in required varies from intensive in the
use by the State of Maryland during this urban built environment to minimal in Blue infrastructure. Blue is descrip-
same early 1990s period (Benedict and wildland green spaces. These two char- tive of water. Oceans, lakes, rivers and

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What Is Green Infrastructure? continued

streams, for instance, are traditionally larly, water re-use jargon distinguishes to the combined structure, position,
shown on maps in blue. The term blue brown or black (containing high levels connectivity and types of green spaces
infrastructure is sometimes used to dis- of organic waste such as fecal matter and which together enable delivery of mul-
tinguish environments and systems asso- urine), gray (other domestic waste) and tiple benefits as goods and services”
ciated with water. white (fresh) water (Ecoshift 2012), but (Forest Research 2010).
blue infrastructure might handle any of
• Natural environments. Some uses of those waters. There are variations even in such broad
blue infrastructure refer to ecosystems, definitions, principally whether green
habitats or landforms dominated by What Is Green Infrastructure? infrastructure includes both natural
water. They may be described broadly With that foundation laid, we can more and built or only natural elements. Fire-
as “aquatic” whether they are freshwa- meaningfully answer the question: What hock (2010) suggests that this “confu-
ter, brackish or marine habitats. McCall is green infrastructure? sion” started in 2007 when the US-EPA
(2012), for example, notes “Each region labeled built engineered structures for
of our State—from the forested moun- Green infrastructure—a broad con- stormwater management as green infra-
tains in the West to the coastal plains cept. Some definitions of green infra- structure. This neglects the fact that
in the East—is home to unique por- structure are broad and all-encompass- natural appearing green spaces such as
tions of...blue infrastructure.” Some ing. For example: parks are often designed and built.
uses focus on coastal or “nearshore”
environments (see, e.g., Garman et al • “Green infrastructure can be consid- An internet or library search on “green
2008, Edwards et al 2013) and others ered a conceptual framework for under- infrastructure,” however, is as likely to
describe inland water resources (see, standing the ‘valuable services nature find a narrow and specific definition
e.g., SBPC 2011). provides the human environment.’ At as a broad one. The searcher might be
• Built environments. Man made envi- the national or regional level, intercon- given the impression that such a specific
ronmental features like artificial reefs nected networks of park systems and definition is the only, best or preferred
(see, e.g., Harris 2009, SIT 2011, Anon. wildlife corridors preserve ecological definition, especially if the source seems
2012) can easily be characterized as blue function and create a balance between authoritative. The more specific defini-
infrastructure. built and natural environments. At the tions are sometimes described as “imple-
• Built infrastructure. Some uses of blue urban level, parks and urban forestry mentation strategies” or “practices” of the
infrastructure refer to the components are central to reducing energy usage broader green infrastructure concepts.
of the constructed infrastructure dedi- costs and creating clean, temperate air. This article identified four distinct cat-
cated to water including both potable Lastly, green roofs, walls, and other egories of green infrastructure with vari-
water supply and storm and sanitary techniques within or on buildings bring ations. These categories may be clearly
sewer systems (see, e.g., SBPC 2011). a range of benefits, including reduced bounded or may overlap.
Some uses may focus on water reuse energy consumption and dramatically
(see, e.g., Bargmann et al 2011). These decreased stormwater runoff. At all Green infrastructure—conserved
constructed systems might otherwise be scales, green infrastructure provides green space. This category was probably
considered gray infrastructure. real ecological, economic, and social the first usage, as noted in the preced-
benefits” (ASLA 2011). ing origins section. It came out of and
To complicate the color palette, con- • “Green infrastructure is defined by a continues to be used in conservation and
structed roof-top stormwater manage- range of natural and built systems that land use planning. It is sometimes asso-
ment might all be described as blue can occur at the regional, community, ciated with “smart growth” and “anti-
infrastructure, but purely mechanical and site scales” (NOAA 2009). sprawl” efforts. It is the least specific of
detention systems are called “blue roofs” • “Green infrastructure...may be defined the categories and may incorporate goals
while systems that incorporate grow- as the system of land, natural resources, and objectives from the more specific
ing plant media are called “green roofs” and natural habitats that collectively ones. Some examples are:
(NYC-DEP 2012a). Green roofs, how- comprise a community’s underlying
ever, frequently appear in catalogues of ecosystem” (Sustainable Cities Insti- • “Green infrastructure is the term
green infrastructure. In the context of cli- tute 2010). applied to undeveloped lands with high
mate adaptation, “white roofs” use high • “Although there is no commonly value for their environmental and open
reflectivity to reduce thermal energy accepted or authoritative definition in space functions. Green infrastructure
absorption (Foster et al 2011). Simi- the UK, ‘green infrastructure’ refers most commonly refers to forest sys-

