DAT CHEMISTRY - FRANDY :)

DAT CHEMISTRY - FRANDY :)

DAT CHEMISTRY - FRANDY :)
 DAT CHEMISTRY - FRANDY :)
Stoichiometry Types of Reactions (Rxn) Percent Composition Percent Yield
1. Combination Rxn: two reactants 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
Matter: any substance (composed of 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚 % 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑥 100
form a product 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
elements) that takes up space and has a mass. % 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥 100%
𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒
Na+ + OH- à NaOH 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 x Product
Elements: any substance that has a specific
chemical and physical property. 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 − 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
2. Decomposition Rxn: one reactant Molecular and Empirical Formula
forms two products 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 =
Atom: smallest unit of matter that retains the • Formula that shows the actual # of moles 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
chemical, but not the physical properties of of all atoms in a molecule
2 NaCl à 2 Na + Cl2 • Formula that shows the reduce # ratio of Steps: Finding % yield
an elements.
each atom in a molecule 1. BCPA
3. Combustion Rxn: rapid reaction in 2. Calculate the amount of product you
Molecules: the joining of two or more atoms
which a hydrocarbon or alcohol reacts Steps: Empirical à Molecular Formula would get from that limiting agent
(similar) together by chemical bonds.
with oxygen to form CO2 + H2O 1. Assume 100g mass, if mass not given 3. Use percent yield equation
Organic molecules: fundamental molecules 2. Divide mass of each atom by its amu
C2H5OH + 3 O2 à 2 CO2 + 3 H2O 3. Divide answer by smallest # Steps: Finding Excess Reactant left
of life that bind with carbon atoms:
Balancing Chemical Equations 4. Convert decimals to nearest whole # 1. BCPA
1. Hydrogen 2. Total moles – moles consumed =
1. Add coefficient in each side of the
2. Oxygen equation moles of excess left
3. Nitrogen Finding Product and Reactant Amount
2. Reactants and products must have
equal number of atom types Steps: BCC
Compound: the joining of two or more 3. Whole numbers are preferred over
different types of elements/molecules which 1. Balance equation
decimals 2. Convert from g to moles (or unit
are chemically united in a fixed proportion.
specified)
1 CH4 + 4 Cl2 à 1 CCl4 + 4 HCl 3. Use molar coefficients to guide you to
Mole: A number of atoms in a sample that
weights an elements’ atomic weight answer
Reactants Start form End form
• Avogadro’s’ #: 6.002 x 1023 C 1 1
atoms/moles Limiting Reactant: reactant or reagent that is
H 4 4 utilized completely first
Cl 2x4 8
Products Steps: Finding Limiting Agent - BCPA
C 1 1 1. Balance equation
Cl 4 4 2. Convert g to moles
H 1x4 4 3. Pick reactant and find ratio amount
Cl 1x4 4 4. Ask: are there enough moles?
a. No = opposite reactant is the L.A
b. Yes = picked reactant is the L.A
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Atomic & Electronic Structure
Understanding Bohr Models: Quantum Number: describe an e-‘s location
Atomic Symbol: identifies chemical element 1. Distance between energy shells relative to its nucleus
decrease as you move away from the
Atomic weight: weight in grams of one mole nuclei # Name Character Value
of a given element (expressed in g/mol) 2. Energy increases as you move away n Principal Shell [1…infinity]
from nuclei (distance
3. Energy difference: n1 to n2 > n2 to n3 from
4. Movement from n1 to n3 results in n = energy & reactivity of atom
nucleus)
absorption of energy l Azimuthal Subshell – [n-1]
A = Mass Number = Proton + Neutrons 5. Movement from n3 to n1 results in Principles:
type of l = 0 (s)
Z = Atomic Number = Proton emission of energy Aufbau e- fill lowest Ex orbit first
orbitals l = 1 (p)
X = Element Hund e- singly occupy orbits first
l = 2 (d)
Atomic Orbitals: regions of space around an l = 3 (f) Pauli No 2e- have the same 4 quanta. #
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝑃 + 𝑁 atom’s nucleus where e- reside. ml Magnetic Orbital’s [-l…l+] Heisenberg Subatomic particle’s position and
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝑃 orientation momentum cannot be determined
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 = 𝑃 − 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 accurately at the same time.
ms Spin Up/Down +1/2 or -1/2
Note: Para vs. Dia-magnetic:
Electron Configuration:
• Atomic number never changes. If Molecular = 1s22s22p4 (Ground) Para Unpaired e- Attracted O2
changed, the element’s identity Condense = [He]2s22p4 (odd/even # of e-) to magnets
changes. Excited = 1s22s22p33s1 Dia Paired e- Repelled N2
• Mass number can differ (dependent Ec. Quantum #: (even # of e-) by magnets
