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458 Chapter 11 AC Power Analysis

11.1 Introduction
Our effort in ac circuit analysis so far has been focused mainly on cal-
culating voltage and current. Our major concern in this chapter is
power analysis.
Power analysis is of paramount importance. Power is the most
important quantity in electric utilities, electronic, and communication
systems, because such systems involve transmission of power from one
point to another. Also, every industrial and household electrical
device—every fan, motor, lamp, pressing iron, TV, personal computer—
has a power rating that indicates how much power the equipment
requires; exceeding the power rating can do permanent damage to an
appliance. The most common form of electric power is 50- or 60-Hz
ac power. The choice of ac over dc allowed high-voltage power trans-
mission from the power generating plant to the consumer.
We will begin by defining and deriving instantaneous power and
average power. We will then introduce other power concepts. As prac-
tical applications of these concepts, we will discuss how power is
measured and reconsider how electric utility companies charge their
customers.

11.2 Instantaneous and Average Power

As mentioned in Chapter 2, the instantaneous power p(t) absorbed by
an element is the product of the instantaneous voltage v(t) across the
element and the instantaneous current i(t) through it. Assuming the pas-
sive sign convention,

p(t)
v(t)i(t) (11.1)

We can also think of the instantaneous The instantaneous power (in watts) is the power at any instant of time.
power as the power absorbed by the
element at a specific instant of time. It is the rate at which an element absorbs energy.
Instantaneous quantities are denoted
Consider the general case of instantaneous power absorbed by an
by lowercase letters.
arbitrary combination of circuit elements under sinusoidal excitation,
as shown in Fig. 11.1. Let the voltage and current at the terminals of
the circuit be
v(t)
Vm cos(
t  uv) (11.2a)
i(t)
Im cos(
t  ui ) (11.2b)
where Vm and Im are the amplitudes (or peak values), and uv and ui are
the phase angles of the voltage and current, respectively. The instanta-
i(t)
neous power absorbed by the circuit is
+ Passive
Sinusoidal v (t)
p(t)
v(t)i(t)
Vm Im cos(
t  uv) cos(
t  ui) (11.3)
linear
source − network We apply the trigonometric identity

Figure 11.1 1
cos A cos B
[cos(A  B)  cos(A  B)] (11.4)
Sinusoidal source and passive linear circuit. 2
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11.2 Instantaneous and Average Power 459

and express Eq. (11.3) as

1 1
p(t)
Vm Im cos(uv  ui)  Vm Im cos(2
t  uv  ui) (11.5)
2 2

This shows us that the instantaneous power has two parts. The first part
is constant or time independent. Its value depends on the phase differ-
ence between the voltage and the current. The second part is a sinu-
soidal function whose frequency is 2
, which is twice the angular
frequency of the voltage or current.
A sketch of p(t) in Eq. (11.5) is shown in Fig. 11.2, where T

2p

is the period of voltage or current. We observe that p(t) is peri-
odic, p(t)
p(t  T0), and has a period of T0
T
2, since its fre-
quency is twice that of voltage or current. We also observe that p(t)
is positive for some part of each cycle and negative for the rest of
the cycle. When p(t) is positive, power is absorbed by the circuit.
When p(t) is negative, power is absorbed by the source; that is,
power is transferred from the circuit to the source. This is possible
because of the storage elements (capacitors and inductors) in the
circuit.

p(t)

1
V I
2 m m

1
V I
2 m m
cos(v − i )

0 T T t
2
Figure 11.2
The instantaneous power p(t) entering a circuit.

The instantaneous power changes with time and is therefore diffi-

cult to measure. The average power is more convenient to measure. In
fact, the wattmeter, the instrument for measuring power, responds to
average power.

The average power, in watts, is the average of the instantaneous power

over one period.

Thus, the average power is given by

T


1
P
p(t) dt (11.6)
T 0

Although Eq. (11.6) shows the averaging done over T, we would get
the same result if we performed the integration over the actual period
of p(t) which is T0
T
2.
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460 Chapter 11 AC Power Analysis