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tems...[but] green infrastructure con- Control Measure (SCM), (see NRC terms interchangeably) produce a range
cepts are still applicable to grasslands or 2009, pp. 145) or an element of Water of economic and social benefits in con-
mixed shrub landscapes” (Outen 2009). Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD, Mel- junction with managing storm water”
• “...green infrastructure is defined as an bourne Water 2013). (Wise et al 2010).
interconnected network of green space • “Low impact development is an
[emphasis in the original]...Green Much of the emphasis is on so called “site- approach to land development, or rede-
infrastructure is ‘smart’ conservation... scale” green infrastructure including bio- velopment, that works with nature to
because it looks at conservation val- swales, green roofs and rain gardens, but manage stormwater as close to its source
ues and actions in concert with land parks, urban forests and other green spaces as possible... Recently, this term has
development...Other conservation may be included under this umbrella. come to be used interchangeably with
approaches typically are undertaken the term ‘site-scale green infrastructure
in isolation from—or even in oppo- • “Green Infrastructure: Systems that practices’” (NOAA 2009).
sition to—development. This mono- mimic natural processes in order to • “LID is an approach to land develop-
graph introduces green infrastructure infiltrate, evaporate, and/or reuse ment...that works with nature to man-
as a strategic approach…” (Benedict stormwater. Green infrastructure uses age stormwater as close to its source as
and McMahon 2002, p. 5). soils, topography, and vegetation in possible... LID can be applied to new
• [We define] “...green infrastructure as a way that minimizes the impacts of development, redevelopment, or as ret-
the interconnected network of open anthropogenic disturbance and main- rofits to existing development... Green
spaces and natural areas, such as green- tains the pre-development hydrology infrastructure can be used at a wide
ways, wetlands, parks, forest preserves and water quality of urban environ- range of landscape scales...to support
and native plant vegetation, that pro- ments” (SUNY-ESF 2102). the principles of LID” (US EPA 2013b,
vide wildlife habitat, natural drainage, • “Green infrastructure uses vegetation, see also US EPA 2000).
recreational opportunities and help to soils, and natural processes to man-
sustain our Nation’s cities...” (U.S. Con- age water and create healthier urban While some language is obviously bor-
ference of Mayors 2006). environments. At the scale of a city or rowed across sources, LID is variably
• “Just as we plan networks of roads, we county, green infrastructure refers to applied to green infrastructure scales.
can plan networks of open spaces and the patchwork of natural areas that pro- LID is variously considered interchange-
natural resources that connect com- vides habitat, flood protection, cleaner able with green infrastructure or a green
munities and regions. This is our green air, and cleaner water. At the scale of a infrastructure practice or implementa-
infrastructure.” (The Conservation neighborhood or site, green infrastruc- tion. Or, conversely, it may be consid-
Fund 2013). ture refers to stormwater management ered that green infrastructure is an LID
• “Green infrastructure is the network of systems that mimic nature by soaking practice or implementation. When LID
open space, airsheds, watersheds, wood- up and storing water” (US EPA 2012). is limited to stormwater management (as
lands, wildlife habitat, parks, and other • “...green infrastructure—including in these examples), then it seems most
natural areas that provides many vital bioswales, green roofs, and subsurface accurate to say that green infrastructure
services that sustain life and enrich the detention systems—to control storm- practices are one LID implementation
quality of life (PCSD 1999, p. 64). water from impervious spaces such as strategy and that some gray infrastruc-
roofs and sidewalks ...can reduce more ture practices such as permeable paving
Green infrastructure—stormwater CSOs [combined sewer overflows] at are another LID implementation strat-
management. Many sources describe less cost than second-tier ‘grey’ infra- egy. While most often found applied to
green infrastructure in the specific con- structure” (NYC-DEP 2012b). stormwater management, LID is easily
text of managing stormwater (that is, • “Green infrastructure is an approach to associated conceptually with conserva-
the water generated by rain or snowmelt wet weather management that is cost- tion and planning (preceding) and green
on ‘impervious surfaces’ (such as roads, effective, sustainable, and environmen- building (following) categories of green
sidewalks, parking lots, and buildings) or tally friendly” (Latham 2012). infrastructure.
wet weather. Green infrastructure, in this
context, is contrasted to the gray infra- A closely related concept is low impact Green infrastructure—the urban for-
structure of stormwater or combined development (LID). Some examples are: est. Arborists and urban foresters increas-
sewer pipes and water treatment plants. ingly describe and manage urban forests
(SUNY-ESF 2102) Green infrastructure, • “Green Infrastructure and Low Impact as green infrastructure. The usage is fre-
in this context, is a type of Stormwater Development practices (we use these quently found in the literature (see, e.g.,

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What Is Green Infrastructure? continued

