SPACE SCIENCE –UNIT 5 NOTES

SOLAR SYSTEM :Nebular theory of formation of our Solar System – Solar wind and
nuclear reaction as the source of energy – Sun and Planets: Brief description about
shape size – period of rotation about axis and period of revolution – distance of planets
from sun – Bode’s law – Kepler’s Laws of planetary motion – Newton’s deductions from
Kepler’s Laws – correction of Kepler’s third law – determination of mass of earth –
determination of mass of planets with respect to earth – Brief description of Asteroids
-Satellites and Comets.

1.NEBULAR THEORY OF FORMATION OF SOLAR

SYSTEM
WHAT IS A NEBULAR THEORY

The nebular theory is a widely accepted model in astrophysics and astronomy that explains
the formation and evolution of stars and planetary systems, including our own Solar System

The nebular theory of the formation of our Solar System is a comprehensive model that
describes how our Sun and its accompanying planets formed from a rotating disk of gas and
dust about 4.6 billion years ago. This theory has been developed and refined over centuries,
drawing upon observational evidence, computational simulations, and laboratory
experiments.
STEPS OF FORMATION OF SOLAR SYSTEM:

1.Nebula Formation

2.Protostellar Collapse

3.Protoplanetary Disk Formation

4.Planetesimal Formation

5.Protoplanet Formation

6.Planetary System Formation

1. NEBULA FORMATION :

Nebulae are vast clouds of gas and dust in space, primarily composed of hydrogen and
helium, along with traces of other elements.

These clouds can form from the remnants of previous stars or through the gravitational
collapse of interstellar gas and dust.

Over time, gravity causes particles within the cloud to attract each other, leading to the
formation of denser regions.

2. Protostellar Collapse

As the dense regions within the nebula continue to attract more material, they begin to
collapse under their own gravity.
The gravitational collapse causes the gas and dust to heat up and compress, leading to the
formation of a dense core at the center of the collapsing region.

This core becomes a protostar—a young, hot object that continues to accrete material from
its surrounding nebula.

3.Protoplanetary Disk Formation:

As material falls onto the protostar, it starts to spin faster due to the conservation of angular
momentum.

This spinning motion causes the protostellar envelope to flatten into a disk shape, known as
a protoplanetary disk or solar nebula.

The majority of the material in the protoplanetary disk is concentrated in the midplane, while
the central protostar continues to grow at the disk's center.

4.Planetesimal Formation:

Within the protoplanetary disk, small solid particles, often consisting of ice, rock, and metal,
collide and stick together.

Through processes like electrostatic attraction and van der Waals forces, these particles
gradually aggregate to form larger objects called planetesimals.

Planetesimals range in size from meters to kilometers and serve as the building blocks for
planets and other celestial bodies.

5.Protoplanet Formation:

As planetesimals collide and merge, they form larger bodies called protoplanets.

These protoplanets continue to grow through accretion, as they sweep up material in their
orbits around the central protostar.

Over time, protoplanets become larger and more massive, eventually becoming the cores
of planets.

6.Planetary System Formation:

Through ongoing accretion and gravitational interactions, protoplanets and other bodies
within the protoplanetary disk continue to grow and evolve.

Eventually, stable orbits are established, leading to the formation of a planetary system
consisting of planets, moons, asteroids, and comets orbiting a central star—the protostar
that has now matured into a stable star.
The order in which planets form within a protoplanetary disk can be influenced by various
factors, including distance from the central star, temperature, and composition of the disk.
However, a general trend observed in many planetary systems, including our own Solar
System, is as follows:

Terrestrial Planets (Inner Planets):

Closest to the central star, where temperatures are higher and solid materials can condense
more readily, terrestrial planets tend to form.

These planets are rocky and dense, composed mainly of metal and silicate materials.

In our Solar System, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are terrestrial planets.

Giant Planets (Outer Planets):

Farther from the central star, beyond the frost line where volatile substances like water and
ammonia can remain in solid form, giant planets tend to form.

These planets are primarily composed of hydrogen and helium, with thick atmospheres and
relatively low densities.

