FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

KIRK F. MAIGNES
Photography
 Literal Definition:
The word photography us a derivative of two
Greek words: phos which means “light” and graphia
meaning “write”. Therefore photography best
translates to “write with light”. (Herschel 1839)
 Modern Definition:

Photography is an art or science which deals

with the reproduction of images through the action
of light upon sensitized materials, with the aid of a
camera and its accessories and the chemical
processes involved therein. (Aquino 1972
Technical/Legal Definition:
Modern photography may be defined as any
means for the chemical, thermal, electrical or
electronic recording of the images of scenes, or
objects formed by some type of radiant energy
including gamma rays, x-rays, ultra-violet rays,
visible light and infrared rays. This definition is
broad enough to include not only the
conventional methods of photography but almost
any new process that may be developed. (Scott
1975)
Principles of Photography
 A photograph is both the mechanical and
chemical result of photography. To produce a
photograph, light is needed aside from sensitized
materials (film or papers).
 Light radiated or reflected by the subject must
reach the film while all other lights are excluded.
The exclusion of all other lights is achieved by
placing the film inside a light tight box (camera).
 The effect of light on the film is not visible in
the formation of images of objects. To make it
visible, we need or require a chemical processing of
the exposed film called development.

The visual effect light on the film after
development varies with the quantity or
quality of light that reached the emulsion of
the film, too great in the amount of light
will produce an opaque or very black shade
after development.
 The amount of light reaching the film
is dependent upon several factors like
lighting condition, lens opening used,
shutter speed used, filters used, etc.
Police Photography

Is an art or science which deals with

the study of the principles of photography,
the preparation of photographic evidence,
and its application to police work. (Aquino
1972)
Forensic Photography

Is an art or science of
photographically documenting a crime
scene and evidence for laboratory
examination and analysis for purposes of
court trial.
The Basic Components of
Photography

Light
Equipment
Chemicals
There are no bad pictures; that's just how
your face looks sometimes.”
- Abraham Lincoln
History of Photography
1839 – is generally known as the birth
year of photography. William Henry Fox
Talbot explained a process he had
invented (calotype) at a Royal Society of
London.
The “Calotype” used paper with its
surface fibers impregnated with light
sensitive compounds.
 Loius Jacques Mande Daguerre made a
public demonstration in Paris. “Daguerreotype”
in collaboration with Joseph Nicephore Niepce.
 The “Daguerreotype” formed an image
directly on the silver surface of a metal plate.

With Talbot’s “Calotype”, the fixation was only

partial while Daguerre’s “Daguerreotypes, images
were made permanent with the use of hypo.
1848 – Abel Niepce de Saint Victor
introduced a process of negatives on glass
using albumen (egg white) as binding
medium.
1850 – Louis Desirie Blanquant – Evard
introduced a printing paper coated with
albumen to achieve a glossy surface.
 1851 – Frederick Scott Archer published a “wet place”
process when collodion – a viscous liquid that dries to a
tough flexible and transparent film – replaced albumen.
 1855 – Gelatin emulsion printing paper was
commercially introduced.

During this time: the cameras were crude, the lenses could
not form a true image and the sensitive materials required
long exposures and could not reproduce in shades of gray.
It was in 1856 when John F. W. Herschel coined the word
“photography”.
 1861 – James Clark Maxwell researched on colors.
 1890 – Full corrected lenses were introduced.
 1906 – A plate was placed on the market that could
reproduce all colors in equivalent shades of gray.
 1907 – Lummiere color process was introduced, a
panchromatic film was used but with blue, green and red
filter.
 1914 – U.S. Eastman Kodak made a color subtractive
process called Kodachrome.
 1935 – Color process came out together with electronic flash.
 1947 – Edwin H. Land introduced “Polaroid”, the one-step
photograpy.
 1960 – LASER was invented making possible Holograms
(3D pictures)
 1988 – The arrival of true digital cameras.
 1854 – Maddox developed a dry plate photography eclipsing
Daguerre’s wet plate on tin method. This made practical the
photography of inmates for prison records.
 1859 – Enlarged photographs of signature was presented in a
court case involving forgery in California, USA.
 1864 – Odelbercht first advocated the use of photography for
the identification of criminals and the documentation of
evidence and crime scenes.