on the number of neutrons) = zXy X = orbital z = n y = e- within
isotopes: element with same number (subshell) (shell) orbital
of protons (atomic #) but differ in
neutrons (mass number) Exceptions in Ec. Transition Metals
• Electrons are negatively charge L
Orbitals Shapes # of # of
Orbits e-
Bohr Model of the Atom illustrates the
S Spheres 1 2
position of e- at specific distinct levels, thus
P Dumbbell 3 6
the distance of electrons from their nuclei are
quantized. D Four-leaf 5 10
Donut/Dumbbell
F Tetrahedral 7 14
DAT TIP: Transition metals are brightly Valence vs. Core Electrons (e-)
colored due to the funky shape of d-orbits that outermost shell inner shell
allow e- to absorb colored light which • In non-T-metals, d-shell e- are counted
promotes them to higher energy orbits within towards the core e-
the d-shell. • In T-metals, d-shell e- are counted
towards the valence e-
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Molecular Structure & Geometry
Polar vs. Nonpolar bonds Formal Charge: Hybridization and Molecular Geometry
Octet Rule: elements bond in such a way Polar Uneven sharing of O-H 𝐹. 𝐶 = (𝑉. 𝑒) − ( 𝑙𝑝 + 𝑏𝑝)
that each atom has eight total V. e- giving the e- and contain ionic bonds
same electronic confi… as noble gases. partial charges Resonance: (contributor most stable)
Nonpolar Even sharing of e- C-H 1. Full octet atoms
Octet Exceptions: and does not bonds 2. Formal charges closer to 0 or 0
H, only wants 2 e- contain partial 3. Negative formal charges on most EN
Be, only wants 4 e- charges atoms
B and Al, only want 6 e-
Third row and lower can have 8+ e- Type of Bonds Sigma & Pi Bonds
Bond Bond
Ions: charged atoms Strength Distance
1. Cations (+ charged) R - C 1σ
2. Anions (- charged) Note:
R=C 1σ+
1π • Lone pairs (nonbonding pairs) take
e- are negatively charged: R ≡ C 1 σ + Increasing Decreasing more space than bonding electron
• Gaining e- causes the atom to become 2π pairs
negatively charged Bond order: the average length of each bond,
• Losing e- causes the atom to become Lattice Energy when multiple contributors are possible
positively charged
𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐵𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝐿. 𝐸𝑥 =
Compounds: Molecules comprised to two or 𝐵𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐵. 𝑂 =
# 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝐶. 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
more different elements bonded together by
chemical bonds in a fixed proportion. Lattice Ex. = Charges = Distance
1. Count each individual bond and divide
1. Ionic compounds: bonding of a by the total number of atoms around
metal and nonmetal element via Note:
• The higher the charges and lower the the central atom
ionic bonds
a. Metals (+) & nonmental (-) distance, the harder it is to break
charged
b. Ionic exceptions: polyatomic Lewis Structure
ions do not contain any metal 1. Count V. e-.
atoms but form ionic bonds. 2. Write symbol of all atoms
3. Add lone pairs (non-bonding pairs)
2. Molecular compounds: bonding of 4. Place leftovers e- on the central atom
two or more nonmetal via covalent 5. If not enough e-, form double or triple
bonds bonds
a. Contain partial charges except
when the EN difference Note:
between atoms is small due to • If the d or f-block are completely
the even distribution of e-. filled, do not count V. e-.
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Periodic Trends Size of Ions (exact same element) Successive IE: IE3 > IE2 > IE1
Trends:
Groups Property:
Alkali • Low ionization Electrons (anion) = size
metals energies
Electrons (cation) = size
• react explosively with
water
Isoelectronic Series of Ions: different elements
• form ionic compounds with the same total number of e-. EN (Electronegativity): an atoms’
• Exothermic Rxn tendency to attract e- to itself
Alkaline • low ionization energies Protons = size • Increases as you move up
earth metals • don’t react as violently and to the right
with water Protons = size • Includes Halogens
• increasing size causes
these atoms to react • For isoelectronic series, to find the EA (Electron Affinity): the energy
Atomic radius (size): increases as you move largest and smallest atom think of Zeff
more violently with H2O given off (produced) when an atom
down and to the left
Halogens • highly electronegative, gains/accepts an e-.
• high electron affinities, • Increases as you move up
• Atoms get larger as you move down and to
• highly reactive with and to the right
the left because of higher energy n shell =
metals • Includes Halogens (except F)
larger size
• • Exception: N & Be = 0
good oxidizing agents • Atoms get smaller as you move up and to
(they want to be the right because of higher effective • Exothermic Rxn:
reduced = gain e- to nuclear charge (Zeff). Cl + e- = Cl-
achieve full octet) • Includes noble gas
Noble gases • inert (unreactive)