In our Solar System, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are giant planets.
LAWS USED IN NEBULAR THEORY

Two fundamental laws of physics are essential for understanding the nebular theory of
planetary system formation:

Law of Universal Gravitation (Isaac Newton):

This law states that every mass in the universe attracts every other mass with a force
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between their centers.

Mathematically, it is expressed as F = G *(m1 m2) / r^2, where F is the gravitational force,

G is the gravitational constant, m1 and m2 are the masses of the two objects, and r is the
distance between their centers.
The law of universal gravitation governs the gravitational interactions between celestial
bodies within a protoplanetary disk, leading to the accretion of material and the formation
of larger objects like planets and stars.

Conservation of Angular Momentum:

This principle states that the total angular momentum of a system remains constant if no
external torque acts on it.

Angular momentum is the measure of the rotational motion of an object and is calculated
as the product of its mass, velocity, and distance from the axis of rotation.

Mathematically, it is expressed as L = m *v * r, where L is the angular momentum, m is the

mass, v is the velocity, and r is the radius.

In the context of the nebular theory, the conservation of angular momentum explains how a
rotating protoplanetary disk forms around a protostar. As the collapsing nebula contracts,
its rotation rate increases due to the conservation of angular momentum, resulting in the
formation of a flattened disk structure.
2.SOLAR WIND AND NUCLEAR REACTION AS THE SOURCE
OF ENERGY
Solar wind and nuclear reactions are two distinct yet powerful sources of energy with
different applications and implications.

solar Wind:Solar wind is a continuous stream of charged particles, primarily electrons and
protons, emitted from the sun's outer atmosphere or corona. These particles travel through
space at high speeds and carry energy.

1. Nature and Composition: Solar wind is primarily composed of charged particles, mainly
protons and electrons, with a small fraction of heavier ions. These particles are emitted from
the sun due to the high temperature and kinetic energy in the corona.

2. Effects:Solar wind interacts with planetary magnetospheres, causing phenomena such

as auroras and magnetic storms. It also affects the tails of comets and plays a role in
shaping the heliosphere, the region of space influenced by the sun's magnetic field.

3. Applications: Solar wind is utilized in space exploration, particularly in powering

spacecraft through the use of solar sails or as a means of propulsion for interplanetary
missions. However, its direct use as an energy source on Earth is limited due to its diffuse
nature and relatively low energy density.

Nuclear Reactions:

Nuclear reactions involve the manipulation of atomic nuclei, resulting in the release or
absorption of significant amounts of energy. The two primary types of nuclear reactions are
nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.

1. Nuclear Fusion: Fusion is the process in which atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier
nucleus, releasing a large amount of energy. This process is the source of energy in stars,
including the sun.

Applications:While fusion has immense potential as a clean and virtually limitless energy
source, practical fusion reactors have not yet been achieved on Earth due to the immense
technological challenges involved.

2. Nuclear Fission: Fission is the process in which a heavy atomic nucleus splits into lighter
nuclei, accompanied by the release of energy and additional neutrons. Applications:
Nuclear fission is harnessed in nuclear power plants to generate electricity.Controlled
fission reactions produce heat, which is used to generate steam that drives turbines
connected to electrical generators. Despite concerns over safety and waste disposal,
nuclear fission remains a significant source of low-carbon electricity in many countries.

3. SUN AND PLANETS: BRIEF DESCRIPTION ABOUT SHAPE SIZE

The solar system consists of the Sun, nine planets, some 60 or so moons, and assorted
minor materials (asteroids, meteoroids, comets, dust, and gas). All of these objects are tiny
in comparison to the distances that separate them. Imagine the solar system scaled down
such that distances to the planets could be spaced along a 10‐kilometer hiking trail. On such
a scale the Sun would be represented by a ball only 2.3 meters in diameter. The distribution
along the trail and the model sizes for each of the planets are shown in the following table:

Sun:

Size: The Sun is the largest object in our solar system, with a diameter of about 1.4 million
kilometers (870,000 miles).