Early photographs of accused and arrested persons were posed

as example of the Victorian photographers at 20 – 30 years.
Later, every major police force in England and the United States
has “Rouges Galleris” full face, profile and body shots.
In Europe and the US, they had “Roques Gallery” and became
an integral part of almost all police documents.
 1882 – Alphonse Bertillon who initiated the Anthropometric
measurements for personal identification was also involved in various
means of documentation by photography which developed into a fine
science for criminalistics when he photographed crime scenes.
 1902 - Dr. R. A. Reis, a German scientist trained in Chemistry and
Physics at Lausanne University in Switzerland. He contributed to the
use of photography in forensic science and established the world’s
earliest crime laboratory that serviced the academic community and
the Swiss police.
 1910 – Victor Baltazard developed a method of photographic
comparison of bullets and cartridge cases which acted as and early
foundation of the field of ballistics.

 Victor Baltazard, professor of forensic medicine used photographic

enlargements of bullets and cartridges to determine weapon type and
was among the first to attempt to individualize a bullet to a weapon.
Light (Photographic Rays)
Light – radiant electromagnetic energy that
can be seen by the naked eye.
Wavelength
Wavelength of a sine wave, λ, can be
measured between any two points with the
same phase, such as between crests, or
troughs, or corresponding zero crossings as
shown.
Photographic Rays of Modern
Photography
 X-RAYS – radiation having a wave length between .01 to 30
nanometer or millimicrons. They are produced by passing an electric
current through a special type of vacuum tube.

 ULTRA-VIOLET RAYS – radiation having a wavelength of 30 to

400 nanometer or millimicrons. It is used to photograph fingerprints on
multicolored background, documents that are altered chemically, or
over writings, and detection of secret writings.

 VISIBLE LIGHT RAYS – light rays having a wave length of 400 to

700 millimicrons.

 INFRARED RAYS – radiation having a wave length of 700 to 1000

millimicrons. It is used in taking photographs of obliterated writings,
burnt or dirty documents, or blackout photography.
 Visible Light vs. Invisible Light

Visible Light Invisible Light

 Light rays with  Those with shorter or
wavelength of 400 to longer wavelength than
700 nn. the visible light.
 Human eyes capable of  Human eye is not
perceiving capable of perceiving.
Luminescence
 The final effect of energy may have on object is to converted
to another wavelength. This conversion is known as
LUMINESCENCE.

Two types of Luminescences:

 Fluorescence – ability of an object to convert one

wavelength to another.

 Phosphoresce – the object not only converts the wavelength

while being irradiated by continues to reflect the new
wavelengths for a period of time after the energy source is
removed.
Visible Light
The visible spectrum is the portion of
the electromagnetic spectrum that
is visible to (can be detected by) the human
eye.
 Electromagnetic radiation in this range
of wavelengths is called visible light or
simply light. A typical human eye will
respond to wavelengths from about 390 to
700 nm.
It is also known as White Light
White Light
ROYGBIV Colors
Three Primary Colors of Light – result of
dividing the wavelength of visible light into
three:
400-500 nn – Blue
500-600 nn – Green
600-700 nn – Red
 Newton divided the spectrum into seven named colors:
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
(Often abbreviated ROY G. BIV) He chose seven colors
out of a belief, derived from the ancient Greek sophists,
that there was a connection between the colors, the
musical notes, the known objects in the solar system, and
the days of the week.[5][6] The human eye is relatively
insensitive to indigo's frequencies, and some otherwise
well-sighted people cannot distinguish indigo from blue
and violet. For this reason some commentators,
including Isaac Asimov,[7] have suggested that indigo
should not be regarded as a color in its own right but
merely as a shade of blue or violet.
Additive Color Mixture