Substituting p(t) in Eq. (11.5) into Eq. (11.6) gives

T


1 1
P
Vm Im cos(uv  ui) dt
T 0
2
T


1 1
 Vm Im cos(2
t  uv  ui) dt
T 0
2
T


1 1

Vm Im cos(uv  ui) dt
2 T 0
T


1 1
 Vm Im cos(2
t  uv  ui) dt (11.7)
2 T 0

The first integrand is constant, and the average of a constant is the same
constant. The second integrand is a sinusoid. We know that the aver-
age of a sinusoid over its period is zero because the area under the
sinusoid during a positive half-cycle is canceled by the area under it
during the following negative half-cycle. Thus, the second term in
Eq. (11.7) vanishes and the average power becomes
1
P
Vm Im cos(uv  ui) (11.8)
2
Since cos(uv  ui)
cos(ui  uv), what is important is the difference
in the phases of the voltage and current.
Note that p(t) is time-varying while P does not depend on time. To
find the instantaneous power, we must necessarily have v(t) and i(t) in
the time domain. But we can find the average power when voltage and
current are expressed in the time domain, as in Eq. (11.8), or when they
are expressed in the frequency domain. The phasor forms of v(t) and i(t)
in Eq. (11.2) are V
Vmluv and I
Imlui, respectively. P is calculated
using Eq. (11.8) or using phasors V and I. To use phasors, we notice that
1 1
VI*
Vm Imluv  ui
2 2
(11.9)
1

Vm Im[cos(uv  ui)  j sin(uv  ui)]
2
We recognize the real part of this expression as the average power P
according to Eq. (11.8). Thus,

1 1
P
Re[VI*]
Vm Im cos(uv  ui) (11.10)
2 2

Consider two special cases of Eq. (11.10). When uv
ui, the volt-
age and current are in phase. This implies a purely resistive circuit or
resistive load R, and

P
Vm Im
I 2m R
0I 0 2 R
1 1 1
(11.11)
2 2 2
where 0 I 0 2
I  I*. Equation (11.11) shows that a purely resistive cir-
cuit absorbs power at all times. When uv  ui
90, we have a purely
reactive circuit, and
1
P
Vm Im cos 90
0 (11.12)
2
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11.2 Instantaneous and Average Power 461

showing that a purely reactive circuit absorbs no average power. In

summary,

A resistive load (R ) absorbs power at all times, while a reactive load

(L or C ) absorbs zero average power.

Given that Example 11.1

v(t)
120 cos(377t  45) V and i(t)
10 cos(377t  10) A
find the instantaneous power and the average power absorbed by the
passive linear network of Fig. 11.1.

Solution:
The instantaneous power is given by
p
vi
1200 cos(377t  45) cos(377t  10)
Applying the trigonometric identity
1
cos A cos B
[cos(A  B)  cos(A  B)]
2
gives
p
600[cos(754t  35)  cos 55]
or
p(t)
344.2  600 cos(754t  35) W
The average power is
1 1
P
Vm Im cos(uv  ui)
120(10) cos[45  (10)]
2 2

600 cos 55
344.2 W
which is the constant part of p(t) above.

Calculate the instantaneous power and average power absorbed by the Practice Problem 11.1
passive linear network of Fig. 11.1 if
v(t)
165 cos(10t  20) V and i(t)
20 sin(10t  60) A

Answer: 1.0606  1.65 cos(20t  10) kW, 1.0606 kW.

Calculate the average power absorbed by an impedance Z
30  j70  Example 11.2

when a voltage V
120l0 is applied across it.

Solution:
The current through the impedance is

V 120l0 120l0
I



1.576l66.8 A
Z 30  j 70 76.16l66.8
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462 Chapter 11 AC Power Analysis

The average power is

1 1
P
Vm Im cos(uv  ui)
(120)(1.576) cos(0  66.8)
37.24 W
2 2

Practice Problem 11.2 A current I
20l30 A flows through an impedance Z
40l22 .

Find the average power delivered to the impedance.

Answer: 3.709 kW.

Example 11.3 For the circuit shown in Fig. 11.3, find the average power supplied by
the source and the average power absorbed by the resistor.
I 4Ω
Solution:
+ The current I is given by
5 30° V − − j2 Ω
5l30 5l30
I


1.118l56.57 A
Figure 11.3 4  j2 4.472l26.57
For Example 11.3. The average power supplied by the voltage source is
1
P
(5)(1.118) cos(30  56.57)
2.5 W
2
The current through the resistor is
IR
I
1.118l56.57 A
and the voltage across it is
VR
4IR
4.472l56.57 V
The average power absorbed by the resistor is
1
P
(4.472)(1.118)
2.5 W
2
which is the same as the average power supplied. Zero average power
is absorbed by the capacitor.

Practice Problem 11.3 In the circuit of Fig. 11.4, calculate the average power absorbed by the
resistor and inductor. Find the average power supplied by the voltage
3Ω
source.

160 45° V + j1 Ω Answer: 3.84 kW, 0 W, 3.84 kW.