gases
Transition • form colorful
metals compounds due to the
way their d-orbitals
behave IE (Ionization Energy): energy required to
• multiple oxidation remove an electron from an atom
Zeff = Effective Nuclear Charge: it’s the ability • Increases as you move up and to the
states of an atom to suck in e- to fill its octet right
Oxygen • O3 > O2 oxidizing agent
o Because the smaller atoms are,
group • React with metals (in the H+ = Zeff = Size the closer their e- are to their
(Chalcogens) form of H2O) to form
nuclei and protons.
metal oxides Bond Length: the distance between the nuclei of
• Includes noble gases
two atoms
• Exception: N > O & Be > B
𝐵. 𝐿 = (𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑟1 + 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑟2) à differ atoms
𝐵. 𝐿 = (𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑟 𝑥 2) à same atoms
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Gases
Ideal Gas Laws Assumptions: A gas behaves Gas Density: allow us to identify gas molecules Real Gas Equation: Vander Waals real gas
Fundamentals of Gases ideally at low pressure, high temperature, and and how heavy the substance is. equation
Temperature weak IM forces
• Reported in kelvin (K) 1. The volume of each individual gas 𝑃 ∗ 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐾 = ℃ + 273 molecule is insignificant 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑅∗𝑇
2. Gas molecules collide elastically without
Volume: forming bonds (so there are no Dalton’s Law Partial Pressure: helps identify
• Reported in liters (l) intermolecular forces) the total pressure of a container with gases.
3 3. The avg kinetic energy of a gas depends
o 1 cm = 1 Liter
• Solids and Liquids = distinct volumes only on the system’s temperature 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑎 + 𝑃𝑏 + 𝑃 …
• Gases = do not have distinct volumes 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑋𝑎 ∗ 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
Ideal Gas Laws
Pressure: Boyle’s Law: Volume is inversely related to Graham’s Law of Effusion: determines which Note:
• Reported in mmHg or Torr or atm pressure. gasses escape first. • The closer these 2 values are to 0, the
o 1 atm = 760 torr = 760 mmHg more ideally the gas will behave J
V= P
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 STP vs. Standard condition:
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = Charles’s Law: Volume is directly related to 1. STP (0*C or 273K) used for gas law
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 temperature. R = rate of effusion of gas
M = MW of gas calculations
2. Standard C. (25*C or 298K), 1atm, 1
P= F= A V= T= Kinetic Ex. Molar concentration. It’s used to measure
MW = Gases escape slowly
enthalpy, entropy, Gibbs, and voltage.
P= F= A Avogadro’s Law: Volume is directly related to MW = Gases escape faster
gas molecules.
• Measuring gas pressure: Recall:
V= n
Pressuregas = 760 mmHg + ΔP 1. Avg. K. Ex depends on T only
Combined Gas Law: allows to predict newly P, 2. For lighter molecules to have the same
V, n or T in a system. avg. K. Ex as heavier molecules, then
𝑃𝑉 𝑃𝑉 they must move faster
= 1
𝑛𝑇 𝑛𝑇 𝐾. 𝐸𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ (𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)!
2
Ideal Gas Law:
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝐿 ∗ 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑅 = 0.0821
𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∗ 𝐾
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Liquids Effects of IM Forces: Cubic Unit Cells: Phase Diagram (all substances except H2O)
Forces:
1. Intramolecular: forces that occur IM Force Strength = BP
within a molecule’s atom
a. Metallic Heat of
b. Ionic Vaporization
c. Covalent
2. Intermolecular: forces that occur Viscosity
between molecules Simple 1 atom inside the cell
Surface Tension Body- 2 atoms inside the cell
Types of Inter M. Forces: Centered
Vapor Pressure
Name Bonds Properties Face- 4 atoms inside the cell Triplet Point Pressure and Temp where
Hydrogen F—H Boiling Point (BP): Centered all phases exist at the same
bonding O—H BP • Vp ≥ Patm time
N—H o Altitude Level; BP < 100*C Lines of Keq Represent the time at which
EN o Sea Level; BP > 100*C Solid and Liquid coexist
Stacking w/ adj.
Critical Point Pressure and Temp beyond
molecules • C-C bonds, BP which Liquid and Gas
cannot longer coexist
Dipole- Bonding Stacking w/ Viscosity: how thick a substance is
Dipole between non- complimentary
ionic partial Surface Tension: allows a substance to
charges support weight. Thus, as S.T. increases, weight
Ion- Metal + Non- Stronger > H- capacity increases.
Dipole metal bonds bonding
Vapor Pressure: the upward pressure exerted Phase Diagram (H2O)
Dispersion, Within Occurs by a substance on the atmosphere (like physics
London, atoms momentarily forces).
Vander
Waals Weakest force Solids