Three Secondary Colors of Light

Cyan < Blue + Green
Yellow < Green + Red
Magenta < Red + Blue
Subtractive Color Mixture
◦ Light = > Cyan Filter = Blue & Green and
absorbs RED from white light
◦ Light = > Yellow Filter = Green & Red and
absorbs BLUE from white light
◦ Light = > Magenta Filter = Red & Blue and
absorbs GREEN from whit light.
Production of Colors

Absorption
Scattering
Interference
Fluorescence
Dispersion
Absorption

is the way in which the energy of a photon is

taken up by matter, typically the electrons of an
atom.
The color of the objects that we see are largely
due to the way those objects interact with light
and ultimately reflect or transmit it to our eyes.
The color of an object is not actually within the
object itself. Rather, the color is in the light that
shines upon it and is ultimately reflected or
transmitted to our eyes..
Scattering
the process in which a wave or beam of
particles is diffused or deflected by
collision with particles of the medium that
it traverses.
Interference
isa phenomenon in which
two waves superimpose to form a resultant wave
of greater or lower amplitude.
Interference usually refers to the interaction of
waves that are correlated or coherent with each
other, either because they come from the same
source or because they have the same or nearly
the same frequency.
Fluorescence
The ability of an object to convert one
wavelength to another.
Dispersion

The most familiar example of dispersion

is probably a rainbow, in which dispersion
causes the spatial separation of a white
light into components of
different wavelengths (different colors).
Bending of Light
Reflection – is the deflection or bouncing
back of light when it hits a surface.

◦ Regular Reflection – happens when light hits

a flat, smooth and shiny surface.

◦ Irregular or Diffused Reflection – occurs

when light hits a rough or uneven but glossy
object.
Refraction – the bending of light when
passing through from one medium to
another.
Diffraction – the bending of light when it
hits a sharp edge of an opaque.
Kinds of Object as to how they behave
to light
Transparent Objects – allows sufficient
visible light to pass through them that the
object on the other side may be clearly
seen.
Translucent Objects – allows light to pass,
however diffuse is sufficiently that objects
on the other side may not be clearly
distinguished. In sharp objects the other
side may be recognizable but sharp detail
and outlines are obscured.
Opaque Objects – so greatly diffuse the
light that recognizing the object on the
other side if very difficult if not impossible
Sources of Light
Natural Light Source
◦ Bright Sunlight – casts a deep and uniform
shadow
◦ Hazy Sunlight – casts a transparent shadow
◦ Dull Sunlight – casts no shadow
 Cloudy Bright – casts no shadow but objects at far
distance are clearly visible.
 Cloudy Dull – cast no shadow and visibility of
distant objects are already limited.
Artificial Light Source – man made
◦ Continuous Radiation
◦ Sort Duration (Flash Unit)
◦ Light Bulb
◦ Fluorescent
Photographic Films and Papers
Film – A transparent cellulose nitrate or
cellulose acetate composition in thin,
flexible strips or sheets and coated with a
light sensitive emulsion for taking
photographs.
Black and White Films
Three Layers:
 Emulsion – consist of crystals of light sensitive
compounds (silver nitrate) evenly distributed
throughout the plastuc base material.
 Gray or antihalation backing – this layers is
placed between the emulsion and the plastic base
of a film to prevent whatever light that passes
through the emulsion and reflected by the base
back to the emulsion forms a “halo”.
 Base – made up of a plastic material. Serves as a
support to the emulsion.
Emulsion Speed
ASA (American Standards Association)
Rating. This is expressed in aritmetical
value.
DIN (Deutche Industri Normen) Rating.
Expressed in logarithmic value.
ISO (International Standards
Organization) Rating. Expressed in
combined arithmetical and logarithmical
values
According to Spectral Sensitivity

Perhaps, the most important characteristicsm of a film are its

variation in response to the different wave length of light
source which is called spectral sensitivity.