−

Figure 11.4
For Practice Prob. 11.3.
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11.2 Instantaneous and Average Power 463

Determine the average power generated by each source and the average Example 11.4
power absorbed by each passive element in the circuit of Fig. 11.5(a).

20 Ω − j5 Ω 20 Ω − j5 Ω

2 + −
4 V2
+
4 0° Α 1 j10 Ω 3 5 + 60 30° V 4 0° Α V1 j10 Ω + 60 30° V
− −
− I1 I2

(a) (b)
Figure 11.5
For Example 11.4.

Solution:
We apply mesh analysis as shown in Fig. 11.5(b). For mesh 1,
I1
4 A
For mesh 2,
( j10  j5)I2  j10I1  60l30
0, I1
4 A
or
j5I2
60l30  j40 1 I2
12l60  8

10.58l79.1 A
For the voltage source, the current flowing from it is I2
10.58l79.1 A
and the voltage across it is 60l30 V, so that the average power is
1
P5
(60)(10.58) cos(30  79.1)
207.8 W
2
Following the passive sign convention (see Fig. 1.8), this average power
is absorbed by the source, in view of the direction of I2 and the polarity
of the voltage source. That is, the circuit is delivering average power to
the voltage source.
For the current source, the current through it is I1
4l0 and the
voltage across it is
V1
20I1  j10(I1  I2)
80  j10(4  2  j10.39)

183.9  j20
184.984l6.21 V
The average power supplied by the current source is
1
P1
 (184.984)(4) cos(6.21  0)
367.8 W
2
It is negative according to the passive sign convention, meaning that
the current source is supplying power to the circuit.
For the resistor, the current through it is I1
4l0 and the voltage
across it is 20I1
80l0, so that the power absorbed by the resistor is
1
P2
(80)(4)
160 W
2
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464 Chapter 11 AC Power Analysis

For the capacitor, the current through it is I2
10.58l79.1 and the volt-
age across it is j5I2
(5l90)(10.58l79.1)
52.9l79.1  90.
The average power absorbed by the capacitor is
1
P4
(52.9)(10.58) cos(90)
0
2
For the inductor, the current through it is I1  I2

2  j10.39
10.58l79.1. The voltage across it is j10(I1  I2)

10.58l79.190. Hence, the average power absorbed by the
inductor is
1
P3
(105.8)(10.58) cos 90
0
2
Notice that the inductor and the capacitor absorb zero average power
and that the total power supplied by the current source equals the power
absorbed by the resistor and the voltage source, or
P1  P2  P3  P4  P5
367.8  160  0  0  207.8
0
indicating that power is conserved.

Practice Problem 11.4 Calculate the average power absorbed by each of the five elements in
the circuit of Fig. 11.6.

8Ω j4 Ω

40 0° V +
− − j2 Ω +
− 20 90° V

Figure 11.6
For Practice Prob. 11.4.

Answer: 40-V Voltage source: 60 W; j20-V Voltage source: 40 W;

resistor: 100 W; others: 0 W.

11.3 Maximum Average Power Transfer

In Section 4.8 we solved the problem of maximizing the power deliv-
ered by a power-supplying resistive network to a load RL. Represent-
ing the circuit by its Thevenin equivalent, we proved that the
maximum power would be delivered to the load if the load resistance
is equal to the Thevenin resistance RL
RTh. We now extend that
result to ac circuits.
Consider the circuit in Fig. 11.7, where an ac circuit is connected
to a load ZL and is represented by its Thevenin equivalent. The load is
usually represented by an impedance, which may model an electric
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11.3 Maximum Average Power Transfer 465

motor, an antenna, a TV, and so forth. In rectangular form, the

Thevenin impedance ZTh and the load impedance ZL are
Linear
ZL
ZTh
RTh  jXTh (11.13a) circuit

ZL
RL  jXL (11.13b)
The current through the load is (a)

VTh VTh Z Th I
I

(11.14)
ZTh  ZL (RTh  jXTh)  (RL  jXL )
From Eq. (11.11), the average power delivered to the load is VTh +
− ZL

0VTh 0 2RL
2
0I 0 RL

1 2
P
(11.15)
2 (RTh  RL )2  (XTh  XL )2 (b)
Figure 11.7
Our objective is to adjust the load parameters RL and XL so that P is Finding the maximum average power
maximum. To do this we set 0P
0RL and 0P
0XL equal to zero. From transfer: (a) circuit with a load, (b) the
Eq. (11.15), we obtain Thevenin equivalent.