H2O (l) > H2O(s): denser

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Chemical Solutions Note: Solubility of Gas vs. Liquids: Osmosis: the spontaneous transfer or flow of
Vocab Review: • If soluble and insoluble molecules Solids: Solubility = Temperature H2O from high [H2O] to low [H2O] in order to
bond. The resulting compound is Gas: Solubility = Patm = Temp equalize the [solute].
1. Polar: molecules that unequally share soluble in water or other polar solvent.
e- due to their individuals’ atom EN Henry’s Law: Note:
difference. Ionic Equations Rxn: • High [H2O] = low [solute]
PA = Kh * [A], note PA = [A]
a. Polarity: determines solubility • Low [H2O] = high [solute]
• PA = gas’ pressure
(ability to be soluble, miscible • [A] = gas’ concentration molarity (M)
or dissolved in a solvent). • Kh = constant
Note: Soluble in H2O, rxn does not occur
• Solubility of a compound depends on Colligative Properties: properties of a
its polar/nonpolar property and solvent solution that are subject to change due to the
• C-H = increases nonpolar property Insoluble in H2O, rxn proceeds.
addition of solute
• O-H = increases polar property
Note: Freezing point: ΔTf = -i Kf m Osmotic Pressure: the amount of pressure
2. Solution: uniform mixture of two or • Rxn only proceed if one of the products required to stop osmosis
Solute = FP, break bonds L
more substances formed is insoluble in water
3. Solute: substance in smaller amount • Metathesis (double displacement rxn): Boiling Point: ΔTb = i Kb M
4. Solvent: substance in greater amount interaction between two different ionic
5. Saturated: Solute that is not Solute = BP, increases entropy J
compounds as they dissolve in H2O
completely dissolved (precipitates) • Solids do not dissolve
6. Unsaturated (or dilute solution): Note:
Solute that is completely dissolved • ΔT = change of temperature
Finding Complete, Total and Net Ionic
7. Supersaturated: Increased amount of Equations Steps: • i = Van’t Hoff factor
solute that is dissolved by heating and 1. Balance chemical equation • K = constant
cooling the solvent 2. Apply solubility rules • m = molality
3. Separate soluble cations from their
Concentration: amount of solute in a solution anions Raoult’s Law: calculates the new vapor = iM
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 4. Cancel out similar ions (spectator ions) pressure of a solution when a solute is added = iM
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚) = PA = XA * Ppure
𝒌𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕
Example: NaCl + AgNO3 à ? + ? • Pa = solution new Vp
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑀) = • Steps 1-2 = complete ionic equation • Xa = mole fraction (% of new solvent)
𝑳𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Solubility Rules: • Ppure = Vp of Original solvent

• Steps 1-3 = total ionic equation Substances: PAB = XA * Ppure + XB * Ppure

Liquids:

• Step 1-4 = net ionic equation

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Chemical Kinetics Integrated Rate Law Graphs: Exothermic Reaction: Rate Determining Step or RDS: determines the rate or
Chemical kinetics: the study of how fast speed of the entire reaction
reactions (rates/speed) occurs. • In single-step reaction, RDS = slowest step
• In multi-step reaction, RDS = largest Ea step
Relative Reaction Rate Equation:
Catalyst:
Linear Units Slope = k • Speed up a reaction
Reaction • Catalysts are regenerated at the end of the reaction
0 Order [A] + or - • Lowers the activation energy
1st Order ln [A] - • Provides an alternate pathway
• Energy of Reactants > Products
2nd Order 1 / ln [A] + • Do not shift equilibrium
Note: • Delta H is negative
• The sign (+ or -) depends on whether • Process gives off heat Collision Theory: states that both molecules must collide
the reaction is forming or removing the • Ea reverse > Ea forward with enough energy and the correct 3D orientation to form
specified atom. bonds
• Coefficients indicate the ratio at which Endothermic Reaction:
the reactions occur Arrhenius Equation: calculates Ea

