The

Nature of
Light
INTRODUCTION
TO LIGHT
Light is basic to almost all life on Earth.
Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation.
Light represents energy transfer from the source to
the observer.
Many phenomena depend on the properties of
light.
Seeing a TV or computer monitor
Blue sky, colors at sunset and sunrise
Images in mirrors
Eyeglasses and contacts
Rainbows
Many others
LIGHT AND
OPTICS
There are two historical models for the
nature of light.
The speed of light has been measured in
many ways.
Reflection and refraction are the
fundamental phenomena in ray (geometric)
optics.
Internal reflection is the basis for fiber
optics.
THE NATURE OF
LIGHT
Before the beginning of the nineteenth century,
light was considered to be a stream of
particles(corpusles)
The particles were either emitted by the object
being viewed or emanated from the eyes of
the viewer.
Newton was the chief architect of the particle
theory of light. (CORPUSCULAR THEORY OF
LIGHT)
He believed the particles left the object and
stimulated the sense of sight upon entering
the eyes.
 NATURE OF LIGHT
– ALTERNATIVE
VIEW
Christian Huygens argued that light
might be some sort of a wave
motion.(light spread out)

Thomas Young (in 1801) provided

the first clear demonstration of the
wave nature of light.
-He showed that light rays interfere
with each other.(DIFFRACTION
AND INTERFERENCE of LIGHT)
Such behavior could not be
explained by particles.
CHRISTIAN
HUYGENS
1629 – 1695
Best known for contributions to fields of
optics and dynamics
He thought light was a type of vibratory
motion.
It spread out and produced the sensation of
light when it hit the eye.
He deduced the laws of reflection and
refraction.
He explained double refraction.
 During the nineteenth century,
other developments led to the
general acceptance of the wave
theory of light.
Thomas Young provided evidence
that light rays interfere with one
another according to the principle
of superposition.
This behavior could not be explained
by a particle theory.

Maxwell asserted that light was a

form of high-frequency
electromagnetic wave.
CONFIRMATION Hertz confirmed Maxwell’s
predictions.
OF WAVE NATURE
 PARTICLE
NATURE
Some experiments could not be explained by the wave
model of light.
The photoelectric effect was a major phenomenon not
explained by waves.
When light strikes a metal surface, electrons are
sometimes ejected from the surface.
The kinetic energy of the ejected electron is independent
of the frequency of the light.
Einstein (in 1905) proposed an explanation of the
photoelectric effect that used the idea of quantization.
The quantization model assumes that the energy of a
light wave is present in particles called photons.
E = hƒ
h is Planck’s Constant and = 6.63 x 10-34 J.s
DUAL NATURE OF
LIGHT
In view of these developments,
light must be regarded as
having a dual nature.
Light exhibits the characteristics
of a wave in some situations
and the characteristics of a
particle in other situations.
MEASUREMENTS Since light travels at a very high
OF THE SPEED speed, early attempts to measure
OF LIGHT its speed were unsuccessful.
Remember c = 3.00 x 108 m/s
Galileo tried by using two
observers separated by about
10 km.
The reaction time of the observers was more
than the transit time of the light.
 MEASUREMENT
OF THE SPEED
OF LIGHT –
ROEMER’S
METHOD
In 1675 Ole Roemer used
astronomical observations to
estimate the speed of light.
He used the period of
revolution of Io, a moon of
Jupiter, as Jupiter revolved
around the sun.
The angle through which
Jupiter moves during a 90°
movement of the Earth was
calculated.
ROEMER’S
METHOD,
CONT.
The periods of revolution were
longer when the Earth was
receding from Jupiter.
Shorter when the Earth was
approaching

Using Roemer’s data, Huygens

estimated the lower limit of the
speed of light to be 2.3 x 108
m/s.
This was important because it
demonstrated that light has a finite
speed as well as giving an estimate of
that speed.
MEASUREMENTS
OF THE SPEED
OF LIGHT –
FIZEAU’S
METHOD
This was the first successful
method for measuring the
speed of light by means of a
purely terrestrial technique.
It was developed in 1849 by
Armand Fizeau.
He used a rotating toothed
wheel.
The distance between the wheel
(considered to be the source)
and a mirror was known.
FIZEAU’S
METHOD,
CONT.
d is the distance between
the wheel and the mirror.
Δt is the time for one
round trip.
Then c = 2d / Δt
Fizeau found a value of
c = 3.1 x 108 m/s.
 A ray of light, the incident ray, travels in
a medium.
REFLECTION When it encounters a boundary with a
second medium, part of the incident ray
OF LIGHT is reflected back into the first medium.
This means it is directed backward into the first
medium.

For light waves traveling in

three-dimensional space, the reflected
light can be in directions different from
the direction of the incident rays.
SPECULAR REFLECTION
Specular reflection is
reflection from a smooth
surface.