0P 0VTh 0 2RL(XTh  XL )

 (11.16a)
0XL [(RTh  RL )2  (XTh  XL )2]2
0P 0VTh 0 2[(RTh  RL )2  (XTh  XL )2  2RL(RTh  RL )]


0RL 2[(RTh  RL )2  (XTh  XL )2]2
(11.16b)
Setting 0P
0XL to zero gives
XL
XTh (11.17)
and setting 0P
0RL to zero results in
RL
2R 2Th  (XTh  XL )2 (11.18)
Combining Eqs. (11.17) and (11.18) leads to the conclusion that for max-
imum average power transfer, ZL must be selected so that XL
XTh
and RL
RTh, i.e.,

ZL
RL  jXL
RTh  jXTh
Z*Th (11.19)

For maximum average power transfer, the load impedance ZL must When ZL
Z*Th, we say that the load is
be equal to the complex conjugate of the Thevenin impedance ZTh. matched to the source.

This result is known as the maximum average power transfer theorem

for the sinusoidal steady state. Setting RL
RTh and XL
XTh in
Eq. (11.15) gives us the maximum average power as

0 VTh 0 2
Pmax
(11.20)
8RTh

In a situation in which the load is purely real, the condition for

maximum power transfer is obtained from Eq. (11.18) by setting
XL
0; that is,
RL
2R 2Th  X 2Th
0 ZTh 0 (11.21)
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466 Chapter 11 AC Power Analysis

This means that for maximum average power transfer to a purely resis-
tive load, the load impedance (or resistance) is equal to the magnitude
of the Thevenin impedance.

Example 11.5 Determine the load impedance ZL that maximizes the average power
drawn from the circuit of Fig. 11.8. What is the maximum average
4Ω j5 Ω power?

+
8Ω Solution:
10 0° V − ZL
First we obtain the Thevenin equivalent at the load terminals. To get
− j6 Ω
ZTh, consider the circuit shown in Fig. 11.9(a). We find
Figure 11.8 4(8  j6)
For Example 11.5. ZTh
j5  4  (8  j6)
j5 
2.933  j4.467 
4  8  j6

4Ω j5 Ω 4Ω j5 Ω

+
8Ω Z Th 8Ω
10 V +
− VTh
− j6 Ω − j6 Ω
−

(a) (b)
Figure 11.9
Finding the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Fig. 11.8.

To find VTh, consider the circuit in Fig. 11.8(b). By voltage division,

8  j6
VTh
(10)
7.454l10.3 V
4  8  j6
The load impedance draws the maximum power from the circuit when
ZL
Z*Th
2.933  j4.467 
According to Eq. (11.20), the maximum average power is
0 VTh 0 2 (7.454)2
Pmax


2.368 W
8RTh 8(2.933)

Practice Problem 11.5 For the circuit shown in Fig. 11.10, find the load impedance ZL that
− j4 Ω
absorbs the maximum average power. Calculate that maximum aver-
j10 Ω
age power.

Answer: 3.415  j0.7317 , 12.861 W.

8Ω 6A 5Ω ZL

Figure 11.10
For Practice Prob. 11.5.
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11.4 Effective or RMS Value 467

In the circuit in Fig. 11.11, find the value of RL that will absorb the Example 11.6
maximum average power. Calculate that power.
40 Ω − j30 Ω
Solution:
We first find the Thevenin equivalent at the terminals of RL.
150 30° V + j20 Ω RL
−
j20(40  j30)
ZTh
(40  j30)  j20

9.412  j22.35 
j20  40  j30
Figure 11.11
By voltage division, For Example 11.6.
j20
VTh
(150l30)
72.76l134 V
j20  40  j30
The value of RL that will absorb the maximum average power is
RL
0ZTh 0
29.4122  22.352
24.25 
The current through the load is

VTh 72.76l134
I


1.8l100.42 A
ZTh  RL 33.66  j22.35
The maximum average power absorbed by RL is

0 I 0 RL
(1.8)2(24.25)
39.29 W
1 2 1
Pmax

2 2

In Fig. 11.12, the resistor RL is adjusted until it absorbs the maximum Practice Problem 11.6
average power. Calculate RL and the maximum average power
absorbed by it.

80 Ω j60 Ω

120 60° V + 90 Ω − j30 Ω RL

−

Figure 11.12
For Practice Prob. 11.6.

Answer: 30 , 6.863 W.

11.4 Effective or RMS Value

The idea of effective value arises from the need to measure the effective-
ness of a voltage or current source in delivering power to a resistive load.

The effective value of a periodic current is the dc current that deliv-

ers the same average power to a resistor as the periodic current.