Rate Law:
Curved Units Half-life
Reaction relationship A = Frequency Factor
Note: 0 Order [A] Proportional E = Activation Energy
• Products do not appear in the rate law 1st Order [A] Independent R = Ideal gas constant = 8.314 J / mol K
• K is the rate constant 2nd Order [A] Inversely K = Rate Constant
• m and n are the reaction orders which proportional • Energy of Products > Reactants T = Temp
are determined experimentally • Delta H is positive
o m + n = Overall Reaction Reaction Coordinates Diagrams: • Process consumes heat Ea = T= k= Reaction rate
• Rate constant Note: • Ea forward > Ea reverse
• Delta H (D. H) = the difference Note:
between the energy levels of reactants Isothermic Reactions: • Increasing T increases collision frequency and % of
and products • Energy of Reactants = Products high energy collision by increasing kinetic energy
• Delta E (Ea or Activation Energy) = which increases their ability to overcome Ea but does
the height between reactants and top of Transition States vs. Intermediates: not change Ea.
the curve T.S Short-lived transition state
Determining m + n: • D. H = Ex. Product – Ex. Reactant between reactant and product Reaction Mechanism:
1. Find the proportions of two similar-like or intermediate Elementary Step Represents the complete ionic eq.
experiments I.M Long-lived transition state m+n=a+b
2. Rate = (ratio of experiment)m or n that can be isolated, stored Intermediates Represents total ionic eq.
3. Find the value of m or n and analyzed Overall Reaction Represents the net ionic eq.
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Chemical Equilibria Le Chatelier’s Principle: allow us to determine Chemical Eq. Calculations: Chapter Problem notes:
Equilibrium (eq.) Rxn: the ability of a rxn to shift in any direction to Strong Strong acids
restore the eq. if the system is disturbed. Electrolytes Strong bases T= solubility
Soluble compounds
1. Concentrations: Increasing or decreasing Weak Weak acids (Ka) If your solids dissociate into an
[x], moves the rxn away or towards the Electrolytes Weak bases (Kb) anion that is the conjugate base
respective side. Insoluble compounds (Ksp) of a weak (not strong) acid, then
**Water = Kw** decreasing pH will increase
solubility
ICE (initial, change, eq.) Table:
Inc or add NO2 = to the left 1. Fill in the given [x]
Note: Dec or remove NO2 = to the right Increasing pH, increases
• Eq. Rxn measures the speed at which R à P 2. Calculate the change [x] solubility
Inc or add N2O4 = to the right 3. Calculate the [x] at equilibrium
is equal to the speed at which P à R. Dec or remove N2O4 = to the left
• The [R] and [P] are not necessarily equal, and 4. Find the Eq. K constant
stop changing only once eq. is reached 2. Change of Temperature: Increasing or
• The rxn is not stopped once eq. is reached Note:
decreasing temperature, moves the rxn
• Eq. Rxn rate constant depends on the reaction’s • If Kc less than or equal to 10-3, the x
away or towards the respective side.
coefficient that is being added or subtracted to a
coefficient can be disregarded
• Only temperature changes eq. constant Kc T = Heat = Shift to reactants (exothermic) • Solids or liquids are not included in the
• Solids and liquids are not included in the eq.
T = Heat = Shift to product (endothermic) Eq. K constant rate law equation
rxn rate law
• Kc (eq. constant K for concentration in • Ksp = solubility
3. Change of Volume or Pressure:
molarity (mol / liters)
• Kp (eq. constant K for pressure) Common Ion Effect: (See video 9.6)
• The reverse rxn and forward rxn are Pressure = Rxn shift to side with fewer # of gas • Strong electrolytes, bases, or acids can
reciprocal of each other molecules impact the solution starting material on
Pressure = Rxn shift to side with more # of gas the ice table because these are
Significance of Variables: molecules dissociated completely, which can also
shift the eq. rxn.
Recall
Volume = Pressure Precipitation:
Q > Ksp = precipitate
Reaction Quotient (Qc or Qp): the value determined Volume = Pressure Q < Ksp = no precipitate
from our measured amounts of products and reactants in Inert Gas: Have no effect on the Eq rxn.
an eq. rxn.
4. Adding catalyst: no changes or shift to the
eq rxn
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Acid-Base Equilibria & Titrations Calculating Weak Acids and Bases: Hydrolysis of Salts:
Acid-Base Definitions:

Conjugate Acid: results from the L.B and

accepts protons Binary Acid Strength:
Conjugate Base: results from the L.A and size = acidity strength
removes protons
pKa and pKb: • Anions (ions w/ - charges) = bases
Amphiprotic: describes a substance that can act
as both a proton acceptor and donor (Arrhenius • Cations (ions w/ + charges) = acids
and Bronsted) o HSO4-, is an acid
Amphoteric: describes a substance that can act
as both an acid and a base (Lewis Acids too) pH and Solubility J
• Lowering pH (Adding H+) increases the
Autoionization of H2O: Kw = 1.0 x 10-14 Oxyacids Acid Strength: solubility of basic solutions because
Note:
adding H+ syphon off the basic anion
Oxygen molecules = acidity, due to acid
conjugate base stability via resonance pKa = Ka = acidity = conj. base • Increasing pH (Removing H+) increases
delocalized charges the solubility of acidic solutions because
pKb = Kb = basicity = conj. Acid removing H+ syphon off the acidic
Heteroatoms: determined by EN and Inductive cation
Effect • Acid strength can be determined by the
degree of dissociation of acids. Thus, the Buffers: solution that resist pH changes and are
pH Calculations & Equations: greater the acid is dissociated into ions, the composed of:
stronger the acid is. 1. weak acid + conjugate base
or
Neutralization Rxn: rxn between acids and bases 2. weak acid + strong base
that form water and salts via metathesis (double a. 2:1 ratio
displacement rxn)
Henderson Hassel Balch Equation:
Note:
• Binary or monoprotic acids (strong)
such as HX (X = I, Br, or Cl) dissociated A = conjugate base
completely HA = weak acid
• Polyprotic acids dissolve multiple times Note:
Think of H2SO4 à intermediate à H+ + Note: • If the ratio of the A:HA is 1:1 then pH =
• Increasing [H+], lowers pH Normality: N= (Moles of solute /L of solutions)
SO4- pKa
• Increasing [OH-], lowers pOH • More accurate than molarity
• Dihydroxy bases (strong) donates two
• Consider all possible H+/OH- donors
OH molecules
• Does not depend on strong/weak acid/bases
 DAT CHEMISTRY - FRANDY :)
Acid-Base Equilibria & Titrations – Part 2
Titrations: a technique in which a titrant (solution placed inside burette) is diluted with a titrand (unknown solution). The concentration of the unknown is determined by the color change J

Note:
• Equivalence point: moles of acids and bases are equal

STRONG ACID / BASE WEAK ACID / STRONG BASE WEAK BASE / STRONG ACID

Polyprotic Titrations: titrations of solutes with multiple acids (polyprotic ions) that have two acidic hydrogen atoms

Generic Polyprotic curve

 DAT CHEMISTRY - FRANDY :)
Thermodynamics & Thermochemistry Endothermic rxn: Thermodynamics Equations:
Fundamentals: thermodynamics allow us to
study whether a reaction will occur or not.

State functions: chemicals / physical

properties that only depend on the initial and Rxn q Heat transfer to the
final states of the system, not its pathways. Endo rxn q > 0 System (consumes
• Energy (E) heat)
• Entropy (S) Exo rxn q < 0 Surroundings (gives off
• Enthalpy (H) Exothermic rxn: heat)

System: reactants + products (or the chemical

reaction) Gibbs Free Energy (G or ΔG): determines if a rxn is
Surroundings: anything that surrounds the spontaneous or nonspontaneous
system W ΔV Work being done on the
Universe: system + surroundings w>0 v<0 System (by the
surroundings)
Laws of Thermodynamics: w<0 v>0 Surroundings (by the ΔG Rxn’ Keq Favored Side
1. Conservation of Energy: Energy system) Spontaneity
cannot be created or destroyed. It can Enthalpy Formation ΔHf: is a chemical rxn ΔG > 0 Nonspontaneous K < 1 Reactants
only be converted from one form to of forming 1 mole of a single substance form ΔG < 0 Spontaneous K>1 Products
another. its parent element, at 298 k & 1 atm (standard ΔG = 0 Equilibrium K=1 R&P
2. Entropy increase: The combined state)
change in entropy of a system and its
surroundings (the “universe”) must be ΔHf of Elements in Standard State Entropy (ΔS or S): determines how
positive. disordered a substance’s environment is
3. Perfect crystal at 0K = 0 entropy: For Notes:
a perfect crystal that’s been cooled to 0 ΔS Disorder Rxn • ΔG* = the change in Gibbs free energy under
K (–273 °C, called absolute zero), its ΔS > 0 P > Reactant favorable standard conditions (standard state): that is,
entropy approaches zero. ΔS < 0 R > product unfavorable 298*C & 1 atm, 1 M concentration. (Same is
Note: true of ΔH and ΔS).
Enthalpy: Amount of heat-energy a substance
contains • ΔS = disorder = movement Relating ΔG and ΔG*
ΔH q Rxn Stability • ΔS = T = V = Moles = FW
ΔH > 0 q > 0 Endo rxn R > Product • S (gas) > S (liquid) > S (solid) R = 0.0821 L atm / mol k
ΔH < 0 q < 0 Exo rxn P > Reactant • ΔHf = 0 for elements in their standard • S cannot be zero or negative, however ΔS Notes:
Note: state can be -, 0 or + • Under standard conditions, ΔG* = 0
• lower energy = greater stability • ΔG = 0, rxn is at equilibrium but not
• Rxn are under constant pressure necessarily at standard conditions
 DAT CHEMISTRY - FRANDY :)
Heat Transfer: Heat Curves: diagrams that show how a substance Bond Dissociation Energy (BDE): allows us to
1. Conduction – via direct contact changes between states determine a substance’ ΔH
2. Convention – via motion of l or g
3. Radiation – via electromagnetic radiation
(light or rays)