The reflected rays are

parallel to each other.

All reflection in this text is

assumed to be specular.
DIFFUSE REFLECTION

Diffuse reflection is reflection

from a rough surface.

The reflected rays travel in a

variety of directions.

A surface behaves as a smooth

surface as long as the surface
variations are much smaller than
the wavelength of the light.
LAW OF REFLECTION
The normal is a line
perpendicular to the surface.
It is at the point where the incident ray
strikes the surface.

The incident ray makes an angle

of θ1 with the normal.
The reflected ray makes an
angle of θ1’ with the normal.
MULTIPLE REFLECTIONS
The incident ray strikes the first
mirror.
The reflected ray is directed
toward the second mirror.
There is a second reflection from
the second mirror.
Apply the Law of Reflection and
some geometry to determine
information about the rays.
 Assume the angle
between two
mirrors is 90o .
The reflected
beam returns to
the source parallel
to its original path.
RETROREFLEC This phenomenon is Measuring the
TION called distance to the
retroreflection. Moon

Applications Automobile
include: taillights

Traffic signs
 REFRACTION OF
LIGHT
When a ray of light traveling through a
transparent medium encounters a
boundary leading into another
transparent medium, part of the energy
is reflected and part enters the second
medium.
The ray that enters the second medium
changes its direction of propagation at
the boundary.

This bending of the ray is called

refraction.
REFRACTION, CONT.
The incident ray, the reflected ray, the refracted ray, and
the normal all lie on the same plane.

The angle of refraction depends upon the material and the

angle of incidence.

v1 is the speed of the light in the first medium and v 2 is its speed in the
second.
REFRACTION
OF LIGHT,
FINAL
The path of the light
through the
refracting surface is
reversible.
For example, a ray travels
from A to B.
If the ray originated at B,
it would follow the line AB
to reach point A.
FOLLOWING THE
REFLECTED AND
REFRACTED RAYS
Ray ① is the incident ray.
Ray ② is the reflected ray.
Ray ③ is refracted into the lucite.
Ray ④ is internally reflected in
the lucite.
Ray ⑤ is refracted as it enters
the air from the lucite.
Light may refract into a
material where its speed is
lower.
The angle of refraction is
less than the angle of
incidence.
The ray bends toward the
normal.

REFRACTION DETAILS, 1
 Light may refract
into a material
where its speed is
higher.
The angle of
refraction is greater
than the angle of
incidence.
The ray bends away from
the normal.

REFRACTION
DETAILS, 2
Section 35.5
LIGHT IN A MEDIUM
The light enters from the left.

The light may encounter an electron.

The electron may absorb the light,

oscillate, and reradiate the light.

The absorption and radiation cause

the average speed of the light moving
through the material to decrease.
THE INDEX OF REFRACTION

The speed of light in any material is less than its

speed in vacuum.
The index of refraction, n, of a medium can be
defined as
 For a vacuum, n = 1
We assume n = 1 for air also
For other media, n > 1
n is a dimensionless number greater than
unity.
n is not necessarily an integer.

INDEX OF REFRACTION, CONT.

SOME INDICES OF
REFRACTION
 As light travels
from one medium
to another, its
frequency does not
change.
Both the wave speed
and the wavelength do
change.
The wavefronts do not
pile up, nor are they
created or destroyed
at the boundary, so ƒ
FREQUENCY must stay the same.

BETWEEN MEDIA
 INDEX OF REFRACTION
EXTENDED
The frequency stays the same as the wave travels from one medium to the
other.
v = ƒλ
ƒ1 = ƒ2 but v1 ≠ v2 so λ1 ≠ λ2

The ratio of the indices of refraction of the two media can be expressed as various
ratios.

The index of refraction is inversely proportional to the wave

speed.
As the wave speed decreases, the index of refraction increases.
The higher the index of refraction, the more it slows downs the light wave speed.
MORE ABOUT INDEX OF
REFRACTION
The previous relationship can be simplified to compare
wavelengths and indices: λ1n1 = λ2n2

In air, n1 = 1 and the index of refraction of the material

can be defined in terms of the wavelengths.
 n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
θ1 is the angle of incidence
SNELL’S θ2 is the angle of refraction
The experimental discovery of this
LAW OF relationship is usually credited to
Willebrord Snell and is therefore known
REFRACTI as Snell’s law of refraction.