Shape: It's nearly a perfect sphere due to its gravitational pull, although it may appear
slightly flattened at the poles due to its rotation.
Color: The Sun appears as a bright yellowish-white disk when viewed from space, caused by
the emission of light and energy through nuclear fusion reactions in its core.

Distance from Earth: The average distance from the Sun to Earth is about 1 astronomical
unit (AU), which is approximately 149.6 million kilometers (92.9 million miles).

Additional Features: The Sun is a massive, hot ball of glowing gases, primarily hydrogen and
helium. It's the primary source of light and heat for the solar system, providing energy for life
on Earth through the process of photosynthesis. The Sun also influences space weather and
the magnetic environment of the solar system through solar flares, coronal mass ejections,
and the solar wind.

PLANETS

1. Mercury:

-Size: Mercury is the smallest planet in our solar system, with a diameter of about 4,880
kilometers (3,032 miles).

- Shape: It's roughly spherical but slightly elongated due to its slow rotation.

- Color: Mercury appears grayish-brown, resembling the color of the Moon's surface.

- Distance from the Sun: On average, Mercury is about 0.39 astronomical units (AU) away
from the Sun, which is approximately 57.9 million kilometers (36 million miles).

- Additional Features: Mercury has a heavily cratered surface due to impacts from
asteroids and comets.

2. Venus:

- Size: Venus is similar in size to Earth, with a diameter of about 12,104 kilometers (7,521
miles).

- Shape: It's nearly spherical, but its thick atmosphere causes a slight flattening at the
poles.

- Color: Venus is often described as yellowish-white or cream-colored.

- Distance from the Sun: Venus orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 0.72 AU,
which is roughly 108.2 million kilometers (67.2 million miles).
- Additional Features: Venus has a thick atmosphere composed mainly of carbon dioxide,
with clouds of sulfuric acid that give it a yellowish hue.

3. Earth:

- Size: Earth is the only known planet with life, and it has a diameter of approximately
12,742 kilometers (7,918 miles).

- Shape: It's an oblate spheroid, meaning it's mostly spherical but slightly flattened at the
poles and bulging at the equator.

- Color: Earth is predominantly blue when viewed from space due to its oceans, with brown,
green, and white landmasses.

- Distance from the Sun: Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of 1 astronomical unit
(AU), which is about 149.6 million kilometers (92.9 million miles).

- Additional Features: It's the only known planet with liquid water on its surface, essential
for supporting life.

4. Mars:

- Size: Mars has a diameter of about 6,779 kilometers (4,212 miles), making it roughly half
the size of Earth.

- Shape: It's spherical, but its surface features include towering volcanoes, deep valleys,
and vast plains.

- Color: Mars has a reddish appearance, earning it the nickname "the Red Planet."

- Distance from the Sun: Mars is located, on average, about 1.52 AU away from the Sun,
approximately 227.9 million kilometers (141.6 million miles).

5. Jupiter:

- Size: Jupiter is the largest planet in our solar system, with a diameter of approximately
139,822 kilometers (86,881 miles).

- Shape: It's a gas giant, lacking a solid surface, and is slightly flattened at the poles due
to its rapid rotation.

- Color: Jupiter appears pale yellowish-orange with bands of clouds in various shades of
white, brown, and red.
 - Distance from the Sun: Jupiter orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 5.20 AU,
roughly 778.6 million kilometers (483.8 million miles) away.

- Additional Features: It has a dynamic atmosphere with swirling storms, including the
Great Red Spot, a massive storm larger than Earth.

6. Saturn:

- Size: Saturn is the second-largest planet, with a diameter of about 116,464 kilometers
(72,367 miles).

- Shape: Similar to Jupiter, Saturn is a gas giant with a slightly flattened shape due to its
fast rotation.

- Color: Saturn has a pale golden hue with bands of clouds in shades of white, beige, and
yellow.

- Distance from the Sun: On average, Saturn is about 9.58 AU away from the Sun,
approximately 1.43 billion kilometers (889.7 million miles).

- Additional Features: It is famous for its spectacular ring system, composed of ice and
rock particles, which encircle the planet's equator.