 Blue Sensitive – sensitive to ultraviolet rays and blue color

only.
 Orthochromatic – sensitive to ultraviolet rays, blue and
green colors. It is not sensitive to red color.
 Panchromatic – sensitive to ultraviolet ras, to blue, green
and red color.
 Infrared – sensitive to ultraviolet rays, to all colors and
also to infrared rays.
Color Films
Basically, the structure of color film is almost the same as black
and white film except that the emulsion layer consists of three
layers, stacked one on top of the other.
 Top layer – is sensitive to blue light only; green and red light
passes through it without exposing the color blind halidess.
 Yellow filter – known as Carey Lea silver, suspended in gelatin
is coated between the top and second layer to absorb any
penetrating blue light but freely passes green and red light.
 Middle layer – is orthochromatic, which is sensitive to blue
(which cannot reach it) and green, but not to red. So teh red light
passes on to th bottom emulsion layer.
 Bottom layer – is panchromatic, sensitive to blue (which cannot
reach it) and red. It is also somewhat sensitive to green light but
to such a slight degree that it is not important
Photographic Papers
Print – a photographic image printed on paper, generally a
positive image made from a negative. (Also refers to a
photograph of a model that appears in print – in a newspaper
or magazine, for example.)

After the process of producing the negative has been

completed, a positive image is produced from the negative
image which is a true representation of the relative
brightness of all parts of the object and is now called print. A
print is ordinarily made on paper that is coated with a light
sensitive emulsion. This emulsion is much the same as the
one which must be used to cover the film.
Basic Layers of Printing Paper
◦ Base. Made of Paper which must be chemically
pure to insure that it will not interfere with teh
chemical processes to which the emulsion is
subjected. Available either in a single or double
weight paper.
◦ Baryta layer. A gelatin layer containing baryta
crystal to increase the reflectivity of the paper.
◦ Emulsion layer. Contain minute silver halides
suspended with gelatin which needs only to
produce the total range of negative.
Types of Photographic Printing Paper
 Chloride Papers. Have a slow speed emulsion containing silver
chloride , fine grain and produce deep blacks, and used for contact
printing.
 Bromide Papers. Have faster emulsion speed than chloride
paper, achieve sensitivity through the use opf bromide halides.
Because of the relatively high sensitivity to light, these emulsions
are particularly suitable for ptojection printing.
 Chlorobromide Papers. Contain both silver chloriden and silver
bromide halides. Emulsion speed lies between that of chlorise and
bromide papers, used for both contact and projection printing.
 Variable Contrast Paper. Combines the contrast ranges in one
paper, this versability is achieved with special chlorobromide
emulsion that produces varying contrast responses upon exposure
to different colored light.
Camera
Camera
 A camera is basically nothing more than a
light tight box with a pinhole or a lens, shutter
at one end and a holder of sensitized material at
the other. While there are various kinds of
camera from the simplest in construction (Box-
type) to the most complicated, all operate on
the same principle.
The exposure of the sensitized material to light
is controlled by the lens and its aperture and the
shutter through its speed in opening and closing
of lens to light.
The essential parts of a camera
 Body of Light Tight Box – suggests an enclosure
devoid of light. An enclosure which would prevent light
from exposing the sensitized material inside the camera.
This does not necessarily mean that the box or
enclosure to always light tight at all times because if it
does, then no light could reach the sensitized material
during exposure. It means that it excretes light which is not
necessary to form the final images.
 Lens – the function of the lens is to focus the light
coming form the subject. It is chiefly responsible for the
sharpness of the image formed through which light
passes through the exposure.
 Shutter – is used to allow light to enter through the
lens and reach the film for a predetermined intervals or
time, which light is again blocked off form the film.
 Holder of Sensitized Material – is located at the
opposite of the lens. Its function is to hold firmly the
sensitized material in it’s place during exposure to
prevent the formation of a multiple or blurred image of
the subject.
 Viewfinder – it is a means of determining the field of
view of the camera or the extent of the coverage of the
lens.
The Origin of Camera
 Camera Obscura – a device used by early artists
(centuries before Christ) to display a scene on the wall
of an otherwise – darkened room so that it could be
more easily copied. In a manner similar to the pinhole
camera, a small hole placed in an opposite wall
permitted light to enter the room (the “camera”), and
the scene outside became transmitted inside, and was
shown inverted on the rear wall or sometimes on a
screes.
The camera obscura is the origin of the modern
camera.
 Camera Lucida