calorie, Specific heat, and Calorie

Rules:
cal (calorie) Amount of q (heat)
1. Balance chemical equation
required to raise 1.0 g
2. Draw Lewis structure to see bonds of each
of l h20 by 1 *Celsius
atom/molecule
C (specific heat) Amount of E required
• 0*C = melting 3. Write down bond enthalpies values for bond
to raise the temperature
• 100*C = boiling 4. Multiply bond enthalpies values by
of 1.0 g of it by 1 *C or
coefficients
Kelvin
5. Add values of bonds broken and formed
Cal (Calorie) Nutritional value, 1000
calories or 1kcal = 1 Notes:
Cal
• Bond enthalpies is not as accurate as
Note:
enthalpies of formation when calculating
• C= energy required to heat ΔHrxn
molecule

Calorimeter: measure the amount of heat q = mcΔT

produced by a chemical rxn via a bomb q = mΔH (fusion)
calorimeter (which measures the ΔH, by q = mΔH (vaporization)
measuring q [heat]).
Hess Law: when multiple rxn are added together,
the new overall reaction ΔH = ΔHa + ΔHb + ΔH…

Rules of Hess Law using ΔH:

1. Reversing the rxn, changes the sign of ΔH
2. Coefficients are multiplied to the rxn’ ΔH
3. Sum of the rxns

Rules of Hess Law using K (Equilibrium):

1. Reversing the rxn, causes the reciprocal of
K
2. Coefficients causes the K value to be raised
to the n-power
3. Multiply the rxns together
 DAT CHEMISTRY - FRANDY :)
Electrochemistry & Oxidation-Reduction Rxn Oxidation State Rules: Balancing Redox Reactions: EMF or Ecell: a voltaic/galvanic cell’s ability
Redox Rxn: rxn in which the transfer of e- from 1. The oxidation state of elements in their Examples to provide energy
one substance to another occurs. elemental form = 0 Acidic Conditions:
a. Diatomic atoms (O2)
b. Uncharged atoms (Na) ΔG < 0 Ec > 0 Spontaneous Favorable
Oxidation: Loss of electrons
i. Exceptions: Rxn Rxn
• Reductant (Reducing Agent): substance
1. Al = +3 ΔG > 0 Ec < 0 Non Non-
that gives up (or donates) electrons, thus
2. Zn = +2 spontaneous Favorable
becomes oxidized.
3. Cd = +2 Rxn Rxn
4. Ag = +1 ***Ec = Ecell
Reduction: Gain of electrons
c. Atoms bonded to itself (S8) Basic Conditions: Electrolytic Cells
• Oxidant (Oxidizing Agent): substance
that accepts (or receives) electrons, thus 2. The oxidation state of monatomic Ions,
becomes reduced. are equal to their charges
a. K+ = +1
b. S2- = -2
3. Nonmetals
a. Hydrogen—Metals = -1 • An external electric current pushes electron
b. Hydrogen—Nonmetals = +1 energetically from the oxidant to reductant,
Voltaic (or Galvanic) Cells: but keep in mind e- always flow from anode
c. Oxygen = -2
Notes: d. Oxygen in H2O2 (Peroxide) = -1 to cathode
• Cl2 and 2 Cl- are opposite of each other. e. Halogens (or most EN atoms get • Anode (+) = site of oxidation (reductant),
This mean: if Cl2 is the oxidant, then 2 Cl- their typical true charge) = -1 but high energy level
is the reductant agent. can be +1 if bonded to Oxygen • Cathode (-) = site of reduction (oxidant),
i. F = -1 (always) low energy level
f. Transition metals are determined • Cations flow towards the cathode, while
from the other elements Notes: anions toward the anode
4. Group 1 metals = +1 • The salt bridge allows for the passage of • How to accomplish electrolysis:
5. Group 2 metals = +2 unreactive counter of anions to flow into 1. Under molten electrolysis, there is
6. The last element to be assigned the anode and cations to the cathode no salt bridge
oxidation number will be any number • Anode loses mass, cathode gains mass 2. Aqueous electrolysis, there is
that balance the entire compound competing reactions
• Oxidation numbers are not an atom or
substance’s true charge but rather a
system to understand what gets reduced or
oxidized.
• Anode (-) = site of oxidation (reductant),
high energy level
• Cathode (+) = site of reduction (oxidant),
low energy level
 DAT CHEMISTRY - FRANDY :)
Reduction Potentials: Non-Standard-Reduction Potential:
converted from standard conditions via the
Nernst equation J