7. Uranus:

- Size: Uranus has a diameter of approximately 50,724 kilometers (31,518 miles).

- Shape: It's spherical but appears slightly flattened due to its rapid rotation.

- Color: Uranus has a pale blue-green color due to the presence of methane in its
atmosphere.

- Distance from the Sun: Uranus orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 19.18 AU,
roughly 2.87 billion kilometers (1.78 billion miles) away.

- Additional Features: Uranus is unique among the planets in our solar system because it
rotates on its side, likely due to a collision early in its history.

8. Neptune:
 - Size: Neptune is similar in size to Uranus, with a diameter of about 49,244 kilometers
(30,598 miles).

- Shape: It's nearly spherical, with a slightly flattened appearance.

- Color: Neptune appears deep blue, similar to Uranus, due to the presence of methane
in its atmosphere.

- Distance from the Sun: Neptune is located, on average, about 30.07 AU away from the
Sun, approximately 4.50 billion kilometers (2.79 billion miles).

- Additional Features: Neptune has powerful winds and a series of dark storms, including
the Great Dark Spot, reminiscent of Jupiter's Great Red Spot.

4. PERIOD OF ROTATION ABOUT AXIS AND PERIOD OF REVOLUTION

PERIOD OF ROTATION
The period of rotation of a planet refers to the time it takes for the planet to complete one
full rotation on its axis. This rotation is what gives rise to day and night on the planet's surface.

To calculate the period of rotation, we can use the following formula:

The Rotation Period of the Earth

To see how this works, consider the case of the Earth. The Earth goes around the Sun in one
year, or approximately 365 1/4 days. The number of degrees in a circle is 360 degrees, which
is about the same as the number of days in a year, so the angle that the Sun seems to move,
relative to the stars, during one rotation is approximately one degree. To calculate how long
it takes for the Earth to rotate through an angle of one degree, we divide the length of a day,
24 hours, or 1440 minutes, by the 360 degrees that it turns through during that rotation,
obtaining a rotational speed of 4 minutes per degree. Since the Sun's motion differs from the
stars' motion by one degree, and it takes 4 minutes for the Earth to turn through one degree,
it takes the Sun 4 minutes longer to go around the sky than it takes for the stars to do so, and
the rotation period of the Earth is 4 minutes less than the length of its day. Since we define a
day as having exactly 24 hours, the rotation period is 23 hours 56 minutes, as shown in the
table.

The Rotation Periods of the Outer Planets

For the outer planets, we can use the same sort of calculation that we just did for the Earth,
taking advantage of the fact that they have much longer orbital periods, so the number of
rotations in a year is much larger, and the distance they move during one rotation is
correspondingly smaller. For Mars, the year is nearly twice as long as ours, 686.98 days, and
the rotation period is a little longer than ours, 24 hours 37 minutes 22.66 seconds (this is
often erroneously listed as the length of the day). Dividing the rotation period into the year,
we find that Mars rotates 670 times in a year, moving around the Sun about half a degree
during each rotation. Since Mars rotates at about the same rate that we do, it would take
about 2 minutes to make up for this half-degree motion; so on Mars, the day must be about
2 minutes longer than the rotation period. These calculations are rounded off considerably,
so the results are only approximate; but if the calculations were accurately done, the results
would be reasonably accurate, as well. For planets which are even further out, the motion
around the Sun is even smaller, and the time required to compensate for it is only a few
seconds. For Jupiter, the difference between the rotation period and the length of the day is
about 3 seconds; and for Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, the difference is about 1 second.
Even for Pluto, which has a much longer rotation rate than the Jovian planets, the difference
between the rotation period and the day is less than 40 seconds -- a small difference,
compared to its rotation period of more than six days. As a result, the day length and rotation
period are about the same, and we often treat them as being the same (just as we often do,
though not as accurately, for the Earth). The above technique works well for the planets with
rotation rates which are rapid compared to their orbital periods, so that they rotate hundreds,
thousands, or even tens of thousands of times in each orbit. But for objects which rotate
very few times in an orbit, the angle A is very large, which means that it takes quite a while
for the planet to rotate through that extra angle, and the difference between the day and the
rotation period can become surprisingly large, as shown below, for the Moon.