The Camera Lucida, designed in 1807 by Dr. William

Wollaston, was an aid to drawing. It was a reflecting prism
which enabled artists to draw outlines in correct perspective.
No darkroom was needed.
The paper was laid flat on the drawing board, and the artist
would look through a lens containing the prism, so that he
could see other the paper and a faint image of the subject to
be drawn.
He would then fill in the image. However, as anyone who
has tried using these will know only too well, that too
required artistic skills, as Fox Talbot also discovered.
Box Camera
For more than several decades the box camera
(viewfinder) was the instrument of choice for the casual
amateur photographer. Inexpensive and simple it was,
nevertheless, capable of excellent results under many
conditions. Box cameras were normally fitted with a single
element lens, a limited range of aperture control, and a
single speed leaf shutter.
Pinhole Camera
A pinhole camera is a camera without a lens. An
extremely small hole takes its place, which should
be in very thin material. An image’s light from a
scene passes through this single point, and
because there is no lens, the image will be clear at
all distances from the pinhole. The smaller the
hole, the sharper the image, but the more exposure
will be required.
Folding – Roll Film Camera
The Folding – Roll Film Camera Second in popularity
only to the box camera, the folding camera was
manufactured in a variety of formats. Basically, though, it
was a box camera whose lens was incorporated into a
movable bellows that could slide back and forth on a rail,
allowing the lens to change focus. Lenses and shutters
were often one piece units.
Reflex Camera
A camera that has a mirror directly in the path of light
traveling through the lens that reflects the scene to a
viewing screen.

Two Kinds:
a. Single – Lens Reflex Camera

A camera with one lens only for both viewing and picture
– taking. The image is reflected onto viewing screen by a
moveable mirror in the camera, the mirror flips out of the
way just before the shutter opens, permitting light to strike
the film.
MECHANISM of SINGLE LENS REFLEX
CAMERA
b. Twin –lens Reflect Camera

A camera having two separate lenses of the

same focal lengtgh – one for viewing and
focusing; the other for exposing the film.
The lenses are mechanically – coupled so
that both are focused at the same time.

MECHANISM of TWIN LENS REFLEX
CAMERA
View Camera
A large format camera – a term that applies to cameras that
produce an individual image size of 5” x 4” a larger. It is
most often found in a studio, and is sometimes even called
a “studio camera”, although the view camera can be
transported and set up in the field.
Viewfinder Camera
Camera with a viewfinder that is separate from the
lens used in taking the picture. A simple point and
shoot disposable camera is an example of a
viewfinder camera, but not all viewfinder
cameras are simple.
 Single – use Camera
Camera that is used only once. It is
disposed of after the film is removed for
processing.
Instant Camera

An instant camera is a type of camera with self –

developing film. The most famous are those made
by the Polaroid Corporation. Polaroid no longer
manufactures such cameras. The invention of
modern instant cameras is generally credited to
American scientist Edwin Land, who unveiled the
first commercial instant camera, the Land
Camera, in 1947, 10 years after founding the
Polaroid Corporation
Digital Camera

 Two Types of Digital Camera:

◦ Those with fixed memory
◦ Those with removable memory

 Other features of a digital camera:

◦ Images taken can be viewed in computer monitor screens
◦ LCD/Liquid Crystal Device Monitor
◦ Flash Unit
◦ Zoom Lens Capacity
◦ Sound Recording
◦ Removable Lens
The Lens
LENS
A transparent medium which either
converge or diverge light rays passing
through it to form an image.
Two Types of Lens