Dwyer and Childs 2003, McPherson structure than an objective that can uti- Acknowledgements
2007, Schwab 2009). Consulting Arbor- lize any of the more distinct categories I am grateful to Cynthia Radford and
ists are generally familiar with this cat- (see e.g., Foster et al 2011, University of Jim Wood of the Florida Office of Gre-
egory, so elaboration is beyond the scope Melbourne 2013). enways and Trails; Dr. Greg McPherson
of this article, which is intended to put and Dr. Dave Nowak of the U.S. For-
this category in the broader green infra- Conclusion est Service; Prof. Susan Day and Tom
structure context. Green infrastructure is a term with many Martin of Virginia Tech; Mike Galvin,
meanings and is not confined to urban for- RCA #432, Gordon Mann, RCA #480
It is interesting to note the attention ests. Many authoritative sources give spe- and Bailey Hudson for helping me to
given to so called “tree-infrastructure cific definitions that vary from or exclude trace the history of the term green infra-
conflicts” (see e.g., McPherson and Peper others. This article explores various mean- structure. Katie Rose Levin of Duke
1995, Coder 1998, Costello and Jones, ings and applications of green infrastruc- University and Odile Pouliquen-Young
2003). If we effectively treat trees and ture and underlying and related concepts of Curtin University pointed me to a
urban forests as green infrastructure to identify four distinct categories of green comprehensive sources I had missed. Joe
then we will talk about complementing infrastructure. This article brushes the sur- McNeil, RCA #299, and two anonymous
and integrating gray and green infra- face of some current sources and is not reviewers provided useful comments.
structure rather than about conflicts. exhaustive. The meanings are evolving and
proliferating constantly. Scott Cullen, RCA #348, has been
Green infrastructure—“green build- involved in various aspects of arboriculture
ing.” Green building is a widely dis- If an arboricultural consulting assign- since 1971 and is a full time consultant in
cussed concept. According to Wikipe- ment involves green infrastructure, a the metropolitan New York area. He is a
dia (2013) “green building practices aim Consulting Arborist must identify the licensed real estate broker, has a masters
to reduce the environmental impact of specific meaning that applies and should degree in real estate development and often
buildings…” Consulting Arborists may independently consult current sources. works at the professional interface among
be familiar with the U.S. Green Building Among the things to confirm are: land use planning, development, arbori-
Council’s LEED (Leadership in Energy culture and urban forestry.
and Environmental Design) program • Is the green infrastructure hard (phys-
(USGBC 2013) and the related Sustain- ical, such as trees) or soft (organiza- Literature Cited
able Sites Initiative (SSI 2013). tional, such as a tree inventory)? Anon. 2012. Protecting NYC: “Soft infrastructure” as
storm surge defense alternatives. Homeland Security
• What is the green infrastructure (e.g., News Wire, November 20. http://www.homeland-
When green building incorporates green trees, parks, greenways, rain gardens)? securitynewswire.com/dr20121119-soft-infrastruc-
ture-as-storm-surge-defense-alternatives (accessed
infrastructure practices such as bioswales • Is the green infrastructure the objective December 29, 2012).
or green roofs the green infrastructure (e.g., an urban forest for all its benefits) ASLA (American Society of Landscape Architects).
2011. Professional Practice - Green Infrastructure.
label is properly applied. When gray or a practice to achieve another primary http://www.asla.org/ContentDetail.aspx?id=24076
infrastructure incorporates “green” or objective (e.g., a bioswale to manage (accessed January 22, 2013).
environmentally desirable features that storm water)? Bargmann, Julie, Eden Brukman and Will Kirksey.
2011. Blue Infrastructure: The Living Systems of
do not include living plants, however, • What is the scale of the green infra- Water Reuse. ASLA Annual Meeting Presentation.
green infrastructure is a misnomer. A structure (e.g., one or more site scale Benedict, Mark A. and Edward T. McMahon. 2002.
new light rail station, for example, is bioswales or a statewide trails network)? Green Infrastructure: Smart Conservation for the
21st Century (Sprawl Watch Clearinghouse Mono-
obviously infrastructure. If it is con- • Does the green infrastructure comple- graph Series). Sprawl Watch Clearinghouse, Wash-
ington, D.C. 32 pp.
structed largely of locally sourced, ment or conflict with gray infrastruc-
Coder, Kim D. 1998. Tree Roots and Infrastructure
recycled, natural materials, is energy ture in the project area? Damage. Extension Publication FOR 98-008.
efficient and obtains its energy from • In the specific context, does the green http://warnell.forestry.uga.edu/service/library/for98-
008/for98-008.pdf (accessed January 6, 2013).
“alternative” sources, it may qualify as a infrastructure have an alternative or
Costello, Laurance R. and Katherine S. Jones. 2003.
green building but is not properly green confusing label (e.g., blue infrastruc- Reducing Infrastructure Damage by Tree Roots: A
infrastructure. ture, softscape, soft infrastructure)? Compendium of Strategies. WC-ISA, Cohasset, CA.
119pp.
CTLA (Council of Tree and Landscape Appraisers).
While found less frequently in the liter- As with any arboricultural consulting 2000. Guide for Plant Appraisal, 9th Edition. Inter-
national Society of Arboriculture, Champaign, IL.
ature there is discussion of green infra- assignment, preparation, research and 143pp.
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less a category or type of green infra- stakeholders are essential. and the management of urban green infrastructure.

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