n = # of moles e- transferred
Q = [Products] / [Reactants]

E cell > 0 Shift to the right

E cell < 0 Shift to the left

Notes:
• If you increase the [x] of the reactants
to shift the equilibrium to the right of a
spontaneous rxn, the E cell will also
increase and the rxn will become more
spontaneous
• If you increase the [x] of the products
to shift the equilibrium to the left of a
spontaneous rxn, the E cell will
decrease and the rxn will become less
Notes: spontaneous or nonspontaneous
• You must reverse the sign for the
Eoxidation (or anode) rxn Quantitative Electrochemical Calculations:

Tips:
• When answering questions about
Reduction potential recall, that the
correct answer is the metal, not the ion
• Rxn do not proceed in galvanic or
electrolytic cells if both metals have
zero oxidation state
• Standard Reduction Potential (*Ecell) is
the same steps to find the answers J
and recall Standard conditions are: 298
k/25*C, 1atm, and 1 M concentration
 DAT CHEMISTRY - FRANDY :)
Nuclear Rxn Nuclear Equations: Belt Stability: Fission vs. Fusion:
1. Nuclear decay (Fission) Rxn: atom • H to Calcium, ratio 1-to-1 P to • Fission: larger nuclei decay/break into smaller
Nuclear Rxn: Transfer of neutrons and protons gives off (emits) particle Neutrons nuclei
from the atom’s nucleus 2. Nuclear capture (Fusion) Rxn: here
Atomic Symbol: identifies chemical element • Atoms after Ca2+, their Ne can • Fusion: smaller nuclei combine to form larger
atoms come together to form product exceed their P number. nuclei
Atomic weight: is the average weight in grams • The # of Ne increases faster at a
disproportion rate, relative to P to Nuclear Binding Energy (NBE):
of all isotopes of an atom (expressed in g/mol)
maintain a stable nucleus • Mass defect (difference between a nucleus’
Note: calculated vs. actual mass): Since a nucleus
• Above the belt: isotopes contain too always weighs less than its individual’s
many Ne relative to protons. Emitting constituent nuclear particles
A = Mass Number = Proton + Neutrons • Thus, for Ne and P to remain together, energy
beta participles through beta decay
Z = Atomic Number = Proton is required. This energy is obtained from
decreases the Ne-to-P ratio
X = Element converting P and Ne’ masses into energy
• Below the belt: isotopes contain too
Note: many P relative to Ne. Emitting a (NBE):
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝑃 + 𝑁
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝑃 • In nuclear rxn because some amount of positron or capturing an electron.
energy is given off, atoms participating
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 = 𝑃 − 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
in nuclear rxn lose some part of their C = 3.0 x 10^8 m/s (speed of light)
Note:
mass Delta m = mass defect = calculated – actual
• Atomic number never changes. If
changed, the element’s identity Note:
Nuclear Stability:
changes.
• Neutrons help offset the repulsive force • Fe (iron) has the highest nuclear binding
• Mass number can differ (dependent on energy (most stable nucleus).
between protons in an atom’s nucleus,
the number of neutrons) = isotopes:
thus the ratio of Ne-to-P determines • There are no possible negative NBE values!
element with same number of protons
stability The actual mass value is always weight less
(atomic #) but differ in neutrons (mass
than the calculated mass.
number)
• Electrons are negatively charge L Important!!!
• N = # of Ne
• Z = # of P
All
radioactive
decay rxn
are 1st -
order. The
half-life is
independent
of the [x],
Note: Alpha particle do not contain any thus stays
electrons constant.