Convergent, positive or convex lens –

thicker at the center and thinner at the
sides. Light passing through it are bended
toward each other on the other side of the
lens meeting at a point. It produce a real
image on the opposite side of the lens or
where light is coming from.
Divergent, negative or concave lens –
thinner at the center and thicker at the
sides. Light passing through it are bended
away from each as if coming form a point.
It produces a virtual image on the same
side of the lens where light is coming
from
Inherent Defects of Lenses
 Spherical Aberration – photographic rays passing through the edges of a lens
are bent or refracted more sharply than those passing through the central part
of the lens, thus they come to a focus nearer the lens than those of the central
rays.
 Coma – sometimes referred to as lateral spherical aberration. It concerns with
rays entering the lens obliquely.
 Curvature of Field – when the image formed by a lens comes to a sharper
focus on curved surface than of a flat surface.
 Distortion – outer parts of the image produced by the lens will be magnified
either less or more than the center image.
 Barrel Distortion – diaphragm is place in front of th lens..
 Chromatic Aberration – inability of the lens to focus all the focus in the same
place.
 Astigmatism – inability of the lens to focus lines running in different direction
like for example a cross.
 Chromatic Difference of Magnification – inability of the lens to produce
images sizes of objects with different colors.
Lens Characteristics

Focal Length – is the distance measured

from the optical center of the lens to the
film plane when the lens is set or focused
at infinity position.
Relative Aperture – the light gathering
power of the lens is expressed in the F-
number system. It is otherwise called the
relative aperture. By increasing or decreasing
the f-number numerically, it is possible to:
Control the amount of light passing through
the lens.
Control the depth of field.
Control the degree of sharpness due to lens
defects.
Classification of Lens According to
Focal Length
◦ Wide Angle Lens – a lens with a focal length
of less than the diagonal of its negative
material.
◦ Normal Lens – a lens with a focal length of
approximately equal or more but no more than
twice the diagonal of its negative material.
◦ Long or Telephoto Lens – a lens with a focal
length of more than twice the diagonal or its
negative material.
◦ Zoom Lens – lens with variable focal lenght.
Wide Angle Lens
Normal Lens
Telephoto Lens
Focusing
– is the setting of the proper distance in order to form
a sharp image on the lens of the camera except for
those fixed focused cameras. A lens may be focused
by any of the following:
 Focusing Scale of Scale Bed – a scale is usually found at the lens
barellindicating pre-set distance in feet or in meters. To focus
the lens of thecamera, the distance of the object to be
photographed is measured, estimated, or calculated and the
pointer or maker on the lens barell is adjusted to the
corresponding number on the scale.

 Range-finder – is a mechanism that measures the angle of the

covergence of light coming coming from a subject as seen from
two apertures. There are two types of range finders:
 Split image through the range finder – the image of a
straight line in the object appears to be cut into halves
and separated from each other when the lens is not in
focus. Whenthe image of the lines is aligned, the lens is
focus.
 Co-incident image though the eyepiece – a single
image is seen double when the subject is out of focus.
Make the images coincide and the lens in focus.
 Ground Glass – is focused by directly observing the
image formed at the ground glass screen placed behind
the taking lens. If the image formed is blurred, fuzzy, or
not clear , the lens is out of focus. Make the image sharp
and the lens is focus.
LENS DIAPHRAGM

A metal diaphragm which can be expanded or

constricted by moving the turning ring on
the lens mount or barell.

The common f-numbers are 1.8, 2. 2.8, 4, 5.6,

8, 11, 16 and 22. There are some cameras
whose f-number starts at 1.4 or 1.2 or 1.1 and
the lowest numerical f-numbers was the 1.09
on a Canon 7 camera.
Functions:
 Diaphragm as Controller of Light
By expanding or constricting the diaphragm, it is possible to
regulate the amount of light passing through the lens. The
diaphragm serves as a speed throttle. In the series of f-numbers,
the lowest number is the widest opening or the one that gives and
conversly, the lowest is the smallest opening or the one give the
least of light.