ON Refraction is a commonplace occurrence,

so identify an analysis model as a wave
under refraction.
PRISM
A ray of single-wavelength
light incident on the prism will
emerge at angle δ from its
original direction of travel.
δ is called the angle of
deviation.
Φ is the apex angle.
 DISPERSION
For a given material, the index of
refraction varies with the
wavelength of the light passing
through the material.
This dependence of n on λ is called
dispersion.
Snell’s law indicates light of
different wavelengths is bent at
different angles when incident on a
refracting material.
VARIATION OF INDEX OF
REFRACTION WITH WAVELENGTH
The index of refraction for a material
generally decreases with increasing
wavelength.
Violet light bends more than red light
when passing into a refracting
material.
 REFRACTION
IN A PRISM
Since all the colors have
different angles of
deviation, white light will
spread out into a spectrum.
Violet deviates the most.
Red deviates the least.
The remaining colors are in
between.
 THE
RAINBOW
A ray of light strikes a drop of
water in the atmosphere.
It undergoes both reflection and
refraction.
First refraction at the front of the
drop
Violet light will deviate the most.
Red light will deviate the least.
 THE
RAINBOW,
CONT.
At the back surface the light is
reflected.
It is refracted again as it
returns to the front surface and
moves into the air.
The rays leave the drop at
various angles.
The angle between the white light
and the most intense violet ray is
40°.
The angle between the white light
and the most intense red ray is 42°.
 OBSERVING
THE
RAINBOW
If a raindrop high in the
sky is observed, the red
ray is seen.
A drop lower in the sky
would direct violet light to
the observer.
The other colors of the
spectra lie in between the
red and the violet.
The secondary rainbow is fainter
than the primary.
The colors are reversed.
The secondary rainbow arises from
light that makes two reflections from
the interior surface before exiting the
raindrop.
Higher-order rainbows are possible,
but their intensity is low.

DOUBLE RAINBOW
 In Young’s double slit experiment, two coherent
Young’s sources were generated using diffracted light
Double Slit from a single slit. Note that the waves must have
a constant phase difference, so the two slits need
Experiment not be placed symmetrically from the first slit to
observe an interference pattern.
Examples to
prove the
interference of
light.

-Soap Bubble which reflects spectrum of

light
-Floating film of oil on water
-Colours generated by incandescent bulbs
What Is Polarization?
Light is the interaction of
electric and magnetic fields
travelling through space. The
electric and magnetic
vibrations of a light wave
occur perpendicularly to each
other.

The electric field moves in one direction and

the magnetic field in another ‘perpendicular to
each other. So, we have one plane occupied by
an electric field, another plane of the magnetic
field perpendicular to it, and the direction of
travel is perpendicular to both. These electric
and magnetic vibrations can occur in numerous
planes
What Is Polarization?
Polarization
Applications
-Polarization is used in sunglasses to reduce the glare.
-Polaroid filters are used in plastic industries for
performing stress analysis tests.
-Three-dimensional movies are produced and shown
with the help of polarization.
-Polarization is used for differentiating between
transverse and longitudinal waves.
-Infrared spectroscopy uses polarization.
-It is used in seismology to study earthquakes.
-In Chemistry, the chirality of organic compounds is
tested using polarization techniques
TOTAL INTERNAL
REFLECTION
A phenomenon called total
internal reflection can
occur when light is directed
from a medium having a
given index of refraction
toward one having a lower
index of refraction.
 POSSIBLE
BEAM
DIRECTIONS
Possible directions of the
beam are indicated by
rays numbered 1 through
5.
The refracted rays are
bent away from the
normal since n1 > n2.
 POSSIBLE
BEAM
DIRECTIONS
Possible directions of the
beam are indicated by
rays numbered 1 through
5.
The refracted rays are
bent away from the
normal since n1 > n2.
CRITICAL ANGLE
There is a particular angle
of incidence that will result
in an angle of refraction of
90°.
This angle of incidence is
called the critical angle, θC.
 For angles of incidence greater than
the critical angle, the beam is
entirely reflected at the boundary.
This ray obeys the law of reflection at the
boundary.
Total internal reflection occurs only
CRITICAL when light is directed from a medium
ANGLE, of a given index of refraction
toward a medium of lower index of
CONT. refraction.
FIBER OPTICS
An application of internal
reflection

Plastic or glass rods are used

to “pipe” light from one place
to another.

Applications include:

• Medical examination of internal organs

• Telecommunications
CONSTRUCTION OF AN OPTICAL
FIBER
The transparent core is
surrounded by cladding.
The cladding has a lower n than
the core.
This allows the light in the core to
experience total internal
reflection.

The combination is surrounded

by the jacket.
FIBER OPTICS, CONT.
A flexible light pipe is
called an optical fiber.
A bundle of parallel fibers
(shown) can be used to
construct an optical
transmission line.
GROUP PETA

OPTICAL KIT
 1. OPTICAL ILLUSION CARD-(4)
Size: ½ A4 paper per card; laminated
2. DIY KALEIDOSCOPE-(1)
Size: 20 cm length; 4-5 cm width
3. COLOR WHEEL ART-(2)
Size: ½ A4 paper per color wheel art (paste on
illustration board or folder)
4. ART and PHOTOGRAPHY-(4)
Scenicphotography@CHS
5. Diffraction Gratings Using CDs and DVDs