PERIOD OF REVOLUTION
The period of revolution, also known as the orbital period, is the time it takes for a planet to
complete one full orbit around the Sun.

The calculation formula for the period of revolution is straightforward

5.BODE’S LAW
Bode's Law is a mathematical formula proposed in the 18th century by Johann Elert Bode. It
attempts to predict the distances of planets from the Sun in our solar system based on a
simple arithmetic sequence. The law suggests that there is a regular pattern in the spacing
of the planets, with each planet's average distance from the Sun being approximately twice
the distance of the previous planet. However, while it accurately predicts the distances of
most planets in the solar system, it fails to account for the actual positions of Neptune and
Pluto, leading to some skepticism about its validity. Bode's Law played a significant role in
the historical development of our understanding of the structure of the solar system.
Graphical plot of the eight planets, Pluto, and Ceres versus the first ten predicted distances.

USE OF BODE’S LAW

Pattern Recognition: Bode's Law provides a systematic method for identifying and
understanding the arrangement of planets in relation to the Sun. By revealing a
mathematical pattern in the distances between planets, it helps astronomers recognize
regularities in celestial bodies' positioning.

Predictive Capability: This law enables astronomers to make predictions about the
positions of celestial bodies that have not yet been discovered or observed. By extrapolating
the pattern established by known planets, scientists can anticipate the presence of
additional planets or objects in specific regions of the solar system.

5.ASTEROIDS
WHAT ARE AESTEROIDS

Asteroids are remnants from the early formation of our solar system, often described as the
building blocks of planets. These rocky bodies vary greatly in size, shape, and composition.
Most asteroids are found in the asteroid belt, a region between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter,
but they can also be found elsewhere, including near-Earth space. The largest asteroid,
Ceres, located in the asteroid belt, is considered a dwarf planet due to its significant size.
Asteroids can be classified into different types based on their composition. The three
main types are:

C-type asteroids: These are carbonaceous asteroids, dark in color and rich in carbon
compounds.

S-type asteroids: These are silicate asteroids, composed mainly of silicate minerals and
metals.

M-type asteroids: These are metallic asteroids, primarily composed of nickel and iron.

HOW AESTEROIDS ARE FORMED

Asteroids are believed to have formed early in the history of the solar system, around 4.6
billion years ago, during the process of planetary accretion. As the young Sun began to form,
a swirling disk of gas and dust known as the solar nebula surrounded it. Within this disk,
small grains of dust collided and stuck together, gradually building up into larger bodies
called planetesimals. These planetesimals continued to collide and accrete material,
eventually forming protoplanets, which were the building blocks of planets.

6.COMETS
WHAT ARE COMETS

Comets are icy bodies composed of dust, rock, and frozen gases that orbit the Sun in highly
elliptical trajectories. When near the Sun, comets develop a glowing coma (a cloud of gas
and dust) and may also develop a tail that points away from the Sun due to solar radiation
pressure and the solar wind. Comets are thought to originate from the Kuiper Belt and the
Oort Cloud, distant regions of the solar system. They are often referred to as "dirty
snowballs" due to their icy composition.

Comets are divided into two main categories based on their orbital characteristics:

Short-period comets: These have orbits that take less than 200 years to complete, typically
originating from the Kuiper Belt.

Long-period comets: These have orbits that take more than 200 years to complete, often
originating from the Oort Cloud.

HOW ARE COMETS FORMED

Comets are believed to have formed in the outer regions of the solar system, either in the
Kuiper Belt or the Oort Cloud. These regions contain vast reservoirs of icy bodies left over
from the solar system's formation. Comets are thought to be composed primarily of water
ice, along with other volatile substances such as methane, ammonia, and carbon dioxide,
as well as dust and rocky material.

The exact process of comet formation is still not fully understood, but it likely involves the
gradual accretion of ices and dust grains in the outer regions of the solar nebula. As these
icy bodies grew larger, they eventually formed into the nuclei, or cores, of comets.