 Diaphragm as Controller of Depth of Field

In theory, it is not possible to focus a lens in a more than one
distance at the same time . In actual practice however, in any
given lens objects that are nearer or farther than the object
focused upon will be reasonable sharp
 Depth of Field – is the distance measured from the nearest to the
farthest object in the apparent sharp focus when the lens is set or
foccused at a particular distance.

 Influencing Factors of Depth of Field

 The size of the diaphragm opening

The smaller the opening, the longer is the depth of field. Conversely,
the wider is the opening, the shorter is the depth of field.

 The focal length of the lens

The shorter the focal length, the wider or longer is the depth of field
and vice versa, the longer the focal length, the shorter is the depth of
field.
 Depth of Focus or Focal Range
When a lens is focused on any given subject, there is one
lens – to – film distance where the image is sharpest, as the
lens if moved close to the film or father away from the film,
the sharpness decreases. There is a small range of movement
on either side of the position of the best focus in which the
degree of unsharpness is acceptable, and the total range is
called depth of focus.

 Parallax

Is the change of appearance and orientation of objects when

seen form two viewpoints. It is also used to refer to the
distance between the viewpoints themselves.
Shutters
 A device that opens to uncover the film to make an
exposure for an accurately timed interval then closes
automatically.

 Contraception device used to block the path of light

passing through the lens and exposing the sensitized
material.

 The different shutter speeds are: 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 60, 125,

250, 500, and 1000. The B setting is an exposure setting
for more than one – second. 1 is for one second, 2 is for
one – half of a second, 4 is one – fourth of a second and all
succeeding numbers are fraction of a second.
Generally, there are two types of shutter:

Central Shutters or Between the Lens – one that is
located near the lens (usually between the elements of
the lens). It is made of metal leaves and its action
starts from the center towrad the side, and then closes
back to the center.

Focal Plane Shutters – is located near the focal plane
or the sensitized material. It is usually made of cloth
curtain. Its action starts on one side and closes on the
opposite sides.
 EXPOSURE – is the product of illumination and time. Exposure is computed by any of
the following methods.

 Use of light or exposure meter – the amount of light coming from a source or the
amount of light being reflected by the subject is measured by the light meter. Proper
adjustment therefore becomes simplified.]

 By taking into consideration exposure factors like: emulsion spee or film sensitivity,
lighting condition and type of subject.

 Example: When using a film with an ASA rating of 100. For a normal subject, set the
shutter speed at 1/125 of a second and adjust the diaphragm opening in accordance with
the following lighting conditions:

 Bright Sunlight : f-11

 Hazy Sunlight : f-8

 Dull Sunlight : f-5.6
FILTERS
 Are homogenous medium which absorbs and transmits
differentially light rays passing through it.

 A color filter work in such a way that it will transmit it own

color and absorbs all other colors.

 By using filters in combination with black and white films, the

photographer can control tonal values to get a technically
correct rendition or to exaggerate, or to suppress the tonal
difference for visibility, emphasis, and other effects. With color
films, filters are used to change the color quality of the
exposing lights to secure proper color balance with the film
being used.
TYPE OF FILTERS
 Light Balancing Filter – a filter used to change the color quality of the
exposing light in order to secure proper color balance for artificial light
films.

 Color Compensating Filter – used to change the over – all color balance
of photographic result obtained with color films and to compensate for
deficiencies in the quality of exposing energy.

 Haze Filter – used to eliminate or reduce the effect of serial haze.

 Neutral Density Filter – used for reducing the amount of light transmitted
without changing the color value.

 Polarizing Filter – used to reduce or eliminate reflections on highly

reflective surfaces.
CHEMICAL PROCESSING
 Development – is the process of reduction. Exposed silver halides
are reduced into metallic silver. There is a separate developer for
film (D-76) and another for paper (Dektol). The factors that affect
developing time are: agitation, temperature, concentration of
chemicals and exposure.
 Stop Bath – an intermediate bath between the developer and the
fixer, it is usually a combination of water plus acetic acid or just
plain water. Primarily, its function is to prevent the contamination
of the two chemical solutions.
 Fixation – the process of removing unexposed silver halide
remaining in the emulsion after the first stage of development of the
latent image. The usual composition of an acid fixing solution are a
solvent silver halide known as hypo, an anti-staining agent like
acetic acid, a preservative like sodium sulfide and hardening agent
like potassium.
Chemical Composition
Chemical Composition of a Developer

 Reducers of Developing Agents – Elon, Hydroquinone
 Preservative – Sodium Sulphite
 Accelerator – Sodium Carbonate
 Restrainer or Frog Preventer – Potassium Bromide

Chemical Composition of a Fixer

 Dissolving Agent – Hypo or Sodium Thissulphate

 Preservative – Sodium Sulphite
 Neutralizer – Boric Acid, Acetic Acid
 Hardener – Potassium Alum
PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING
CONTACT PRINTING
 Glass and Pad

A sheet of clear glass about 2 inches bigger than the

print size in all sides to give a border for handling and for its
application of pressure. The pad should be of the same size as
the glass

 Pressure Printing Frame

This is like a picture frame with a removable hinge back
leaf on the back, looked into place and it exert pressure
against the glass in frame.

 Contact Printer
PROJECTION PRINTING OR
ENLARGING
A type of printing or enlarging where the
image in a negative is optically projected
or enlarged or not a print material for
exposure to produce a picture image. The
main equipment used is the enlarger.
 When the right exposure had been selected, make a full
print. Process it then evaluate the print for overall
quality. You may consider or local exposure controls,
such as:
 Cropping is the exclusion or omission of some images on
the negative from the final print. Local exposure control is
achieved by either burning in or dodging.
 Burning-in is the adding of exposure time on a specific
area to bring out details.
 Dodging is the holding back of some lights to specific area
to make it lighter in density
 Note: You can use your hand to improvise with a thick
paper material for both burning - in or dodging technique
 PHOTOGRAPHY IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
 Photography is an essential tool for the law enforcement
investigator. As a tool, it enables him to record the visible and in
many cases, the invisible evidence of the crime by employing
special techniques: infrared, ultraviolet, and x-ray radiation enable
him to record evidence which is not visible. The photographic
evidence can then be stored indefinitely and retrieved when
needed. There is no other process which can ferret, record,
remember and recall evidence as well as photography.
 Photograph is also a means of communication. It is a language
sometimes defined as “the most universal of all languages”.
Photography, thus, is more direct and less subject to
misunderstanding. As a communication medium – has few, if any,
equal.
 FUNCTIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN INVESTIGATIVE WORK
 Identification
◦ Criminal
◦ Missing Person
◦ Lost and stolen properties
◦ Civilian
 Communication and Microfilm Files
◦ Transmission of photos (wire or radio photo)
◦ Investigative report files
 Evidence
◦ Recording and Preserving:
 Crime Scenes
 Vehicular Accidents
 Homicide or Murder
 Robbery Cases
 Fires and Arson
 Object of Evidence
 Evidential traces
◦ Discovering and Proving:

 Recording Action of Offenders
◦ Surveillance
◦ Burglary traps
◦ Confessions
◦ Re-enactment of crime

 Court Exhibits
◦ Demonstration enlargements
◦ Individual photos
◦ Projection slides
◦ Motion pictures

 Crime Prevention
◦ Security Clearance

 Public Relations

 Police Training

◦ Preparation of training films (police tactics, investigation techniques)
◦ Traffic Studies
◦ Documentation (riots and mob control, disasters, prison disorders)

 Reproduction and Copying
◦ Photographs
◦ Official records